The idea of god as a religious and political factor of the unification of the jewish ethnos

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THE IDEA OF GOD AS A RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL FACTOR OF THE UNIFICATION OF THE JEWISH ETHNOS

Georgyi Khliebnikov

Candidate of Philosophical Sciences, Head of the Center of Scientific Information Studies in the Humanities, INION RAN (Moscow, Russia)

Viacheslav Stepanov

Candidate of Philosophical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Philosophy, History and Socio-Humanitarian disciplines, SHEI “Donbas State Pedagogical University” (Sloviansk, Ukraine)

Petrenko Anastasia

Postgraduate student of the Department of Philosophy, History and Socio-humanitarian disciplines Donbass State Pedagogical University (Slavyansk, Ukraine) 

Abstract

The article deals with the investigation of specifics of understanding of God in Judaism in the 21^st century. The authors consider such issues as the image of God, problems of interaction of God with His creations, and the whole Universe. The Torah and the Bible are used as the materials for the study.

As the result of the study, it has been concluded that God in Judaism is understood as the eternal one: He lives forever, without beginning and end, He is who was, exists, and will exist. It is worth adding that in modern Judaism explanations of the issues, connected with the divine, are realized due to the last scientific achievements. In other words, in the 21^st century, Judaism explains the divine through the scientific.

Keywords: God; Judaism; Midrash; Kabbalah; Zohar; created world; eternity; vacuum; Rambam; Ramban.

Анотація

Ідея бога як релігійно-політичний чинник об'єднання єврейського етносу. Георгій Хлєбніков, кандидат філософських наук, завідувач відділом філософії Центру гуманітарних науково-інформаційних досліджень ІНІОНРАН. Вячеслав Степанов. кандидат філософських наук, доцент кафедри філософії, історії та соціально-гуманітарних дисциплін, Донбаський державний педагогічний університет. Петренко Анастасія, аспірантка кафедри філософії, історії та соціально-гуманітарних дисциплін Донбаський державний педагогічний університет

Стаття присвячена дослідженню особливостей розуміння ідеї Бога як релігійно-політичного чинника об'єднання єврейського етносу в іудаїзмі у XXI столітті. Автори розглядають такі питання, як образ Бога, проблеми взаємодії Бога з Його творіннями та цілим Всесвітом. В якості матеріалів для вивчення були використані Тора, Біблія. В результаті дослідження було зроблено висновок, що Бог в іудаїзмі розуміється як вічний: Він живе вічно, Він не має початку і не має кінця, Він є тим, хто був, існує і буде існувати. Варто додати, що в сучасному іудаїзмі пояснення питань, пов'язаних з божественним, реалізується завдяки останнім науковим досягненням. Іншими словами, у XXI столітті іудаїзм пояснює божественне через наукове.

Ключові слова: Бог; Іудаїзм; Мідраш; Кабала; Зохар; створений світ; вічність; вакуум; Рамбам; Рамбан.

god judaism creation universe

Аннотация

Идея бога как религиозно-политический фактор объединения еврейского этноса. Георгий Хлебников кандидат философских наук, заведующий отделом философии Центра гуманитарных научно-информационных исследований ИНИОН РАН. Вячеслав Степанов кандидат философских наук, доцент кафедры философии, истории и социально-гуманитарных дисциплин Донбасский государственный педагогический университет. Петренко Анастасия аспирантка кафедры философии, истории и социально-гуманитарных дисциплин Донбасский государственный педагогический университет

Статья посвящена исследованию особенностей понимания идеи Бога как религиозно-политического фактора объединения еврейского этноса в иудаизме XXI ст. Авторы рассматривают такие вопросы, как образ Бога, проблемы взаимодействия Бога с Его творениями и Вселенной. В качестве материалов для изучения были использованы Тора, Библия. В результате исследования был сделан вывод, что Бог в иудаизме понимается как вечный: Он живет вечно, Он не имеет начала и не имеет конца, Он является тем, кто был, есть и будет существовать. Стоит добавить, что в современном иудаизме объяснение вопросов, связанных с божественным, реализуется благодаря последним научным достижениям. Иными словами, в XXI веке иудаизм объясняет божественное через научное.

Ключевые слова: Бог, иудаизм; мидраш; кабала; Зохар; создан мир; вечность; вакуум; Рамбам; Рамбан.

