The essence and the causes of formation of islamophobia

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Academy of Public Administration Under the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azerbaijan)

The essence and the causes of formation of islamophobia

Orujova Tarlan Ahmed

Nowadays we are witnessing spreading Islamaphobia in Europe. The aim of this study is to examine the emergence and the causes of formation of Islamophobia.

Islamophobia is an instinct of fear of Islam and Muslims without referring to any truth. Fear turns into hostility when it is persistent and not eliminated. The instinct of maintaining and sustaining its existence is the most important need. Preventing the need for security and survival leads to anger and aggression in the individual. Media, politicians, clerics and educators associate Islam with the perceptions of terror, violence, bombing, and revenge which threaten the security of individuals and that is the reason of the background of the fear of Islam and Muslim perceptions.

Islamophobia is a new word for an ancient fear. It is a form of religious intolerance that has been demonstrating itself through centuries of wars, Crusades and genocides. The spread of Islam in a very short time has led other religions accepting Islam as a threat to their exsistence and seeing it as a problem for the world [23, p. 575].

According to Islamophobic view, Islam has no place among other cultures. Islam is below the western culture and has a violent political ideology [7, p. 73].

In recent years, fear of Islam, Islamist animosity, shortly Islamophobia, which are relevant in many

countries around the globe, have been defined with the concepts such as prejudice, discrimination, isolation, and violence. The term prejudice means the behavior towards Muslims in Western media and in the daily life of Westerners. Discrimination expresses the difficulties Muslims face in the field of work, education and health care. The concept of isolation implies that Muslims are not included in the governing mechanisms, deprived of their political and democratic rights. Oral attacks and physical attacks made by Muslims are considered within the scope of violence.

The emergence of Islamophobia

Although Islamophobia has been more urgent since September 11, 2001, its roots go back to it. According to some sources, this term was first used by a group of French orientalists specializing in Western African studies in 1910 [1, p. 18]. The term Islamophobia was first used by French artist Etienne Dinet in 1922 [17, p. 46]. However, in the late 1970s, especially after the Iranian Revolution, it has been used in a very different way in order to describe the disturbances from revival of Islam [2, p. 148].

However, the term came into spoken language in the 1990s. Especially since the elimination of communism from the history scene and the emergence of a single polar system after the collapse of the USSR, politicians and think tanks in the United States began to look for a new enemy and chose Islam in this sense. Particularly, Hantington's article titled «Clash of Civilizations» has created a basis for Islam to be a potential enemy for the West. In this article he portrayed Islam as a potential enemy for the West and created an ideological base [11, p. 22-49]. Following the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, this phobias has been embedded the subconscious of Western society through politics and media.

Supported by Runnymede Trust and Prof. Gordon Conway's comission led by members of various religions, published in 1997, a report titled «Islamophobia; A challenge for us all» shows that Islamophobia is not a product of September 11, it has existed before. The report points out that the fear of Islam has existed for hundreds of years in the West, and over the past 20 years, it has reached a more dangerous level [10]. This is a document that uses «Islamophobia» as a term for the first time. This report, which examines the causes of religious bias and points out that the main reason of problems facing Muslims is prejudice against Islam.

The Runnymede Report did not just raise Islamophobia as a concept, but also attempted to identify it and listed the behavior that could be regarded as Islamophobic.

- Islam seen as a single monolithic bloc, static and unresponsive to new realities.

- Islam seen as separate and other - (a) not having any aims or values in common with other cultures (b) not affected by them (c) not influencing them.

- Islam seen as inferior to the West - barbaric, irrational, primitive, sexist.

- Islam seen as violent, aggressive, threatening, supportive of terrorism, engaged in `a clash of civilisations'.

- Islam seen as a political ideology, used for political or military advantage.

- Criticisms made by Islam of `the West' rejected out of hand

- Hostility towards Islam used to justify discriminatory practices towards Muslims and exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society.

- Anti-Muslim hostility accepted as natural and `normal' [10, p. 4].

However, the publication of the Runnymede report is the milestones of the Islamophobia concept, the starting point for Islamophobic thinking and behavior in Europe can be considered the publishing of Salman Rushdie's book titled «The Satanic Verses», about ten years ago. Despite the fact that the number reached 1 million, until this event, Muslims were not well- known in the United Kingdom with religious identities [6, p. 148].

In the years that followed, the muslims embrace their identity after increasing the attacks on Islamic identity as a result of the ban on hijab in various European countries or cartoons about Islam and its prophet [4, p. 261].

