Ending electoral fraud in Nigeria: can the agenda setting role of the mass media salvage the situation?

Размещено на http://www.allbest.ru/

Размещено на http://www.allbest.ru/

Ending Electoral Fraud in Nigeria: can the Agenda Setting Role of the Mass Media salvage the situation?

Chinedu A. Nwamara

Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri (Nigeria)

Emeka Williams Etumnu

Imo State University, Owerri (Nigeria)

Abstract

In Nigeria, electoral fraud has arguably become prevalent. As a result of it, most electorate seems to have lost faith in the electoral process. In all this, the media have a great role to play in correcting this anomaly that has been denting the Nigerian democratic image through their agenda setting function. This study was underpinned on agenda setting theory. The survey research method was adopted. The population comprises 180 registered and practicing journalists in Imo State. The census principle was used in the study. The approach of purposive sampling was adopted. The data gathering instrument was a questionnaire and analysis was done using descriptive statistics and mean analysis. Finding revealed that the media through their agenda setting function can salvage the issue of electoral fraud in Nigeria. It was recommended that having known the mass media have great tendency to influence change, creators of mass media contents in the Nigerian media industry should not relent in their efforts in packaging mass media content that can help in raising the consciousness of the people towards the danger of electoral fraud with the intention of ending it.

Keywords: democratic, electoral violence, election, mass media, electorate, agenda setting, political.

Вплив нігерійських ЗМІ на електорат в контексті фальсифікації виборів

Чінеду А. Нвамара

Федеральна політехніка Некеде, Оверрі (Нігерія)

Емека Вільямс Етумну

Державний університет Імо, Оверрі (Нігерія)

Анотація

electoral fraud content

У Нігерії фальсифікація виборів є дуже поширеним явищем. В результаті цього більшість електорату, схоже, втратили віру у виборчий процес. Важливу роль у виправленні цієї аномалії, яка завдає шкоди демократичному іміджу Нігерії, відіграють засоби масової інформації завдяки своїй функції визначення порядку денного. Це дослідження базувалося на теорії встановлення порядку денного. Прийнято опитувальний метод дослідження. Серед опитаних - 180 зареєстрованих і практикуючих журналістів у штаті Імо. У дослідженні використовувався принцип перепису. Було прийнято підхід цілеспрямованого відбору проб. Інструментом збору даних стала анкета, а аналіз проводився за допомогою описової статистики та аналізу середніх. Висновки показали, що ЗМІ завдяки своїй функції визначення порядку денного можуть врятувати проблему фальсифікації виборів у Нігерії. Знаючи, що засоби масової інформації мають великі можливості впливати на зміни, творці інформаційного контенту в нігерійській медіа-індустрії не повинні ослабляти свої зусилля у створенні й поширенны контенту, який може допомогти підвищити свідомість людей щодо небезпеки фальсифікації виборів з наміром покласти цьому край.

Ключові слова: демократичний, електоральне насильство, вибори, ЗМІ, електорат, порядок денний, полі-тичний.

Introduction

The struggle for political power among Nigerians, especially in a democratic set-up is normally fierce. This is as a result of the control of the economic resources attached to all major political positions in the country (Nelson &Ekhorugue, 2022). This is why most of the political actors go at any length to ensure they win election they are contesting even though engaging in electoral fraud. The basic goal of election fraud is to frustrate citizens' democratic aspirations who have voted, or would have voted for, someone other than the rigged candidate into office (Tsuwa, Agaigbe, & Shaibume, 2020). Umar (2013) says electoral fraud is an act or conduct of subverting the entire electoral process through massive organized fraud to take over governmental affairs in violation of the laid down rules guiding the process (Umar, 2013). It is critical to emphasise that electoral fraud poses a severe threat to Nigeria's growth and weakens it even before the international community. Multiple voter registrations, the buying and selling of voter cards, bribery of electoral officials, hoarding of registration materials, and other crude and ingenious tactics of deceiving political opponents are common (Adeola, 2012; Shelly, 2019). There is no doubting that the act represents a threat to Nigeria's development.

