Metaphor clustering in american presidential inaugurals - from George H.W. Bush to Donald Trump

The story metaphor occurs at the beginning of the inaugural and is also repeated at the end of the inaugural. It functions as a cohesive tool to the structure of the address. In example (3), the sentence “we are not this story's author, who fills time and eternity with his purpose. Yet, his purpose is achieved in our duty” shows that although people cannot decide where the story is going, they can meaningfully contribute to the story. The story metaphor in this sentence encourages people to take part in the story process. The story metaphor combines what has happened in the past and what will happen in the future. It contributes to the elaboration of the topic of this address, i.e. past and future. The uses of the story metaphor at the beginning and end of the inaugural echo each other, thus making the address structurally coherent.

In example (2), the president uses a novel metaphor; America's faith in freedom and democracy is seen as “a rock in a raging sea” in the past, and “a seed upon the wind, taking root in many nations” at the time when the address is made. The two images present two different situations of America's faith in freedom and democracy. The comparison between the two images highlights the importance of change; the picture of a rock in a raging sea tells its story of being alone, under great pressure, while the image of a seed upon the wind taking root in many places reveals its vitality and quick dissemination.

Example (2) also includes the spatial movement metaphor and the journey metaphor. The conceptual metaphors NO DEVELOPMENT IS NO MOVEMENT and BAD DEVELOPMENT IS SLOW MOVEMENT are revealed by the relevant metaphorical words and phrases. The verb “halt” describes a situation in which no movement occurs, and the verb “delay” means a movement or process happens slower than usual. In this case, the negative development of a nation is understood in terms of there being no movement at all or slow movement, while the phrase “follow other course” reveals the determination of maintaining walking on the established road. The sentence “we have a long way yet to travel” also manifests the idea that the development of the country is understood in terms of a journey.

George W. Bush (January 20, 2005)

(1) Today I also speak anew to my fellow citizens. From all of you I have asked patience in the hard task of securing America, which you have granted in good measure. Our country has accepted obligations that are difficult to fulfill and would be dishonorable to abandon. Yet because we have acted in the great liberating tradition of this Nation, tens of millions have achieved their freedom. And as hope kindles hope, millions more will find it. By our efforts, we have lit afire as well, afire in the minds of men. It warms those who feel its power. It burns those who fight its progress. And one day this untamed fire of freedom will reach the darkest corners of our world.

(2) We go forward with complete confidence in the eventual triumph of freedom, not because history runs on the wheels of inevitability--it is human choices that move events; not because we consider ourselves a chosen nation--God moves and chooses as He wills. We have confidence because freedom is the permanent hope of mankind, the hunger in dark places, the longing of the soul. When our Founders declared a new order of the ages, when soldiers died in wave upon wave for a union based on liberty, when citizens marched in peaceful outrage under the banner “Freedom Now,” they were acting on an ancient hope that is meant to be fulfilled. History has an ebb and flow of justice, but history also has a visible direction, set by liberty and the Author of Liberty.

Figure 5: Distribution diagram of metaphorical sentences in the presidential inaugural of George W. Bush in 2005.

The second inaugural of George W. Bush includes two examples of metaphor clustering. In example (1), the image of fire is related to the notion of freedom and hope. As discussed above, fire has rich metaphoric associations; it provides warmth and cooked food, thus guaranteeing health and bodily comfort for humans. It relates inseparably to light, which represents intellectual knowledge. It also burns and breaks down substances, therefore it has both purifying and destructive functions. All the characteristics of fire mentioned here can be seen in example (1). The linguistic expression “hope kindles hope” highlights the ease with which fire spreads, and the sentences “by our efforts, we have lit a fire as well, a fire in the minds of men. It warms those who feel its power. It burns those who fight its progress. And one day this untamed fire of freedom will reach the darkest corners of our world” depicts fire in full, with its quality of warmth, purifying force, rapidly-spreading nature, and illumination.