From the point of view of the development of the Islamophobic ground, the intellectual channel that emerged in Britain after Rushdie also led to similar patterns in all European countries. Along with Christopher Koldewel, who opposed the rise of the Muslim presence in Europe and wrote in his writings the most risky of this growth, Oriya Falasi, Danial Payps, Robert Spencer, Magdi Allam, David Horovitz, Rafael Israeli and many others served in the same direction.

In many European countries, the existence of Islamophobia is denied. In countries such as Austria and Norway, the editorial staff claims that Islamists use Islamophobia to declare any debate about Islam and Muslims. Therefore, the term «Islamophobia» is used in the public sphere unwillingly.

«Burka ban» in many European countries, the Minaret Referendum in Switzerland, and the «Cartoon Crisis» are examples of Islamophobic behavior in Europe. These and similar examples are very important indicators of Islamophobia in the Western world. The causes of Islamophobia in the Western world are factors such as weakening the idea of multiculturalism and coexistence, conflicts of economic interest, and increased visibility of Muslims in Western societies.

France become the first European country to ban burka and niqab in public places. This prohibition came into force on April 2011. In 2004, France banned the wearing a headscarf at school. The same ban was enacted in Belgium in July 2011. Those who oppose this prohibition may be fined or sentenced to a seven-day prison. In 2016, the Dutch parliament banned headscarf. However, wearing a headscarf or completely covering the face has been banned only in public offices, public transportation, hospitals and schools. Those who do not obey the ban will be fined up to 400 euros. This prohibition came into effect in Bulgaria in 2016. Those who oppose the ban may be fined 750 euros. However, sports, workplaces, and places of worship are exceptions. In Austria, full- face veils (niqab and burka) in public spaces such as courts and schools have been prohibited since 2017. It is forbidden to close the face from the jaw to the place where the hair starts. Its penalty is 150 euros. Danish Parliament approved a bill prohibiting the use of burkas and headscarves in public places on August 1, 2018. Those who fail to comply with the ban can be fined up to 135 euros. If this violation is repeated, the penalty will be tenfold. Prohibition of headscarf is on the agenda of many other European countries. Germany, Estonia, Switzerland, Lithuania and Norway are discussing the ban on headscarf and niqab.

As a result of a campaign launched by the Swiss People's Party and the Federal Democratic Union Party on November 29, 2009, a general referendum was held in Switzerland and 57% of the Swedish population had decided not to have minarets in new mosques. There are only 4 minarets in Switzerland today. Minarets are symbols of Islam. Obviously, the referendum on the absence of minarets is actually limiting the visibility of Muslims in the public sphere and is one of the clear indicators of Islamophobia.

On 30 September 2005, a newspaper in Denmark published Prophet Mohammed's insulting cartoonscaused great reactions in the Islamic world. These publications and events that resulted in the provocation of Muslims led to the deterioration of the negative Muslim image in the world. In 2011, in France, the weekly Charlie Hebdo magazine, published animated cartoons humiliated Mohammed and the Muslims. These drawings led to events such as burning of the office of magazine. In addition, the office of French satire newspaper was attacked and slaughtered 12 people on January 7, 2015, in apparent revenge against the weekly's publication of cartoons ridiculing the Prophet Mohammed.

Even though similar cartoons are publishedin Italy, Germany, Norway, and many European countries, neither government nor judicial authorities want to ban those filmsas a sign of the freedom of expression.

«Western» reasons of Islamophobia

The reasons of Islamophobia can be investigated in two main sections: The first one is the «Western», the «external» reasons that arise from the Westerners, which are derived from the perception of Islam itself, without dependence on Islam and Muslims. The second one is the «Eastern», «internal» causes directly from the Muslims. «Western», «external» causes are based on cultural, historical, political, economic, theological, psychological grounds that we have tried to analyze below.

Cultural and Historical Causes - As Christianity being one of the key elements of Western culture, the spread of Islam is considerede as a threat and it is the main reason of antagonist postion for Islam in the Western society.

The first encounter of Muslims and Christians happened with the beginning of Islam in the 7th century, and hence, the roots of Islamophobia went back to the 14th century. Historic events such as the conquest of Al-Andalus by Muslims inIn the VIII century, Crusades in the XII and XIII centuries, the conquest of Constantinopolis in 1453, the Preveza and the Inebahti sea battles, respectivelyin 1538 in 1571, the sieges of Vienna by Ottomans in 1529 and 1683 led to the confrontation between Muslims and Christians and caused deepening of the hostile feelings.