Organising elections seem to be a great obstacle for African democracy. According to election studies, transitioning from one administration to another seem to be a common issue in most African countries (Ogundiya& Aba, 2005; Glasgow& Alvarez, 2005; Falana, 2009). Elections that are free, fair, and credible are important to electoral democracy and provide a critical means of maintaining a healthy political system, but elections marred by fraud invariably result in political tension, which often leads to violence (Nwangwu, Onah&Otu, 2018). Violence before, during, and after elections frequently causes instability in the political systems of most African countries, including Nigeria, which is exacerbated by rigged elections (Tsuwa, et al., 2020). Supporting this view Casimir, Omeh& Ike (2013) note that electoral violence in Nigeria is triggered by electoral fraud and the manipulation data to deny the lawful winners their political mandates given to them and confirmed by the electoral process. They state further that it is the number one cause of electoral violence before, during or after elections. It is obvious that electoral fraud contributes great deal to electoral violence and for such violence to stop then the root cause should be tackled. The international community has always frowned on electoral fraud because it is capable of causing political unrest that can further lead to the breakdown of law and order which can directly or indirectly affect them. Unarguably, electoral fraud will always project a country's involvement in a negative light. When such a country's image is battered negatively, it may affect its international relations with other countries. It is also important to stress that when elections are rigged, incompetent leaders are usually ushered in, and when such happens, bad policies are bound to be formulated. In such circumstances, countries that share diplomatic ties might be forced to withdraw their ties.

In the present dispensation tackling electoral fraud is not that easy however; the mass media still have great role to play in helping to tackle electoral fraud through their agenda setting function by given prominence to the issue so as to raise the consciousness of people. The media being the Fourth Estate of the Realm have a duty to hold the leaders accountable to the people for the crises emanating from elections (Oboh, 2016). The media are indispensable in any society as a result of the roles they play (Gever, 2015). There is no doubt that a lot of people look up to the media on serious issues of public concern like the electoral fraud. It is an onus that directly rests on the mass media to always enlighten citizens on happenings around them and as well, set agenda for public discourse (Omociboh&Ekhorugue, 2022). According to Gever (2015:1), “the media are the whistle blowers of the society, in fact, they are the referees who officiate the running of the affairs of the society.” As the media are carrying out their function they are setting the agenda for public discourse. According to agenda setting theory, the media, particularly the news media, determine which subjects (agenda) are most important to society. Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw proposed the theory in 1972/1973. (Asemah, 2011).

In other words, media attention to a problem will raise the issue's prominence among the general public. For example, they set agenda by telling people the danger of electoral fraud in the society and what constitute electoral fraud. By so doing they are educating people on the need to shun electoral fraud. According to the agenda setting theory, people's knowledge of public issues is largely based on what the media tells them (Olasunkanmi& Omokhepue, 2022). Furthermore, the importance they assign to the same issues is inversely proportional to the quantity of media attention given to the same issues. Although the media may not necessarily dictate what we think, it does influence what we think about. We have the right to think whatever we choose, yet oddly enough, we tend to think about the majority of the issues that the media highlights as essential (Olasunkanmi&Omokhepue, 2022).

Having known that the media have great influence over people, can they through their agenda setting role tell people to think about the danger of electoral fraud and the harm it can cause in the society so as to put an end to it?

Problem statement

Electoral fraud has been the bane of Nigerian democracy. It is very obvious that it has been affecting the progress of the electoral system over the years. Most electorate are losing interest and are refusing to turn out in an election as a result of electoral fraud (Nwangwu et al. 2018). The issue of electoral violence is another headache as a result of electoral fraud as pointed out by casimir, et al. (2013). For instance, at Ngo Okpala byelection in Imo State recently, it was reported by The Southern Examiner that the Independent National Electoral Commission ad-hoc staff sent to the field to conduct the election were abducted and taken to an unknown destination where they were reportedly forced to thumbprint some ballot papers and adjust the contents of their machines. In other times the commission's staff are allegedly coerce or induce financially to manipulate election result. In all these, what can the media do? Can the media through their agenda setting function salvage the issue of electoral fraud in Nigeria and make people believe again in the electoral process?

Objective of the study

The objectives are to:

Examine how the media through their agenda setting function can salvage the issue of electoral fraud in Nigeria.

Examine the extent the media use their agenda setting function in the fight against electoral fraud vis-avis electoral violence in Nigeria.

Find out the challenge(s) that the media might face in using their agenda setting role in fighting electoral fraud in Nigeria.