Example (2) includes the journey metaphor, machine metaphor, and sea metaphor. The sentence “we go forward with complete confidence in the eventual triumph of freedom” reveals that the development of a country is a forward-oriented movement. Here, the journey metaphor is combined with the machine metaphor to describe the notion of history. The sentence “We go forward with complete confidence in the eventual triumph of freedom, not because history runs on the wheels of inevitability -- it is human choices that move events” highlights people's desire to make history. The idea that “history not runs on the wheels of inevitability” may come from Martin Luther King Jr., who once said that “Somewhere along the way -- Somewhere we must come to see that human progress never rolls in on the wheels of inevitability. It comes through the tireless efforts and the persistent work of dedicated individuals who are willing to be coworkers with God” in his Methodist Student Leadership Conference Address in 1964. The idea behind these sentences is that change doesn't just happen by itself, instead, you need to work hard for it. History doesn't just happen by itself, instead, humans make history.

The sea metaphor in example (2) comes mainly from the phrase “wave upon wave”. The phrase can also be used as “wave after wave”, meaning large quantities of something, coming in one wave after another. Here, it is used to describe the high number of soldiers who sacrificed themselves for their nation. The phrase “ebb and flow” means a frequently changing situation. The sentence “history has an ebb and flow ofjustice” reveals how the condition ofjustice changes throughout history. Both examples use the phenomena of sea to describe some change, the first being the quantitative change and the second being the situational change.

Barack Obama (January 20, 2009)

(1) Forty-four Americans have now taken the Presidential oath. The words have been spoken during rising tides of prosperity and the still waters of peace. Yet every so often, the oath is taken amidst gathering clouds and raging storms. At these moments, America has carried on not simply because of the skill or vision of those in high office, but because we the people have remained faithful to the ideals of our forebears and true to our founding documents.

(2) In reaffirming the greatness of our Nation, we understand that greatness is never a given. It must be earned. Our journey has never been one of shortcuts or settling for less. It has not been the path for the fainthearted, for those who prefer leisure over work or seek only the pleasures of riches and fame. Rather, it has been the risk-takers, the doers, the makers of things -- some celebrated, but more often men and women obscure in their labor -- who have carried us up the long, rugged path toward prosperity and freedom.

(3) Nor is the question before us whether the market is a force for good or ill. Its power to generate wealth and expand freedom is unmatched. But this crisis has reminded us that without a watchful eye, the market can spin out of control. The Nation cannot prosper long when it favors only the prosperous. The success of our economy has always depended not just on the size of our gross domestic product, but on the reach of our prosperity, on our ability to extend opportunity to every willing heart, not out of charity, but because it is the surest route to our common good.

(4) America, in the face of our common dangers, in this winter of our hardship, let us remember these timeless words. With hope and virtue, let us brave once more the icy currents and endure what storms may come. Let it be said by our children's children that when we were tested, we refused to let this journey end; that we did not turn back, nor did we falter. And with eyes fixed on the horizon and God's grace upon us, we carried forth that great gift offreedom and delivered it safely to future generations.

Figure 6: Distribution diagram of metaphorical sentences in the presidential inaugural of Barack Obama in 2009.

There are four occurrences of metaphor clustering in Barack Obama's first inaugural. In example (1), the nature phenomena related to the sea, like rising tides, still waters, gathering clouds and raging storms are used to describe the situation of the country. Behind these metaphors lies the ship of state metaphor. In western culture, the ship of state is a well-known and oft-used metaphor. Plato, in his Book VI of the Republic, compared the governance of a city-state to steering a ship. In modern American political culture, the ship of state metaphor is a common metaphor in which the image of the state is viewed as a ship in need of a government to commandand control it, and the head of the government is viewed as the captain of the ship. It is clear that Obama uses the ship of state metaphor implicitly here, highlighting the changeable and dynamic situations a ship may meet at sea. Here, the rising tides are used to describe the condition of a country being successful or thriving, the still waters are used to describe its stable condition, and the gathering clouds and raging storms are used to indicate a crisis situation a country may meet. These natural phenomenon metaphors are used to describe all kinds of situations a country may come across, and during these various moments, America “has carried on” due to the faithfulness to the ideals of forbearers and founding documents. The nature phenomenon metaphor is used alongside the movement metaphor, here, to present us with a picture of a ship travelling constantly through the sea, despite facing various challenging situations.