The structure of western culture's, which is not open to diversities and changes, causes external hostility and Islamophobia. Western civilization considered the Arabs and Persians as «lower, second class» societies before the emergence of Islam. For example, the Ancient Greeks and Romans were afraid of and hated these Asian enemies near their borders. If the Westerners defined themselves as «cultural» and «lover of liberty», they would call the Arabs and Persians as despots and barbarians [22, p. 23]. Western civilization has also made Jewish animosity for many years. As a result, Jewish oppression led to Jewish massacres after the Second World War. In recent years, anti-Semitism has been replaced by anti- Islamism. For many years, being the Ottoman Empire as the dominant force in Europe has led to the fear and hostility towards the Turks and Muslims in the subconscious of Europe.

Political Reasons - According to the Pew Forum report, 17 million Muslims live in Western Europe [16]. As a result of migration to the European Union, this figure increases 1.7 million every year. Rapid increases in the elderly Christian population in Europe and America and declining fertility rates, as well as the growing Muslim population's through migration, rising birth rates, and the increased number of converted muslims cause Europeans' fear of «Islamization» of their continent and losing power in their own country. Reflecting this fear is expressed in the term «Eurabia». Eurabia is called the probability of a multitude of Muslims in Europe after a few generations due to the increasing Muslim migration to Europe and the rising birth rates of Muslims. Many right-wing political parties use the idea of Eurabia as a frightening tactic to win people's support [14, p. 74]. These worries and fears have led to the attempts to increase Islamophobia. Thus, radicalist, nationalist political parties and organizations play a major role in spreading the negative image of Islam in the West. These parties, which exist in almost every European country, including Alternative for Germany in Germany, National Front in France, Party for Freedom in the Netherlands and others are very influential in spreading the legend of Islamic threat.

The overwhelming majority of right-wing extremist and racist parties that risen since the 1980s, have gained great deal of victories in their recent campaigns. They won a historic victory in the 2014 European Parliament elections. Right-wing racist parties such as National Front led by Marina Le Pein, the UK's Independence Party, the Danish People's Party, the Austrian Liberation Party and the Nationalist Democratic Party in Germany got their victories over migrant-Muslim hostility and multiculturalism. For example, the «Alternative for Germany» party which is famous for the Islamist propaganda and conflicts between refugees and indigenous peoples, anti-refugees and anti-Islamist slogans, gained the confidence of 12.6% of voters in Germany's parliamentary elections in September 2017 and to become the country's third political force. For the first time since Hitler's Germany, the party's program has been based on hate entire religion (Islam). The main voters are anti-Islamic and anti-immigrants. This party has set its main targets on migration, refugees and Islam, while there is no serious idea to improve the country's economy and social well-being on the election platform. As a result of the global recession, the decline in the economy, difficulties with employment also affected the welfare of the population, which led to an increase in the number of citizens who agreed with the reduction and better management of the migration. In such cases, many major parties have begun to adopt anti-migrants and even anti-multiculturalist approaches to prevent the powers of radical right-wing such as National Front. Through this method, local conservative parties were able to win local and by-elections in France in 2015 and general elections in the UK, in 2015.

Thus, the radical right political camp in Europe is moving from periphery to center and becoming an integral part of Europe's political scene. Islamophobic discourse is in the center of most of these parties. While most radical right parties are still in opposition, some have gained a great reputation as governing parties in some countries such as Austria, Bulgaria and Finland. There is also a stronger cooperation between different Islamophobic parties in Europe. For example, the Czech Freedom and Democracy Party brought together the representatives of the European Parliament's partners in Prague in 2017. There were politicians such as Gait Wilders and Marine Le Pen among the participants.

The rise of radical right parties from Sweden to Greece, from Poland to the Netherlands is a threatening European democratic order. The most dangerous is the justification and normalization of radical right policies within the frames of politics. As noted above, the majority of the EU right-wing parties are still in opposition. Nonetheless, radical right-wing political parties are explicitly expressing racist utopia and speak more harshly against Muslims. By doing so, they play an important role in the normalization of anti-Muslim discourse in Europe.

Currently, there are several radical right-wing governments in Europe aimed at using Islamophobia to gain massive support and political power. After the general elections in Norway, Progress Party, the rightwing populist party and the open Islamist campaign, is co-operating with conservatives in the coalition. As a result, for the first time in the history of Norway there are government representatives who are not afraid to use the Islamophobic discourse.