Review of related literature

Electoral Fraud and the Agenda Setting Role of the Mass Media

Electoral fraud encompasses any types of wrongdoing aimed at undermining electoral fairness. It is frequently done to favour or promote the interests of a giving candidate or political party Aliyu, Wakili, and Olukayode (2020). Similarly, Casimir et al (2013) state that electoral fraud is defined as an illegal interference with the election process that affects the people's mandate. In light of the preceding argument, Tsuwa et al (2020) argue that the primary goal of election fraud is to frustrate voters' democratic aspirations who have voted, or would have voted, for someone other than the rigged individual into office. Electoral fraud, according to Tsuwa (2020), is committed by people, not ghosts, and election manipulation is impossible without the cooperation of election participants such as candidates, polling agents, security agents, polling clerks, election/returning officers, presiding officers, and the general public. In the words of Ezeani (2005) as cited by Nwangwu, et al (2018) illegal possession of ballot papers and boxes, unlawful possession of authorised/unauthorised voters' cards, stuffing of ballot boxes, forgery of results, falsification of result sheets, tampering with ballot boxes, collusion with party agents to share unused ballot papers for large financial rewards, and inconsistent application of INEC's procedures across the country are among the electoral malpractices perpetrated by INEC and its unscrupulous officials. Electoral fraud has had a negative influence on Nigeria's populace and has hampered the country's growth. Because individuals who gained from electoral fraud were assisted by government institutions in building new administrations and establishing parliaments at the national, state, and local level after the elections, this is the case. When people's mandates are stolen and the perpetrators of election fraud are not held accountable, voters' faith in democracy and governance is lost, so as their support for institutions that promote democratic participation (Casimir et al., 2013). Nigerian elections are deteriorating in quality, posing a threat to the country's democratic consolidation (Nwangwu et al, 2018).

In a nation plagued by electoral fraud, the media can play a critical role in restoring order. According to Kurfi (2010), the mass media has a significant role to play in solidifying democracy so that citizens can fulfil their democratic responsibilities. However, in a society where election fraud occurs, citizens are unable to fulfil their democratic obligations. This is why the mass media, with their agenda-setting function, are so important in changing the narrative. Agenda-setting is critical since a shift in media coverage alters people's perceptions of what matters and what doesn't (Ogbada&Olaniyi, 2022).

Gever (2015) in a study, conducted a research on the agenda-setting-function of the mass media on Nigerian youths vis-a-vis national political issues, using a survey research design, findings revealed significant relationship between media reports and youths possession of national political agenda, the paper also documents that the direction of coverage, prominence, frequency and slanting of national political issues all determine the perception of Nigerian youths on such issues so reported. The researcher recommended that among others, that the media should be highly professional and avoid the temptation of setting misleading agenda for Nigerian youths. In another study by Omociboh&Ekhorugue (2022) they investigated how the mass media through their agenda setting address the menace of early child marriage using library research method. It was revealed that the mass media play unique and central role in creating awareness and persuading the people for attitudinal or behavioural change. Radios through its various programme enlighten the people on the forms, and effects of child labour there by gradually influencing their disposition towards it. In a study conducted by Wilson (2012) on “The impact of media agenda-setting on Local Governments: Examining the relationship between media coverage and Policy outcomes”, in which content analysis design was used as the research method, the researcher divided the sample into four variables, namely: public safety, public works parks, recreation and tourism and economic development. The results showed significant relationship between media reports and public policy. This finding supports the role of the media in determining the agenda.

Aghamelu (2013) uses comparative phenomenological analysis to investigate the function of the media in the Nigerian electoral process. It was discovered that the media plays a critical role in channelling electioneering campaigns toward national development goals. This is because the mass media is regarded as a platform for social interaction, with the goal of using the power of mass information to address the issue of national cohesion and integration, both of which are vital to the growth of a healthy electioneering campaign. The media is also responsible for directing the electoral process toward the desired aim of national development and integration.