Example (2) and (4) are all about journey metaphors. In example (2), the development of a country is described as a journey: a long, rugged journey with its destination ofprosperity and freedom. And only “the doer” instead of “the fainthearted” can arrive at the destination. The journey metaphor, here, is intended to inspire people to work hard to make their country great. In example (4), Obama depicts a determined traveler who keeps going forward despite of the negative situation, such as winter, the icy current and storms. The use ofjourney metaphors runs throughout the address, structurally functioning as a cohesive tool. To describe something as a journey provides a relatively concrete framework for it. When the journey metaphor is used to describe the development of a country, the abstract concept of development seems to possess the characteristics of journey- related, unpredictable circumstances along the way, forward movement, a destination-oriented nature, and, most of all, the desirable and happy end that we have no clear and certain idea of. The journey metaphor, here, is used not only to encourage people, but also to unify people by providing a so-called shared journey experience.

In example (3), the metaphor cluster consists of a machine metaphor and a journey metaphor. The market is seen as a machine which can generate wealth and expand freedom, while also having the potential to fall out of our control if not monitored carefully. Machines are man-made, therefore, they can be operated, checked, regulated, and fixed by people. Therefore, the MARKET IS MACHINE metaphor used by the president reveals a fundamental principle of the Democratic Party, which holds the idea that the economy should be regulated and certain government intervention in the market is necessary.

Barack Obama (January 20, 2013)

(1) We, the people, declare today that the most evident of truths -- that all of us are created equal -- is the star that guides us still; just as it guided our forebears through Seneca Falls and Selma and Stonewall; just as it guided all those men and women, sung and unsung, who left footprints along this great Mall, to hear a preacher say that we cannot walk alone; to hear a King proclaim that our individual freedom is inextricably bound to the freedom of every soul on Earth.

(2) It is now our generation's task to carry on what those pioneers began. For our journey is not complete until our wives, our mothers and daughters can earn a living equal to their efforts. Our journey is not complete until our gay brothers and sisters are treated like anyone else under the law-for if we are truly created equal, then surely the love we commit to one another must be equal as well. Our journey is not complete until no citizen is forced to wait for to exercise the right to vote. Our journey is not complete until we find a better way to welcome the striving, hopeful immigrants who still see America as land of opportunity-until bright young students and engineers are enlisted in our workforce rather than expelled from our country. Our journey is not complete until all our children, from the streets of Detroit to the hills of Appalachia, to the quiet lanes of Newtown, know that they are cared for and cherished and always safe from harm.

That is our generation's task -- to make these words, these rights, these values of life and liberty and the pursuit of happiness real for every American. Being true to our founding documents does not require us to agree on every contour of life. It does not mean we all define liberty in exactly the same way or follow the same precise path to happiness. Progress does not compel us to settle centuries-long debates about the role of government for all time, but it does require us to act in our time.

Figure 7 : Distribution diagram of metaphorical sentences in the presidential inaugural of Barack Obama in 2013.

The two metaphor clusters in Obama's second inaugural all consist of journey metaphors. From the inaugural in 2009 and this inaugural, it can be deduced that Obama predominantly favors journey metaphors. As we have discussed in the paragraph above, the journey metaphor has a special ability to unify and reassure people. The journey metaphor makes the abstract concept of development seem as if it possessed the characteristics of journey-related unpredictable circumstances along the way, forward movement, destination-oriented, and most of all, the desirable and happy end that we have no clear and certain idea of. The journey metaphor is used to make the audience feel as though they have a choice to make, thus to unify them by providing them with a so-called shared journey experience.

The star metaphor in example (1) relates to the idea of equality. Stars at night provide light, and can therefore guide travelers at night. Thus, this presents the idea that equality is necessary for the development of a country, especially in its dark times. In example (2), the sentence structure “For our journey is not complete until...” is repeated five times in the paragraph. The journey metaphor outlines the president's ambitions, or rather, goals for the future. Metaphors, repetition, and parallelism are combined here to fulfill the president's appeal for the necessary changes in the future.