Introduction

How do rabbis see God in Judaism in the 21st century? How is His image characterized and broadcasted in the media by modern educated followers of this one of the most ancient religions in the world? How does Judaism interpret the emergence of the world? What is the relationship between God and a man in modern times? And what changes (if any) can be seen in the 21^st century compared, for example, with the 20^th one?

The purpose of the study

For a believer, the main statements, postulates of his religion are the basis of a worldview. Thus, these and similar, not idle questions, constitute the main problem area of this article.

Statement of the main material

Let us start with a seemingly simple one:

Does God have a body? And who is God in Judaism? According to Rav Reuven Kukin, God has no body. Rambam, in particular, writes that such expressions in the Torah, as "the hand of the Lord", or "the feet of God", or "the eyes of the Lord", and the like are metaphorical images, allegories. The necessity in such allegories is caused by the necessity to adapt saint narration to the level of people's understanding, based on categories of physical, material bodies. So, the Torah speaks by the language of people. It makes all incomprehensible and anthropomorphic more human, gives it forms and actions inherent to the human language (Reuven Kuklin, 2020).

R. Kuklin indicates that people do not have a real opportunity to understand the true nature of God, since they are limited by the capabilities of the human body, its final submissions, the limitations of its concepts and ideas, while the essence of the Creator is not limited by anything. Therefore a person has no way to understand this. As authoritative evidence of this impossibility, the words of the prophet Eliyahu are quoted in prayer (Tikunei Zohar 17, 1): “Lord worlds ... You are the Most High over all the higher. You are the Incomprehensible of all incomprehensible, thought is unable to comprehend you” (quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2020). The quotation emphasis the thought of the best man is unable to understand the Creator! Therefore, probably, every human judgment about Him should be treated with a mental reservation-correction on the finiteness of this judgment about something otherwise.

Therefore, the only knowledge about the Creator is knowledge and representations associated with the relationship of the Creator to His creatures. In other words, it is always the uncompleted knowledge. Among such views, the following may be defined:

--the eternity of the Creator;

--His independence from others (things and beings);

--His unity and wholeness (He is not divided into parts);

--His oneness and uniqueness (He is one in the whole world, and there is no one but Him),

--His perfection and fullness (He is perfect in all kinds of perfection, His perfection hasn't any flaws or defects).

In the book, Adir ba-Marom Ramkhal writes the following: “When we talk about the Creator, we, of course, have in mind is not its essence, but only his deeds" (quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2020).

Similarly, Vilna Gaon writes in a commentary on the Zohar: “This is the great principle that we are forbidden to think of His essence, but only how He is revealed to us in His affairs” (quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2020).

At the same time, God does not change with the times and does not depend on time. Rambam (Moreh Nevuhim 2, 30) writes that time was created by the Creator, it did not exist always. Vilna Gaon writes the same in comments on the Torah.

Moreover, the entire world created by the Lord does not exist on its own, and the Lord constantly maintains its existence. On the other hand, the Creator does not depend on the world. The Torah clearly says: "There is nothing but Him" (Devarim 4, 35). And Rambam explains that what is meant here: “the existence of all that exists, apart from Him, is not absolutely” (quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2020). Thus, God is the supreme power that was created the world and has always supported its existence. And He has no body. At the same time, the Creator knows all that there is in worlds. Nevertheless, the absolute knowledge of the Creator is not contrary to the concept of freedom and choice. The Jewish sages said (Pirkei Avot 3:15): “All is foreseen but freedom of choice is given” (quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2020).

The unity of God is that God is one and He is not divided into parts. His integrity is illustrated by the unambiguous words of Rambam: “This God is one, not two, and no more than two, but one, and there is no other unity in the world like His unity. He is not as one as a combination of many elements, and not like a body, which has parts and edges; but as the unity which has no analogs in the world” (quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2020). This integrity of God is represented in the Jews' famous prayer “Shema Yisroel ..”: “Hear O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is One". Jews repeat these words, this prayer twice a day, emphasizes the unity and integrity of God.