Aliyu et al. (2020) conducted a study on the motive behind electoral malpractice and how it can forestall sustainable development in Nigeria. The study showed that thirst for power, attitude of the politicians who consider politics as investment, vengeance and preponderance of seeing political periods as pay-back times are some of the causes for engaging in electoral fraud. Electoral malpractice is also caused by poverty, a lack of or bad political education, bribery and corruption, and insufficient planning on the part of political parties/candidates. The study also discovered that electoral fraud delays progress, causes conflict, and tarnishes Nigeria's reputation. Tsuwa et al. (2020) conducted study on the impact of election fraud on political stability in Nigeria. The library was used as a source of information. Political instability in Nigeria has been blamed on a lack of free, fair, and credible elections since 1999, according to the study. Elections that are credible, free, and fair can aid in the consolidation of democratic norms, as well as the promotion of human rights and security. False elections, on the other hand, contribute to political instability, corruption, and war in the country.

Oboh (2016) used the 2007 general election as a case study to investigate how the media could improve the conduct of elections. A content analysis was used in the research. The findings show that, despite adequate coverage of the elections by the media, official and commercial media outlets disagreed on the election outcomes' trustworthiness. Despite the Election Observation Mission's confirmation that the polls were manipulated, the public media backed the Federal Government's position in the elections, saying that they were free and fair.

Theoretical framework

This study finds expression on the agenda setting theory. The agenda-setting theory asserts that the media may advise or inform audiences on important and timely matters. People learn not only about public concerns and other topics through the media, but they also learn how much importance to attach to an issue or matter based on how much focus the media spends on it (Iheanacho, Jumbo &Etumnu, 2021). As a result, the media sets the agenda for important social concerns such as electoral fraud and violence. The media accomplishes this by selecting stories that are considered newsworthy. The agenda setting theory can serve to raise awareness, educate, enlighten, and mobilise people on the subject of electoral fraud and violence in the country by reporting and campaigning more regularly on the issue (McQuail& Windfall, 1993, cited in Ekeanyanwu&Olaniyan, 2010). It will become the subject of public debate based on the type of coverage or report it receives from the media. This theory, suggested by Max McCombs and Donald Shaw in a 1968 study, can be used to explain the media's power to alter the importance of topics on the public agenda. For example, the media might choose the topic on which it wants the audience's attention to be focused by covering it frequently and prominently. As a result, the audience will consider the concerns to be more pressing. In as much as the theory maintains that the media does not teach us what to think but rather what to think about, one will be forced to think about the consequences of electoral fraud in society due to their frequent reporting and focus on the threat of electoral fraud. The significance of this theory stems from the fact that constant exposure to media messages has the ability to persuade audiences to participate in the media fight against electoral fraud and violence.

Methodology

For this study, the survey method was used. The survey approach is the best research design for this study because it allows journalists opinions to be sampled regarding the agenda setting role of the mass media (Tayo-Garbson, Njoku&Etumnu, 2019). This method allowed media practitioners to air their views on the agenda setting function of the media in respect to ending the electoral fraud in the society. The limitation of this method is based on the fact that researchers are confined to a single instrument, and in some cases, it lacks depth and it is not flexible for researchers. However, in a study like this survey is required. The study's population is the National Union of Journalists' registered and practicing journalists (NUJ). According to the NUJ Factsheet, the number of journalists under NUJ in Imo State is 180. The study sample size was the whole population of registered and practicing journalists under NUJ which is 180. The reason for sampling all the elements in the population is because it is manageable. In census principle, the entire population is studied. The prescribed response rate for the study was 95% However, at the end of collecting the data the response rate stood at 96.1% which means the data is valid for analysis. Final sample used for the study was 173 journalists. The researchers employed the purposive sampling procedure so as to get relevant data needed in the study. The instrument used in this investigation was questionnaire. For analysis of data, the researchers made use of descriptive statistics and mean analysis. Both authors were fully involved in the approach used as a result of their competency in the collection and analysis of data using descriptive statistics.

Presentation of data and analysis

The focus of this section is on presentation and analysis of data in other to make meaning out of them. Firstly, 180 copies of questionnaire were distributed to the respondents; out of the copies distributed 173(96.1%) copies were returned. Meanwhile, 7 (3.9%) copies were invalid. Therefore, the analysis was done using 173 copies of questionnaire.

Table 1. Respondents' responses on the mass media through their agenda setting function can expose electoral fraud

* Created by authors, sources (Field Survey, 2022)

According to the results of the above table 1, 90.1 percent of respondents believe that the media, through their agenda-setting role, can disclose electoral fraud. By implication of this finding it is clear that majority of the respondent confirmed that the mass media through their agenda setting function can actually expose electoral fraud.