Donald Trump (January 20, 2017)

Figure 8: Distribution diagram of metaphorical sentences in the presidential inaugural of Donald Trump in 2017. But for too many of our citizens a different reality exists: Mothers and children trapped in poverty in our inner citizens: rusted-our factories scattered like tombstones across the landscape of our Nation; an education system, flush with cash, but which leaves our young and beautiful students deprived of all knowledge; and the crime and the gangs and the drugs that have stolen too many lives and robbed our country of so much unrealized potential.

This American carnage stops right here and stops right now. We are one Nation, and their pain is our pain, their dreams are our dreams, and their success will be our success. We share one heart, one home, and one glorious destiny.

Metaphors are somewhat scattered, or located unevenly, in Trump's inaugural. The only instance of metaphor clustering spotted in research is used to describe a frightening image. It includes several conceptual metaphors: the metaphor POVERTY IS A LOCATION, FACTORIES ARE TOMBSTONES, personification CRIMES ARE CRIMINALS, and carnage metaphor SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DESOLATION IS CARNAGE. These metaphors are crowded together to form a very negative image. These metaphors are connected to each other, or rather, all other metaphors are used to serve the dominant metaphor in this clustering -- the carnage metaphor.

`Carnage' literally means “great and usually bloody slaughter or injury, as in battle”. Trump used it to refer to a social and economic desolation when he said that “This American carnage stops right here and stops right now”. However, due to its negative connotations, the word disturbed people by presenting a scary image. This hyperbolic metaphor to some extent influences the assessment of the address. It was harshly criticized by the media as soon as it emerged.

It should be noted that Trump's inaugural is different from the other inaugurals. The traditional aims of presidential address in unifying the two parties and the people and reiterating the traditional American ideas seem to be given less attention. In fact, the address was harshly criticized in the domestic media because of its content and wording. It was branded as an “unprecedented, divisive speech” [Time, 2017], “striking a tone of nationalism and populism” [Wall Street Journal, 2017; Los Angeles Times, 2017], and being “one ofthe most ominous” in U.S. history [Los Angeles Times, 2017].

Comparison

Regarding significant similarities and differences between the addresses under analysis, tables of comparison have been made, outlining the metaphors in all metaphor clusters of each president and indicating source and target domains.

Table 1. Metaphor types by source domains and target domains in metaphor clusters in George H.W. Bush's presidential inaugural in 1989

Metaphor types by source domains and target domains in metaphor clusters in Bill Clinton's presidential inaugural in 1993 and 1997

Table 2

Table 3. Metaphor types by source domains and target domains in metaphor clusters in George W. Bush's presidential inaugural in 2001 and 2005

Metaphor types by source domains and target domains in metaphor clusters in Barack Obama's presidential inaugurals in 2009 and 2013

Table 4.

Table 5. Metaphor types by source domains and target domains in metaphor clusters in Donald Trump's presidential inaugural in 2017

The first observation to be made is that Trump's use of metaphor clustering is different from the other four presidents. The only instance of Trump's metaphor clustering is the negative description of social condition. While in the other four presidents' instances, certain target domains-topics are oft-mentioned. They are America's fundamental ideas and the country's development. The topic of development appears in all clusters, and every occurrence is elaborated through the image of a journey. The topic of development is the most important priority for any country, so it comes as no surprise that each president talks about it in his inaugural.

Although each president draws on the fundamental ideas of modern society in their inaugurals, the ideas emphasized through their individual clusters are different. The topic of freedom appears in all the inaugurals. The difference lies in the fact that different source domains are used to describe it. In the clusters of Bush Senior's inaugural, freedom is seen as something that can refresh the nation to help it move forward. The topic of freedom also appears in other places in the inaugural, aside from the clusters. In a simile made especially for children, freedom is described as a beautiful kite. The concept of freedom as fire appears in the clusters of the inaugurals of Bill Clinton (1997) and Bush Junior (2005). As opposed to the fire metaphor, Bill Clinton (1993) views freedom in terms of construction. Obama (2009), in his clusters, speaks about freedom in terms of being a gift, but uses the metaphor of light to discuss freedom in other points of his address. Bush Junior, (2001) when talking about the topic of freedom in his clusters, focuses on the faith in freedom and democracy which was once a rock in a raging sea but then became a seed upon the wind.

