Generalists in Modern Organizations: Theoretical Review

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Generalists in Modern Organizations: Theoretical Review

Natalia L. Ivanova

Anna V. Klimova

National Research University «Higher School of Economics», Moscow, Russian Federation

Warren Thorngate

The Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada

Abstract

generalist professional organization

Generalists in Modern Organizations: Theoretical Review

Natalia L. Ivanova

Anna V. Klimova

National Research University «Higher School of Economics», Moscow, Russian Federation

Warren Thorngate

The Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada

In the present article we analyze the current problem of modern organizations, which is associated with an increase in interest in the so-called professionals -- generalists compared with specialists, interest in comparison of professions from the position of the complexity and the depth of tasks that their representatives solve. On the example of three case studies of professions that are considered as generalists in organizations and society, the specifics of the activities, professional training and careers of their representatives are shown. We also identify reasons why organizations need these specialists, as well as problems associated with their status, their duties and communications. Three types of generalists in the organization are identified, due to the peculiarities of their involvement in solving different goals of the organization and to different career prospects. It is shown that generalists are the most important resource for organizational adaptation to changing external and internal conditions.

Keywords: business psychology, business psychologists, managers, generalists, specialists, professional development, professional training, professional career.

Аннотация

Дженералисты в современных организациях: теоретический обзор

ИВАНОВА Наталья Львовна КЛИМОВА Анна Викторовна

Национальный исследовательский университет «Высшая школа экономики», Москва, Россия

ТОРНГЕЙТ Уорен

Карлтонский университет, Оттава, Канада

Аннотация. В настоящей статье мы анализируем текущие проблемы современных организаций, связанные с возрастающим интересом к так называемым профессионалам «дженералистам», в сравнении с «узкими специалистами», сравнивая профессии с точки зрения сложности занимаемой позиции и глубины задач, решаемых представителями этих профессий. На примере трёх кейс-стади профессий, рассматриваемых как «дженералисты», показана специфика их деятельности, профессиональной подготовки и карьерного развития. Мы указываем причины, почему организациям нужны такие специалисты, а также проблемы, связанные с их статусом, обязанностями и коммуникациями. Выделены три типа «дженералистов» в организациях, в зависимости от степени их вовлечённости в реализацию различных целей организации и различных карьерных перспектив. Показано, что «дженералисты» являются наиболее важным ресурсом, обеспечивающим адаптацию организации к меняющемся внешним и внутренним условиям.

Ключевые слова: бизнес-психология, менеджеры, специалисты, «дженералисты», профессиональное развитие, профессиональная подготовка, профессиональная карьера.

Introduction

Background of the problem

At all times, organizational effectiveness depends on the knowledge, experience, professionalism of all employees: managers and subordinates, organizers and performers, permanent and temporary, etc. Organizations require people who know their job well and share the values and goals of the organization. The current socio-economic conditions of business and management in Russia are characterized by dynamism, uncertainty, and turbulence (Andreev, Sinelnikov, 2008; Morgachev, 2011, etc.). Under these conditions, the role of psychological mechanisms and technologies in the management of human resources is growing (Antonova, Ivanova, Stroh, 2016; Miloradova, 2013). Today, it becomes clear to the leaders of organizations that the effectiveness of their organizations largely depends on the ability of managers and employees, on the one hand, to respond flexibly to changes, and on the other hand, to perform stable tasks efficiently. Organizations, both in the public and business sectors, need people with in-depth knowledge, technology and, at the same time, innovative potential. All this manifests the current trend in the HR policy of organizations associated with the involvement of a team of professionals capable to achieve goals and reach new development prospects. A manifestation of this trend is, in our opinion, a discussion about the roles of specialists and generalists in both business and public organizations.

In the scientific literature, the division of employees into specialists and generalists appears in connection with a request for a system analysis in management. So, S. Optner in the 1960s noted that the request for specialists and generalists reflects the phenomena observed in the business world. The author showed that the growing difference between the role of specialists and the role of generalists in the business world and government institutions is becoming more noticeable. At the same levels of organization, they often perform completely different functions and operations, and play a different role in solving problems. In a technology-saturated world, both specialists and generalists perform vital functions. When solving problems, their functions must be combined, which requires a good connection between specialists and generalists. The necessary connection is established by the rules of problem-solving that determine their actions. Due to deficiencies in the rules, many problems can only be solved by half or is excessively complicated. Professionals need specific data to solve specific problems. Generalists need a wide range of ideas that are useful when considering under-defined problems on a large scale (Optner, 2006, p. 15).

In foreign literature, professionals with a wide profile are most often called generalists; those with a narrow profile are called specialists. But in Russian literature, we can find other terms. So, T. Bazarov notes that a successful modern CEO or manager should be a professional, i.e., (s)he should be ready to perform the functions of an entrepreneur and manager, in addition to a multifunctional technical specialist capable of transdisciplinary synthesis of knowledge (Bazarov, 2006). There is a high need for high-quality training of transprofessionals in the field of business education. Companies working in the field of business education should pass from simple, instrumental, skillful trainings to “new generation” training programs, both in terms of topics and methodology. In this paradigm, it is necessary to educate and train business trainers who are expected to create innovative programs (Bazarov, 2013).