Table 2

* Created by authors, sources (Field Survey, 2022)

According to data from table 2, 84.3 percent of respondents agreed that continuous reports of electoral fraud, as well as demonstrating the consequences of such fraud on society, can aid in its prevention. This indicates that the majority of respondents agreed that reporting on electoral fraud on a regular basis and demonstrating its implications in society can help to reduce it.

Table 3. Respondents' responses on through the agenda setting role of the mass media those involve in electoral fraud can be held responsible

* Created by authors, sources (Field Survey, 2022)

Data analysed from table 3 above revealed that 75.7% of the respondents indicated that through the agenda setting role of the mass media those involve in electoral fraud can be held responsible. This finding clearly revealed that through the agenda setting role of the mass media those involved in electoral can be held accountable.

According to the statistics in table 6, 75.7 percent of respondents believe that the media plays a significant role in the fight against electoral fraud and electoral violence in Nigeria. This implies that majority of the respondents studied confirmed that the mass media to a large extent frequently use their agenda setting role in championing the fight against electoral fraud and violence in Nigeria.

Table 4. Respondents' responses on do the mass media give prominence on issue of electoral fraud and violence in their reports

* Created by authors, sources (Field Survey, 2022)

Table 5

* Created by authors, sources (Field Survey, 2022)

Data analysed from the above table 4 showed 84.9% of the respondents affirmed that mass media give prominence on issue of electoral fraud and violence in their reports. This means that mass media give prominence on issues of electoral fraud and violence in their reports.

Table 6. Responses on the challenge that the media might face in using their agenda setting role in fighting electoral fraud in Nigeria

* Created by authors, sources (Field Survey, 2022)

Variables: SA=Strongly Agree, 3.3-4.0: A=Agree,2.5-3.2:D=Disagree, 1.8-2.4:SD=Strongly Disagree, 1.1.7

Decision rule

If the average mean score is less than 2.5 (1-2.4), the researchers conclude that the aforementioned challenges will not prevent the media from exploiting their agendasetting role in Nigeria to combat electoral fraud. But if the average mean score is higher than 2.4 (2.5 - 4.0), the researchers decide that the aforementioned challenges hinder the media in leveraging their agenda setting function in combating electoral fraud in Nigeria. An analysis of the data found that respondents confirmed that at an average of 3.1 (N=173) media ownership, government policy, media gagging and life threat to media practitioners are some of the challenges that the media face in using their agenda setting role in fighting electoral fraud in Nigeria. It implies that media ownership; government policy, media gagging and life threat to media practitioners can actually affect the media in using their agenda setting role in fighting electoral fraud in Nigeria.

Discussion of findings

Data analysed revealed that respondents confirmed that the media, through their agenda setting function, can salvage the issue of electoral fraud in Nigeria. The respondents affirmed that through the agenda setting function of the mass media electoral fraud can be exposed and at the same time help to curtail it by holding those responsible for the act accountable. This finding is in consonance with Omociboh&Ekhorugue (2022) who revealed that the mass media through their agenda setting can address the menace of early child marriage which is also a social ill in the society. Their finding also showed that the mass media play unique and central role in creating awareness and persuading the people for attitudinal or behavioural change. Through the agenda setting role of the mass media peoples' attitude towards the electoral process can be affected positively thereby contributing in ending electoral fraud in the society. This finding is also consistent with that of Aghamelu (2013), who found that the media plays a critical role in channelling electioneering campaigns toward the goal of national development. This is because the mass media is regarded as a platform for social interaction, with the goal of using the power of mass information to address the issues of national cohesion and integration, both of which are vital to the development of a healthy electioneering campaign. From this finding it is crystal clear that the mass media possess what it takes in changing a particular situation through their reports or campaigns on that issue. This finding is consistent with the agenda-setting theory that underpins this research in the sense that the media can influence people to think and take action against electoral fraud because the media have made them understand the implication of it in the society.