The leader of a new party, ANO, that won party elections in the Czech Republic, supported the well- known Islamophobist politician, Czech President Milos Zeman. Despite being a small Muslim community in the country, for the first time in the history of the Czech Republic, the issue of attitude towards Muslims was main concernin the national elections in 2017. In Bulgaria, hostility rhetoric towards Muslims is gaining victory. In particular, during the election campaigns, anti-Muslim rhetoric was at peak. Many radical rightwing political parties such as National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria and the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization are part of the current government and forming a coalition with the leading party. We can witness an increase in nationalism and hate speech towards Muslims in public sphere. Crimes against Muslims are praised.

Thus, in the recent years, the rise of supporters of these parties among the population, and the emergence of a radical nationalist politicians whom support antimuslim attitudes have led to the departure of Europe from the democratic values.

There is a direct connection between the rise of the right-wing extremities and the rise of Islamophobia. The right-wing extremists tend to isolate and denounce those who are different from their religion or community. One of the sources of Islamophobia is the hope og homogen society of right-wing extremists who do not believe in multiculturalism. Especially, economic crises in Europe lead to rise right-wing tendencies. Those who have lost their previous standard of living considerforeigners, especially Muslims as the causes of the economic crisis.

European leaders' opposite approach against multiculturalism also feeds Islamophobia. Because there are many Muslims from different races and nations in Europe. Asserting that these groups are not integrated into the society and claiming that the culture of co-exsitence is unsuccessful, it further increases Islamophobia. In short, xenophobia, cultural or religious racism inevitably leads to anti-Islamism, which nourishes Islamophobia.

Economic Reasons - As a result of the decline in foreign workers' demand in Europe and increasing of the unemployment rate of the Christian population as a result of recent economic crises, Islamophobic incidents such as racism, hate and aggression against minorities, including Muslims, have been observed. In the last century, more precisely, in the 1960s, a large number of Muslims settled in Europe as a result of the Europe's growing labor force needs. Muslims were from third world countries, mainly North Africa and Turkey and they are now the second largest religious group in the European Union. One of the most important factors in the emergence of Islamophobic thoughts and behaviors in the West is the changing demographic structure of Europe. According to the 2016 statistics, 56.52 million people, or 7.66% of the European population, are Muslims [8]. The fertility rate of ethnic Europeans is lower than Muslims, the growing number of Muslims among the younger generation in Europe, and regular arrival of new Muslim migrants to the continent causes rapid increase in the number of Muslims in Europe. These figures related to the demographic structure of Europe are likely to result in unexpected outcomes in the future. Western people consider this situation as a threat. The second and third generations of Muslims have begun to be strengthened economically, tobe represented in important state structures with a quality education they received, and to preserve their rights. The perception of this situation as economic, religious and political challenge and potential danger causes Islamophobic reactions.

Muammar Gaddafi's speech in 2006, There are signs that Allah will grant Islam victory in Europe - without swords, without guns, without conquests. The 50 million Muslims of Europe will turn it into a Muslim continent within a few decades» [Gaddafi, 2006]. Even though it seems exaggerated, there are numbers of people fearing that it can happen in Europe. One of them, Bernard Lewis, a well-known Islamic scholar, said in an interview with German Die Welt that «Europe and the West will be part of the Arab world and Maghrib». «If the trends such as late marriage of Europeans and the low birthrate, the tendency of Muslims to migrate continues, most European people will be Muslims at the end of the 21st century» [12]. image islam radical party

Theological reasons - It is a fact that religious intolerance is an important part of the societies in the Middle Ages in the West as well as in Byzantium [20, p. 357]. Writers like Robert Spencer, the author of many anti-Islamism works, point out that the signs of jihad in the Quran prove that Islam is a religion of war and violence and that the source of the terror of Islam is derived from the Quran [19, p. 57, 67, 85]. Such a perception helps to increase Islamophobia and Islam's hostility.

Psychological Reasons - People who remember Islam or Muslim concepts continuously in the media, such as terrorism, bombing, violence and events, when they later hear Islam and Muslim concepts, remember the events of bloodshed, violence, and bombing, which have taken place in their minds and that causes fears and anger towards Muslims.