Another repeatedly mentioned idea in these clusters is democracy, although it is less frequently mentioned than freedom. Clinton (1993) describes democracy in terms of engines and buildings, while Bush Junior (2001) mentions both freedom and democracy together. Among all the inaugurals and clusters, only Obama (2013) uses metaphors to describe the idea of equality. He uses the star-with-a-journey metaphor to highlight the importance of equality in the development of a country.

Metaphors used for the topic of change only occur in the clusters of the inaugurals of Bush Senior (1989) and Bill Clinton (1993). Bush Senior uses the breeze metaphor, while Bill Clinton (1993) uses the spring metaphor.

It can be seen that in terms of the source domains used in the clusters of these presidents the journey metaphor is oft-used. Furthermore, each president has his own points of focus within the use of source domains: Bush Senior concentrates on his breeze metaphor, Bill Clinton prefers the building metaphor in 1993 and the journey metaphor in 1997, Bush Junior prefers the story metaphor in 2001 and the fire metaphor in 2005, and Obama prefers the journey metaphor in both of his two inaugurals.

Secondly, when we look at how the metaphors in these clusters are organized, most of them are topically related to each other. Some clusters use several source domains to describe a target domain, which illustrates example (2) in Bill Clinton's inaugural (1997): the negative attitudes of prejudice and contempt are seen in terms of the plague, fuel, evil forces, and dark impulse. Some clusters may contain different metaphors to form a multi-detailed image and elaborate a topic, which can be seen in example (3) of Bill Clinton's address (1997): the gift metaphor, journey metaphor, book metaphor, bridge metaphor, and fire metaphor are used to present a picture of the country's ongoing development.

Thirdly, these metaphors play an important role in contributing to some of the main purposes of presidential inaugurals: unification of the country, reiteration of American values, and offering of a bright future. And this phenomenon appears in nearly every instance of clustering.

Conclusions

Research into the metaphor clusters in these eight presidential inaugurals shows that metaphor clustering is an integral part of political discourse and it plays a vital role in these inaugurals. Some metaphor clusters involve the important topics of the inaugurals and are used to elaborate upon these abstract notions. Such metaphor clusters exist in almost all the inaugurals, focusing on topics like American values and country development. Some metaphor clusters may be used only to explain an abstract concept, such as prejudice and contempt in Clinton's inaugural (1993). Some metaphor clusters, as in Trump's inaugural (2017), may be used to produce negative images. The very fact that metaphor clusters occur both at the beginning and at the end of an inaugural suggests that they contribute to the form and content of the discourse structure, making it flow more smoothly or cementing the constituent parts. Or they echo each other in order to create a coherent and structurally sound cognitive scenario within each inaugural.

Comparing metaphor clusters in these inaugurals reveals certain similarities and differences of metaphor use. The topics of American values and country development are discussed in each inaugural (except Trump's talk) and in each metaphor cluster. The differences primarily lie in the use of source domains. For example, in Bush Junior's inaugural (2001), the story metaphor is repeated many times; in Clinton's inaugural (1993), the building metaphor is repeated and even used for different target domains; the journey metaphor is highlighted in Barack Obama's inaugurals (both in 2009 and 2013). Secondly, aside from the fact that Bush Senior's inaugural (1989) and Bill Clinton's inaugural (1993) explicitly use metaphor to elaborate on the topic of change in terms of breeze (Bush Senior) and spring (Bill Clinton), no other inaugurals use metaphors to speak about change. Both the breeze metaphor and the spring metaphor function as a thread running throughout the entirety ofthe inaugurals, creating cognitive and discursive coherence. This reveals the importance given to the topic of change during Bush Senior's time and Bill Clinton's first term.

Trump's inaugural is an exception in terms of the use of metaphor clustering. It is consistent with the fact that his address is evaluated to be an exception in many aspects, such as negative tone and specific wording. The negative image created by the instance of metaphor clustering brings him harsh criticism.

Studying metaphor clustering provides a different viewpoint on how metaphors are used in political discourse. Crowding in discourse, they are reinforced and, hence, more effective.

References

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