From the data analysed it was revealed further that the respondents confirmed that the media use their agenda setting function in the fight against electoral fraud visa-vis electoral violence in Nigeria to a large extent; as they give prominence to the issue of electoral fraud and violence as indicated in table 4. This finding conforms with the finding of Gever (2015) who revealed that the direction of coverage, prominence, frequency and slanting of national political issues by the mass media determine the perception of Nigerian youths on political issues reported. Similarly, Oboh (2016) found that the media delivered appropriate coverage to the 2007 elections, despite public and private media disagreements about the election's credibility. Despite the fact that the Election Observation Mission's report showed that the polls were rigged, the public media backed the Federal Government's position in the elections, saying that they were free and fair. Also in agreement with this finding Wilson (2012) found that there is a considerable association between media coverage and policy outcomes due to the agenda setting of the media. That is to say, there is significant relationship between media reports and public policy and this gives credence to the agenda-setting function of the mass media. The implication of this finding is that the more the mass media report the issue of electoral fraud and violence the more people will become even more conscious of it and thereby disassociate with it. The finding aligns with the agenda setting theory this study was underpinned.

Upon analysing the data, it was discovered that respondents acknowledged that at an average mean of 3.1 (N=173) media ownership, government policy, media gagging and life threat to media practitioners are some of the challenges that the media face in using their agenda setting role in fighting electoral fraud in Nigeria. This finding is a clear indication that if these challenges exists ending electoral fraud will be problematic in as much as the mass media have a great role to play in ending electoral fraud as well as electoral violence. No doubt, in environment where these happen there will be problem with development that is why Aliyu, et al. (2020) in their study found that electoral misconduct hinders progress, causes conflict, and tarnishes Nigeria's reputation. Similarly, Tsuwa et al. (2020) found that political instability in Nigeria has been caused by a lack of free, fair, and credible elections since 1999. They also demonstrated that credible, free, and fair elections contribute to the consolidation of democratic norms, as well as the promotion of human rights and security. False elections, on the other hand, contribute to political instability, corruption, and war in the country. Managing these issues will be a mammoth challenge for the media, which is continuously muzzled, controlled by ownership, intimidated because of their reports on electoral fraud, and limited by government policy that does not favour them.

Conclusions and recommendation

In respect to the findings of this study, it can therefore be concluded that constant reportage of the issue of electoral fraud by the mass media through its agenda setting functions can salvage the issue of electoral fraud that has dented the political and electoral system in Nigeria. However, it seems that the situation with the media in Nigeria does not allow solving this problem because the issues of media ownership, media gagging, government policy and threat to life to media practitioners. Therefore, it is necessary to involve international organisations to help in addressing the issue by way of creating massive awareness on the danger of electoral fraud. Deploying adequate international election observers, cautioning the government on the need to respect the rights of the media and, some cases Issuing sanctions to Nigeria.

The following recommendations are hereby put forward:

Having known that the mass media in Nigeria have great tendency to influence change. Creators of mass media contents in the Nigerian media industry should not relent in their efforts in packaging mass media content that can help in raising the consciousness of the electorate towards the danger of electoral fraud in Nigeria with the intention of ending it.

The mass media should be encouraged by the National Orientation Agency in charge of projecting Nigeria's image positively so that the mass media will continue to give prominence to the issue of electoral fraud and violence so as to put an end to it and improve the image of Nigeria.

Media independency should be strongly encouraged by the Nigerian government and other media stakeholders. Government should avoid gagging the media unnecessarily so that there will not be any form of limitations on the media especially towards carrying their constitutionally assigned duties. Again, media practitioner lives should be insured by their organisation especially in developing country like Nigerian against any eventualities due to the life threats they gets as a result of discharging their duties.

References

1. Adeola, G.B. (2012). Wrong motives to the conduct of election in Nigeria, Journal of African Politics, X (II).

2. Aghamelu, F.C. (2013). The role of the mass media in the Nigerian electoral process. Unizik Journal of Arts and Humanities, 14(2), 154-172.

3. Aliyu, M.K, Wakili, O.K. &Olukayode, B.S. (2020). Electoral malpractice as a challenge to sustainable development in Nigeria. Global Journal of Political Science and Administration, 8(1), 15-25.

4. Asemah, E.S (2011). Principles and practice of mass communication (2nd ed). Jos: MATKOL Press.

5. Casimir, A, Omeh, E. & Ike, C. (2013). Electoral fraud in Nigeria: A philosophical evaluation of the framework of electoral violence. Open Journal of Political Science, 3 (4), 167-174.