Influence of media on the rise of Islamophobia

The role of media and politics in shaping the negative image of Islam in the West is undeniable. In the Western media, «The Devil's Verses», «Cartoon Crisis», and others can be considered as examples of a negative image of Islam and Prophet Muhammad. If any false information is constantly repeated, afterwardspeople accept it as a truth. As a result of the mention of Islam and Muslims' together with terrorist attacks, violence, and crime, the individual has acknowledged these perceptions equally and supposedIslam and Muslims as a cause of terror and violence. In this sense, standing out the negative attitudes of Muslim migrants in the Western media has led to the formation of existing anti-Islamism, placement and crystallization in the collective subconsciousness. Indeed, in a 2006 report by the EUMC (European Racism and Trafficking Monitoring Center), it is stated that the media is extremely effective in the perception of Islam and muslim and the formation of Islamophobia [5]. «All Muslims are not terrorists», said US-based Brian Kilmeade in his speech. But all the terrorists are Muslims» [15, p. 83]. Although the words are not based on reality, the inclusion of these words in the religious textbooks in state schools in Denmark shows how much media influence.

Without knowing any Muslim, many Americans' ideas about Islam are as a result of television, radio, Internet, and violent action movies. Time magazine conducted a poll in 2010, it turned out that the media had a very significant impact on the Islamic opposition. Of the Americans who surveyed, 62% said they did not meet any Muslim in their lives. Recognizing Islam as a religion of violencein the written and visual media influnces on thosewho do not have enough knowledge about Islam and causes spreading Islamophobia. Large-budget Hollywood films such as The Iron Eagle, in the 80s and 90s», True Lies» and «The Siege» were loaded people's mind with messages of Muslims terrorizing, reflecting the attacks of Muslim terrorists on America.

State-funded media make contribution the spreading of stereotypes of being muslims «violent», «terrorist», «jihadist», «sexist», «aggressive», «non- civil», «two-faced» and generally as a threat to European and Christian values. Strengthening of the right-wing media and social media hate speech even more normalized.

Attacks - Attacks on the World Trade Center on 11 September 2001 in the United States and London Metro attacks on July 7, 2005 increased hatred and hostility against Muslims and Islamaphobia in Europe and America. Following these attacks, Islam has been associated with terrorism, anti-Islamic campaigns have been launched in the United States and in many European countries.

Internal causes of Islamophobia

It is possible to say that modern Islamophobia is more oriented toward Muslim identity than Islam. The elements of Islam include mosques, minarets, Islamic schools, religious education, imams, halal food, cemetery, hijab [13]. The Europeans who see these elements frequently in everyday life are perceived as a threat to their own lifestyle.

There are also some points that Muslims have caused the emergence of Islamophobia. The most important of these is the lack of communication between Muslims and Europeans on the basis of language problems. Especially the reluctance of language learning among the first-generation migrants, the limited knowledge of linguistics as well as the religious background make the negative impact on the relationship between Muslims and Europeans. The fear of losing faith, culture and identity is found not only in the first-generation migrants of socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds, but also in second-and third-generation migrants working as professors.

Thus, Muslims' indifference to the language and culture of non-Western societies, and therefore the problem of communication or non-communication, despite the fact that living Western societies for a long time, Muslims' reluctance to be organized and represent themselves arethe reasons that depend on Muslims. As you can see, Muslims are not innocent in the rise of Islamophobia.

However, Michael O'Flaherty, director of the European Foundation for Human Rights (ODIHR), stated that the European Union's Minorities and Discrimination Survey finds no evidence of Muslims' integration into European societies. On the contrary, the survey showed that Muslims' confidence in

European democratic institutions was higher than the general population. Moreover, Oflaherti notes that «any discrimination and hate crimes hinder the inclusion of Muslims in society and reduce their chances of finding employment» [6].

But most European states do not have official documents of hate crimes against Muslims. Civil society's attempts to assess the current situation of Muslims in Europe are rising. There are many organizations in Spain, such as Observatorio de la Islamofobia en los Medios, working to increase hate crimes against Muslims. Norwegian justice system have been taken positive steps in order to monitor cases of hate or discrimination against Muslims. The German Federal Police also took its first important institutional step in order to fight Islamophobia: for the first time Islamophobia was included in one category of hate crimes.

Conclusion. Nowadays Islamophobia is a serious problem for Europe at least for four reasons:

First, Islamophobia seriously affects the lives of millions of Muslims in Europe, facing racism in the university, at work, in public and in other areas. This racism, along with the threat to the physical lives of Muslims, undermines their place in society and the sense of belonging to Europe.

Second, the rise of Islamophobia reflects and strengthens the radical right-wing course in the political spectrum across Europe. Within a few months, neo-fascist parties entered the German Bundestag and the strategic ministries in Austria and gained historic victories in the French, Dutch and Italian elections.

Third, Islamophobia creates a domestic security problem for increasing tensions between societies, legitimization of hate crimes against individuals and violation of EU peace and unity ideals.