Discussions about the role of narrow and broad professionals in the organization have been going on for a long time. Some scholars consider professionals with wide knowledge to be more valuable. They represent the era of innovation, the domination of an interdisciplinary approach to the new technologies' creation. Others note that without professionals with the knowledge necessary to perform specific tasks, it is impossible to achieve production goals. There are a number of reasons that have led to increased interest of organizations in the comparative analysis of generalists and specialists. These include,

• changes in the range of tasks solved by organizations under the conditions of saving resources and reducing funding for counseling and staff training;

• changes in the management system, the introduction of new technologies, for example, agile-methodology;

• high demand for organizational change and the involvement of all employees in the alternative-search and decision-making;

• high demand for leadership at all levels of management.

All this leads to a high interest in generalists in comparison with narrow specialists. Today in the society, we can note an increase in interest in generalists as people who have a wider range of competencies than others. The demand for training such professionals in Russia is also growing.

At the same time, scholars discuss the possibility of combining the roles of specialist and generalist in the same profession, emphasizing dynamic change of these roles in solving different problems. In our opinion, the analysis of these professional status in modern organizations is important so that young employees can more clearly understand their status and role position, career plan, as well as the nature of their training. In addition, given the complex challenges that modern organizations face, it is important for a person, in order to build a career, to understand how (s)he can integrate specialist or generalist activities. In the present article, we set the task to highlight the most characteristic features of generalists and to show how in modern conditions their formation is carried out and their career is built.

1.Generalists in Research and Practice

In the literature you can find descriptions of professionals -- generalists, starting from the middle of the twentieth century. So it was shown that «a generalist is a career person within the executive branch who by the breadth of his experience and the quality of his mind is competent to deal effectively with complex problems of relationship among agencies or officials and to apply judgment of a high discriminating character to difficult and obstinate problems” (White, 1945).

The Merriam-Webster dictionary gives another definition: a generalist is “a person who knows something about a lot of subjects”. The same dictionary defines a specialist as “a person who has special knowledge and skills relating to a particular job, area of study”. Therefore, generalists have an understanding of a wide range of things in their area of activity, compared to specialists who are the experts in their specific narrow field. A generalist, knowing a broad range of issues, can see a bigger picture and produce ideas and solutions to specific issues and work problems. Overall, generalists tend to have more transferable skills than do specialists. In a fast-changing working environment, transferable skills are becoming increasingly important. Here we speak about such skills as, for example, effective communication, planning, and project management, which help generalists working in different industries and sectors.

All this leads generalists to a very important benefit: career flexibility. As generalists have a broader understanding of things and possess a selection of transferable skills, they also have wider career opportunities. Generalists in their career demonstrate higher mobility between different jobs and industries. Due to the breadth of their skills, they also have flexible roles within organizations. So, we could define a career type of a generalist as a professional career with a trans-professional track, both within and among organizations.

The description above shows that there is no clear understanding of who these generalists are. So, it can be assumed that there are differences in the practice of using such employees in organizations, in describing the requirements for them, in summarizing their experience, etc. Our analysis showed that today we can distinguish several professionals who, in an information environment, are declared to be generalists. But the level of analysis of these positions varies greatly, which allows us to conclude that there is a possible different use of the term “generalist”: from the point of view of a clear professional status or from the point of view of a certain quality of competencies.

It is interesting to note that a number of studies raised the question: Are generalists more innovative than specialists? But the answers to it were carried out using experiments performed on mice (Henke-von der Malsburg, Fichtel, 2018). The question about the role of generalists in organizations remains. In addition, research compares specialists and generalists as professionals of various types. The news's gives the impression that today the greater preference is given to the generalists than do specialists because of their relevance and value for the problems that organizations are trying to solve. Therefore, we set the task of analyzing this rather new and as yet poorly defined type of professional from the perspective of those situations and tasks that they can address in an organization. For this, we turned to several cases of professional activity in a number of modern organizations, in relation to which the term “generalist” is used. Here are some examples.

Example 1. An HR-generalist in the Private Sector

According to the Superjob portal, in the last decade in the labor market, mainly in small and medium-sized companies (up to 100 people), positions of HR generalist are multiplying (2013). Scholars note that among HR specialists are those who specialize in narrow areas (for example, training or motivation) and those who deeply know all areas of HR activity (HR-generalist). Superjob conducted a study related to areas of responsibility, job responsibilities, salaries, and demand for HR-generalist (2013). The areas of responsibility of an HR generalist are, as a rule, considerably wider than those of a regular HR manager, even if the latter leads several HR directions in the company. The HR generalist usually reports directly to the director of the company, not to the functional manager, and is responsible not only for the implementation of the HR policy of the company, but also for its formation and timely adjustment. As a company grows, the number and scale of HR tasks increase, and it becomes impossible for one person to cope with them, then the HR department is formed, and yesterday's HR-generalist becomes the head of the department, delegating to subordinates current duties and focusing on tactical and strategic tasks. Responsibilities of an HR-generalist include:

• organization of an effective personnel selection system: search, selection and adaptation of new employees;

• organization of the system of assessment, motivation, staff training;

• formation of a personnel reserve (staff pool);

• organization of personnel records and maintaining / monitoring personnel records management;

• interaction with outsourcing companies (recruitment agencies, etc.);

• organization / participation in the organization of corporate events;

• maintenance and development of corporate culture;

• monitoring of the labor market;

• optimization of business processes related to the personnel management.