At the same time, Ramhal in the book "Daat Tvunot" writes that “when we say that the Holy is One, ... it is not enough to understand that He alone possesses absolute existence ... and there is no creator but Him. We must also understand that there is no other sovereign or ruler of the world and all creatures, except him, and there is no one who could prevent him, and there are no obstacles to His will. Believes in the unity of the Creator must believe that for Him there are no obstacles and no one able to resist Him under any guise and from any side ... There is no one under him, who would have the power in the world, no rulers or other authority... Moreover, He himself directly controls all created, everything that happens in the world happens by His will, and by His hands, not by chance, not by the laws of nature or fate. He himselfjudges all the earth and everything on it and decides everything that happens in the upper and lower worlds, up to the lowest step of Creation” (quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2020).

Speaking about the Name of God, R. Kuklin emphasizes that the name is a definition, an expression of the essence, defined concept. Since the essence of God people cannot understand, nevertheless, they can't determine, therefore, the Almighty has no proper name. There is no "self-designation", so all His names are not associated with Him, and His works, which are open to people (Sh Shemot Rabbah, 3). On Moses's question about His name, the Creator answered: “Sometimes they call me God Almighty (Kel Shakai), [sometimes] the Lord of Hosts (Ha- Shem Tzvaot), [sometimes] Gd (Elokim), [sometimes] Yud- Kay-Vav-Kay (a-Shem, the four-letter unpronounceable Name of the Almighty). When I judge my creations, my name is God, when I go to war against those who violate my law, my name is the Lord of Hosts, and when I surcharge for a man sins, my name is God Almighty. But when I have mercy on My world, I am called Adoy-noah, because this Name means the property of mercy (Shemot 34, 6): Ha-Shem, God compassionate”.

Therefore, the Lord answered Moshe: “I am who called (that is, I will be what I will be at that time) according to my deeds I am called” (quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2020).

However, R. Kuklin notes that one name of God is still received in the sacred books of a more specific expression. This is the "proper name ", although, of course, the name does not say about the nature of God (it is impossible to define). This is the four-letter name “Yud-Kay-Vav-Kay”. Vilna Gaon says: this Name indicates that “the Most High exists eternally and He is unchanging. This Name indicates the fundamental difference between Him and the entire created world: all creatures exist only because such was His will, but He Himself does not depend on anyone and exists forever. Religious Jews do not pronounce it the way it is written “Yud-Kay-Vav-Kay” but they say Adoynoah (the Lord), demonstrating respect for God.

At the same time, knowledge (but not belief in) about the existence of God, writes R. Kuklin, is the basis of Judaism. Or, as Rambam writes (Laws of the Foundations of the Torah, 1: 1): “The cornerstone and pillar of wisdom is the knowledge that there is the Primordial Being, and He is aware of everything that exists and all creatures in heaven and on earth, and between them do not exist except in the power of his true existence"(quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2020). So, it is important to know, once again Kuklin emphasizes, that the Jewish religion is not based on faith, but knowledge: “Know therefore this day, and consider it in thine heart, that the Lord He is God in heaven above and upon the earth beneath: there is none else " (Devarim 4, 39). As it is written in the text: "know", not "believe.". The truth of the existence of God according to the Torah can be proved by using arguments of reason, so there is no need for blind faith. As Rambam writes (Laws about the foundations of the Torah, 8: 1): “The sons of Israel did not believe Moshe because of the signs that he had made ... but because of what did they believe him? On mountain Sinai, they saw with their eyes and heard with their ears fire, voices, and torches. And he entered the fog, and a voice spoke to him, and we heart: “Moshe, Moshe, go tell them the following..." (quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2020).

The usual objection of the materialists is refuted as follows: Who created God? Answering this question, the rabbi, first of all, stresses that between the Creator and His creation there is a fundamental difference: God who created the entire vast universe, of which we have an idea of being, is definitely not material. The one who decided that he will represent time and matter is not limited by them himself. He preceded the universe and existed without the slightest need for time and space. How do we know that everything must have a creator? Answering this question, Daniel Blas shows that everything that has boundaries, created by someone, has its reason: “everything that has a limit should have a preliminary cause that determines its properties; otherwise it would not be created in such way. Actually, the question of why this is so, and not something else, as evidenced by its creator" (quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2020).