Finally, Islamophobia is an obstacle to European international relations, as it damages the EU's image of tolerance recognized all over the world and increases the tension between certain EU strategic partners, including Muslim countries.

It is important to fight Islamophobia at national and regional levels, but not enough. Therefore, the fight against Islamophobia should first of all be implemented at the European level and then at the level of international organizations. In this regard, coordination between different NGOs and the involvement of institutions such as the European Union, the Council of Europe, the OSCE and the UN are important. In the EU level, some initial steps have been taken in 2017, but it is still a long way to resolve the problem.

Unlike our historic experiences, the fact that Europeans not having the culture of co-existence, creates problems with the increase in the number of Muslims there. The existence of Islam and Muslims in Europe is undeniable, and almost Islam is now at Europe and Europeans. Protecting the rights of minorities, including circumcision, religious clothing or symbols, are essential to diverse Europe. Although there is no multicultural past and experience, Europe should recognize multiculturalism and differences and learn to live with it.

References

1. Cesari, J., 2006. `Securitization and Religious Divides in Europe-Muslims in Western Europe After 9/11: Why the Term Islamophobia is More a Predicament than an Explanation', Submission to the Changing Landscape of Citizenship and Security 6th PCRD of European Commission iзinde (s.5-48).

2. EUMC Raporu, 2006. `Avropa Birligi' nde Mьslьmanlar: Ayrimcilik ve islamofobi', Viyana, 18 aralik 2006. http: // fra. europa.eu/fra/ materail/pub/muslim/EUMC-highlights-TR/pdf

3. Field, C., 2012. `Revisiting Islamophobia in Contemporary Britain', 2007-10, M. Helbling (Ed.), Islamophobia in the WestMeasuring and Explaining Individual Atttitudesiзinde (s.147-161), London: Routledge.

4. Haja, Mohideen, Shamimah, Mohideen. `The Language of islamaphobia in internet Articles', intellectual Discourse, Cilt 16, No1, s.73.

5. Huntington, S., 1993. `The Clash of Civilizations', Foreign Affairs, 72 (3), 22-49

6. Lewis, Bernard, 2004. `Europa Wird Am Ende Des Jahrunderts Islamisch Sein', Die Welt, July 28, Interview with Bernard Lewis.

7. Maussen, M., 2007. `The Governance of islam in Western Europe', IMISCOE Working Paper, June.

8. Moreno, Leora, 2010. `Fearing the Future: Islamophobia in Central Europe', Genocide And Oppression, TNP Autumn.

9. Saedi, G., 2013. `Islamophobia Grew Following 9/11', Dedria Bryfonski, (Ed.), Islamophobia iзinde, Detroit: Greehaven.

10. Shaheen, Jack, 2012. `The Making of the `Green Menace'', The Nation, July 2/9.

11. Spencer, Robert, 2007. `A Religion of Peace?: Why Christianity Is and Islam Isn't', Regnery Publishing.

12. Stanton, Graham N., Guy G. Stroumsa, 1998. `Tolerance and Intolerance in Early Judaism and Christianity', Cambridge University Press.

13. Uzun, Nihat, 2012. `Avrupa'da islamofobi', Pinar Yayinlari, istanbul. Zafar, iqbal, 2010. `Understanding islamaphobia; Conceptualizing and Measuring the Construct', Europan Journal of Social Sciences, Vol.13, Number 4, s.575.

Abstract

The article is dedicated to the essence and the causes of format-ion of islamophobia. The reasons arising from West and at the same time the moments depending on muslimstowards the formation of image of Islam in Europe is reviewed in the article.

The article also emphasize that mass media plays extremely effective role in the creation of the concept of islam and Muslim and the formation of Islamophobia in Western society, as well as radicalist, nationalist political parties and organization having great impact on the spreading of negative picture of Islam.

Keywords: Islam, islamophobia, the image of islam in the West, discrimination, racism, prejudice.

Стаття присвячена характеру і причин утворення Ісламофобії. Крім причин які формулюють негативний імідж Ісламу в Європі в статті так само розглядаються сформульовані і залежні від мусульман моменти.

У статті також згадується важлива роль засобів масової інформації в створенні сприйняття Ісламу в Західному суспільстві, а так само про роль радикалів, партії націоналістів у створенні і розповсюдженні негативного образу Ісламу.

Ключові слова: Іслам, Ісламофобія, імідж Ісламу в Європі, дискримінація, расизм, упередження.

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