6. Ekeanyanwu, N.T. & Olaniyan, O. (2010). Newspaper coverage of people's perception of president Yar' Adua's re-election campaigns. Journals of Communication and Media Research, 2(1), 79-92.

7. Falana, F. (2009). The limit of electoral reforms (being a speech delivered on democracy day at the London Metropolitan University, Holloway road, London, United Kingdom on Friday May 29, 2009).

8. Gever, V.C. (2015). A critical analysis of the agendasetting function of the mass media on Nigerian youths vis-a-vis national political issues. In D. Wilson (Ed) Communication, Society, and the Nigerian Child: Issues and emerging trends in the 21st Century. (pp, 11-22): African Council for Communication Education.

9. Glasgow, G., & Alvarez, R.M. (2005). Voting behavior and the electoral contest of government formation, Electoral Study, 24, 245-264.

10. Iheanacho O.C, Jumbo, C.N. &. Etumnu, E.W. (2021). Influence of COVID-19 broadcast media campaigns on the health consciousness of Owerri residents. SAU Journal of Management & Social Sciences, 6(2), 8697.

11. Kurfi, M.Y. (2010). The role of mass media in democratic society: An opinion survey in Bayero University, Kano. In O.A. Okwilagwe (Ed.), NigerianaStirling-Horden: Encylopaediaof mass media & communication-- Historical and theoreticalperspectives (pp. 289-300). Ibadan, Nigeria: Stirling-Horden.

12. Nelson, L.N &Ekhorugue, S.O. (2022). Application of the social judgement theory to political communication. In E.S Asemah, D.O. Ekhareafo& T. Santas (Eds). Discourseson Communication and Media Studies in

13. Contemporary Society. (pp. 268-274). Jos University Press.

14. Nwangwu, C. Onah, V.C &Otu A.O, (2018). Elixir of electoral fraud: The impact of digital technology on the 2015 general elections in Nigeria, Cogent Social Sciences,4(1), 1-19.

15. Oboh, G.E. (2016). Reflecting on the Nigerian media, elections, and the African democracy. Sage Open, 1-10.

16. Ogbada, A.P. &Olaniyi, P.A. (2022). Mass media agenda and the 2020 EndSars protest in Nigeria. In E.S Asemah, D. O. Ekhareafo& T. Santas (Eds). Discourseson Communication and Media Studies in Contemporary Society. (pp.301-306). Jos University Press.

17. Ogundiya, I & Aba, T.B. (2005). Electoral violence and the prospects of democratic consolidation in Nigeria in G. Onu& A. Momoh (Eds). Electionsand democratic consolidation in Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum.

18. Olasunkanmi, F .&Omokhepue, K.M. (2022). Critique of the agenda setting theory. In E.S Asemah, D.O. Ekhareafo& T. Santas (Eds). Discourseson Communication and Media Studies in Contemporary Society. (pp.367-373). Jos University Press.

19. Omociboh, I.R.&Ekhorugue, S.O. (2022). Addressing the menace of early child marriage through effective mass media agenda setting. In E.S Asemah, D.O. Ekhareafo & T. Santas (Eds). Discourseson Communication and Media Studies in Contemporary Society. (pp.374-379). Jos University Press.

20. Shelly, C. (2019). Resolving issues of multiple votes in Africa, The Commonwealth Journal of Local Governance, 21, November.

21. Tayo-Garbson, S.U., Njoku, F.C. &Etumnu, E.W.(2019). Owerri residents' perception of women in journalism practice. SAU Journal of Management and Social Sciences, 4 (1/2), 261-270.

22. Tsuwa, J.T., Agaigbe, M.F. &Shaibume, B. (2020). Election fraud and political stability in Nigeria's fourth republic. Nigerian Journal of Administrative and Political Studies, 5 (1), 173-194.

23. Umar, M.E. (2013). The challenges of citizenship and integration in Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of Policy and strategy, 18(2), 42-65.

24. Wilson, B.J. (2012). The impact of media agenda-setting on local governments; Examining the relationship between media coverage and policy outcomes. A paper presented At The Western Political Association Conference, April 21-23, 2011 San Antonio.

Размещено на Allbest.ru