The fact of the existence of the entire universe in which we live, its quantitative limitations, and dependence on natural laws that determine its form, its properties testify to the Creator who preceded the universe and set its boundaries. However, it can't be applied to the Creator of this reality, because God has no form! If God has a form or boundaries, like all creatures, He would have hands and legs, then it would be logical to ask: who created Him, who limited in shape and size, who established that He would have two arms and two legs, and so on. But God by definition is infinite. He has no body, no semblance of a body, no size or quantity because He is not material. And since He is the Creator of matter, space, and time, He qualitatively different from anything that has boundaries.

This is a real infinity that exists everywhere and at any time, as The Zohar says: "There is no place free from her." (Tikunei Zohar, 122: 2). That is, there is no place where there would be no God ” (quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2020). But God Himself does not depend on the universe and precedes any form of material existence reality. And since God is not material, He has no boundaries. Since He is not limited, He does not need boundaries either. Therefore, He is infinite (Ein Sof), He is the reason of all the reasons of any other reality exists. What does really "eternal" mean, and what else can we say about Him? And Daniel Blas points out the important difference, a common misconception about the eternity of God. "Eternal" does not mean in this case, "very long", as it may seem erroneous. Time is measured in movement and changes. Therefore, the true meaning of the word "eternal" is “unchanging, existing forever in the same state without movement and changes "(quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2020). God does not age, does not grow, and does not decreases, does not move from place to place, like our universe. It is more correctly say about him: His reality exists and will always exist in a statically an eternal state without time. This is why He is eternal: He lives forever, without beginning and end, He is who was, exists, and will exist. As mentioned in Jewish prayers: “Sovereign of the Universe, who ruled all beings before the creation ... He will be always forever in His splendor. And He is the One and there is no (such) other, and there is no one who would be compared with Him and become like Him. He has no beginning or end. He is Almighty, and His strength belongs to him. He is my God, my eternally living Redeemer, the bulwark of my fate in an hour of troubles ... Unknowable, Immutable, Inseparable, Indivisible, Great in strength and might ... ” (quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2021a).

But then God can leave a man and why?

Rabbi Reuven Kuklin, considering this problem, quotes the following text from the Torah: “If you do not get my edification, and walk with me inconsistently; then I will walk with you impermanent... " (Blas, 2020). The scientist underlines that these words of the Torah formulate the important rule: the Creator behaves with a person in the same way as a person behaves with Him. Prophet Azarya referring to King Asaclearly defines this principle as follows: (Divrei ha-Yamim 2, 15: 2): “The Lord is with you when you are with Him; and if you seek Him, you will find Him; if you leave Him, He will forsake you ” (quoted from Blas, 2020).

When a person constantly remembers the Creator and relies on Him, then the Creator "shows" himself; thus, a Jew who trusts in the Almighty clearly sees the Divine providence, "the hand of the Lord", which guides Him in everything along the path of life. If a person leaves the Lord, does not seek Him, and does not want closeness to Him, then the Lord "leaves" this Jew. Although the Creator continues to observe and rule over him, this rule is no longer obvious, it is hidden. Such a person cannot see "the hand of the Lord", it seems to him that his whole life is in the hands of chance and arbitrariness.

Continuing his addressing King Asa, the same prophet Azarya: “And Israel will have many days without the true God, without the guidance of a priest and the Torah. But they will turn in their need to God, the God of Israel, and they will seek Him, and He will be revealed to them” (quoted from Blas, 2020). Vilna Gaon, in a commentary on the book Divrei ha-Yamim, writes that here the prophet means the time of exile when Jews will wander in the countries of the diaspora. Despite the depressing spiritual situation of the Jews these days, the prophet promises them that if they turn to the Creator, He will open to them. Moreover, the Creator never finally leaves the Jews and always provides an opportunity to return to Him. And this is what the Torah reports (Leviticus 26:44): “Yet despite this, when they are in the land of their enemies, I will not reject them or abhor them to destroy them completely, breaking my covenant with them. I am the LORD their God” (quoted from Blas, 2020). It is argued that at whatever low spiritual level the Jews were, no matter how they descend, the Lord does not reject His covenant with them, and He is waiting for their return.

Returning to the question of the existence of God, we must say that the seemingly "scientific" and increasingly accurate explanations of how our universe arose don't satisfy everyone. Scientists and schoolers are looking for other, possibly more understandable, explications. One of such explanations is offered by traditional religions, including the most ancient among them. Judaism, in my opinion, without denying data of modern science, gives them interesting rational interpretations within the framework of their traditional foundations and general concepts. The problem of the creation of the world nowadays is considered by the modern authoritative rabbi D. Blas.

The rabbi writes: “I recently read in an article that God has created the entire Universe from primary matter and that it was smaller than the head of a pin. It seems impossible that the star can fit on the tip of the pin. And even more -- all Universe! This is impossible to comprehend by the mind. And if such a thing cannot be imagined, then it is all the more difficult for me to understand what happened before the Universe and what it means: there was nothing? Maybe there was some kind of vacuum or darkness?” (quoted from Reuven Kuklin, 2021a).

D. Blas confirms: "Brief scientific answer: yes, it was so!". “Science has revealed that all galaxies are gradually moving away from each other, which means that in the past all-stars, that is, all the mass in the universe was concentrated in one tiny point, which is smaller than a pinhead. Ramban described this about 800 years ago in his commentary on the first verse of the book Bereshit, explaining that the Lord created the world from "Ain" - a certain primary pra-matter. Modern science has designated this super-dense foremother as a special point".

The fact that all solid materials are composed of very small particles - atoms that move with an incredibly huge speed. This movement creates, in his words, the illusion of volume, size, and forms. An atom consists of a nucleus made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons, which are extremely fast-moving around it. But this nucleus in an atom is so small, says the rabbi, that it can be compared to an ant on a football field. So the whole focus is the rapid movement of electrons around the nucleus. So, if all the particles in the universe stopped moving for a moment, they were again able to fit in the volume of a pinhead, the expert believes. Further, science has proven that the entire universe once arose at a certain moment. Time, but did not always exist, which means that before the Universe there was no matter, no time, no space - nothing. There was no universe, so there was no space either. This idea is very difficult for understanding and even unthinkable because human imagination is based on specific sensations of the five senses. As an example, rabbi D. Blas suggests thinking about a vacuum. When the bag is filled with air, it contains a connection of gases, when you remove all air from it, its particles immediately connect, and what forms between them is called a vacuum - lack of space.

Conditionally, we can say that before the Universe there was a state of absolute vacuum - empty of all matter, space and movement, the rabbi concludes. And even if it is impossible to imagine it, this idea is perceived by our mind. When matter does not exist, then there are no changes. Nothing is fixed, a condition that has no cause and effect, because there is nothing that would cause a change or modification. Nothing is very easy to understand. This is an absence of matter and movement. Therefore, the emergence of the Universe, according to D. Blas, testifies to a Creator who preceded it and He was not limited by any limitations of matter and time. Since before there was no matter or energy in the Universe, hence the evidence that the one who created the Universe was not created from either matter or energy. In other words, its reality is not material, it is supernatural. Since before there was no space in the Universe, hence it follows that the One who created the Universe doesn't need space to exist. In other words, His reality has no material boundaries, it is infinite. And He is everywhere. Before the universe there was neither matter nor space, no distance, therefore, the One who created the Universe has no boundaries and divisions. His existence is infinite and limitless, in other words, He is absolute. Before the Universe there was no movement and flow of time (past, present, or the future), hence, the One who created the Universe does not depend on the "fourth" dimension - time. For the Creator, there is no movement and change, in other words, He is eternal. There are laws of nature in the Universe that arose together with matter from nothing - ex nihilo. This pattern organizes all materials in the universe into the infinitely difficult mathematical level. Hence, He, who created the Universe, conceived His laws to be logically justified, that is wisely and purposefully.

If we ask people from all over the world what the word "God" means, most likely they will answer: God is the creator of the world, He is not material, Infinite, Eternal, Absolute, Supreme Power, Wise with incomparable wisdom. Thus, it turns out that creations testify to their Creator and give a clear understanding of the existence of God. Thus, Judaism in the 21st century successfully justifies the concept of a non- anthropomorphic God of the Old Testament, using modern sciences (physics, cosmology, etc.) as arguments.

The concept and ideas about God change from era to era: although the idea of God as the creator and ruler of the Universe has crystallized with sufficient clarity in the Bible. At the same time, it is worth taking attention to the factors identified in the different stages of development of this idea:

1) God of the family is an authentic concept; it is not reconstructed based on the beliefs of previous generations. And it belongs to the era described in the cycle stories about the patriarchs in the book of Genesis (the first half of the 2nd millennium BC). This idea played a very significant role in the development of the concept of the Creator. God of the family is in constant connection with the head of the clan.

2) The name of the head of the clan becomes an epithet for the name of God himself: for example, "God of Abraham", "God of Isaac" and "God of Jacob".

3) God concludes a treaty with the head of the clan and

4) distinguishes this genus from among all other genera

Various names and self-names of God, their meaning in stories dating back to biblical times. According to the biblical text (Exodus 6: 3), God named Yahweh opened to Moses firstly (Exodus 3: 13-14). The identity of God of the family and Yahweh is emphasized in this revelation and is one of the most important elements of the proclamation of the forthcoming liberation of the people from Egyptian slavery. So, the Jews were slaves, Pharaoh's slaves.

The Bible uses several palliative names for God. The most common of these is El, the oldest Semitic designation. The name meets Acadian or Canaan “ale” and Arabic “il” as a part of a proper name. It is believed that this term developed from the root `yl' or `wl'. It means "to be powerful". El is the head of all gods in the Canaanite pantheon. It was an archaic concept and already in the time of Moses. In the Bible, `ale' is rarely mentioned as the name of God, it almost always occurs as a common noun. Therefore, it may be preceded by a certain article: Ha-El - “this (real) God” (for example, Psalter 18:31, 33, 48; 57: 3).

Sometimes `ale' is used with some kind of epithet, for example, El-Elion. The word Elion in Hebrew means 'superior, upper'. Applied to God, it can be translated as Almighty. Then, El `olam' is the Eternal God (Gen. 21:33). El Shaddai - etymologically derived from concepts related to fertility. In Akkadian, this combination means "god of the mountains." In the Jewish tradition is the word Shaddai is interpreted as Almighty. But this is just a cultural tradition, Shaddai is a demon, spirit, angel, etc.

Conclusions

Thus, the conclusions may be formulated as the followings:

1) God has no body;

2) The entire world created by the Lord; the Creator does not depend on the world;

3) He is eternal: He lives forever, without beginning and end, He is who was, exists, and will exist;

4) There are several palliative names for God in the Bible.

References

1. Reuven Kuklin. God. URL: https://imrey.org/tag/god/ (date of access: 03/05/2020). [In Russian].

2. Reuven Kuklin. Who is God in Judaism. URL: https://imrey.org/who-such-god-with-judaism/ (date of access: 03/05/2021). [In Russian].

3. Blas D. Who created God. URL:file: ///C:/U sers/user 1 /Desktop/Г .Х/Как%20Вселенная%20доказыва ет%20существование%20Бога%20-%20Имрей%20Ноам.html (date of access: 03/05/2020). [In Russian].

4. Reuven Kuklin Whom God leaves to fend for themselves. URL: https://imrey.org/who-god-is-for-will-fate/ (date of access: 03/05/2020). [In Russian].

5. God URL:HTTPS://ELEVEN.CO.IL/JUDAISM/THEOLOGY/10682/#0101 (date of access: 03/05/2020). [In Russian].

6. Monotheism. URL: https://eleven.co.il/judaism/theology/(date accessed: 05/01/2020). [In Russian].

Список використаних джерел

1. Реувен Куклин. Бог. URL: https://imrey.org/tag/бог/(дата обращения: 03.05.2020).

2. Реувен Куклин. Кто такой Бог в иудаизме. URL: https://imrey.org/кто-такой-бог-в-иудаизме/ (дата обращения: 03.05.2020).

3. Блас Д. Кто создал Бога. URL: file:///C:/Users/user1/Desktop/Г.Х/Как%20Вселенная%20доказывает% 20существование%20Бога_%20-%20Имрей%20Ноам. html (дата обращения: 03.05.2020).

4. Реувен Куклин. Кого Бог оставляет на произвол судьбы. URL: https ://imrey. org/кого -бог-оставляет-на-произвол-судьбы/ (дата обращения: 03.05.2020).

5. Бог URL: https://eleven.co.Il/judaism/theology/10682/#0101 (дата обращения: 03.05.2020).

6. Монотеизм. URL: https://eleven.co.il/judaism/theology/ (дата обращения: 01.05.2020).

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