The average salary offer for an HR generalist in Moscow is 80,000 rubles.

Employers are ready to entrust all aspects of personnel activities in the company to specialists with a higher profile or psychological education and with at least two years of experience in the field of personnel management. Applicants need to master the methods of mass and spot selection of personnel, know the labor legislation and personnel records management, have the skills of personnel selection. Applicants for the only HR position in a Moscow company, without work experience, can expect a salary of 50,000 to 58,000 rubles, in St. Petersburg -- from 45,000 to 51,000 rubles, in Krasnoyarsk -- from 35,000 to 40,000 rubles. in Omsk -- from 35,000 to 39,000 rubles.

Career of an HR-generalist

A description of the career of an HR-generalist is provided by N. Pirogova, who has been working in this position at Devvela IT company for more than one year (Pirogova, Huntflow Insight Portal, 2019). N. Pirogova notes that in her experience a request for a generalist came from the current employer, who was looking for a such a professional -- a person who would select the staff and fill out all the necessary documents, organize the training, develop a motivation system, if necessary, and conduct corporate events. She went through a competitive selection and performed a test task, where it was necessary to show herself just as a multifaceted specialist.

Specific responsibilities of N. Pirogova are:

1) search and selection: searching for employees for open positions, arranging interviews, sending and receiving test tasks, issuing feedback and preparing job offers. Monitoring the market, compiling a database of candidates for the future;

2) work with regulatory acts of the company: development of all regulatory acts concerning the work with personnel; developing documents concerning bonuses, the protection of personal data, working with confidential information; formation of internal labor regulations, samples of employment contracts for each position, vacation schedules and so on;

3) HR administration: registration of admission, dismissal, transfers, vacations; communication with government bodies; maintaining personnel records, records in work books, in sick leave; explaining the rules for calculating holidays to employees;

4) internal communications and corporate training: congratulations with birthday; envolvement in the onboarding process for beginners; maintaining a welcome book company; development of the office design together with the designer and team; maintainance of the internal corporate portal and library; organization of corporate training and events for the team.

One day of generalist' work

Mrs. Pirogova described one day as a generalist.

«Most often, I start my day by looking at job sites, checking if someone new and interesting has entered the market. If there are open positions, I work with applications, call up or chat with candidates, make appointments, write feedback and so on. Then I solve the current priority tasks, if necessary, prepare personnel documents for accounting, order certificates, make notes in the employment record books, once a month close the time sheets for all employees.»

Who does an HR-generalist hire?

«Most often these are various IT-specialists: developers, layout designers, testers, project managers. But sometimes other positions appear, recently I found an economist for us, and now the position of a sales manager is at work.»

How is the selection process organized?

«We conduct three-person interviews: the general director, the technical director and me. This allows us to create a certain collegiality of opinions, and even for a candidate such an interview is more comfortable. His technical skills will certainly be appreciated, after all, HR will not be able to do this without special knowledge, and the candidate immediately sees persons making decisions.»

The main thing that N. Pirogova notes about her profession is its multitasking requirements. She notes that it is sometimes difficult to cope with the fact that all tasks are different and they must be done in parallel. It is especially difficult during active employment, since it is necessary to keep a lot of things in mind at the same time. Corresponding with the developers, convincing that we are the team of their dreams, but do not forget about the staffing and pay structure so that all negotiations on wages fit perfectly into it, or adjust if not. At the same time, prepare an offer to the project manager, draw up an employment contract and write down the functional and specifics of the future employee's work, having previously agreed upon it with the management, and do not forget to make sure that the new employee has a convenient workplace.

«Most often, I deal with personnel documents when my head is already full and I want to work with my hands and trivially lay out papers. It is calming.

At the end of each month I have to make a time sheet, make sure that all holidays, sick leaves, certificates of average salary go to accountants and not get lost along the way. Most often, I deal with personnel documents when my head is already full and I want to work with my hands and trivially lay out papers. It is calming.»

What is the busiest season for the generalist? The maximum workload is in the New Year time: negotiations, organization of interviews, which sometimes last until late in the evening, offers, contracts and a constant search for candidates. At the same time, a corporate holiday is being prepared, which includes endless personal negotiations and correspondence by mail, viewing locations, writing a script, choosing contests and ordering gifts for children of employees. In addition, I had to embark on the development of policy on confidential information and work, together with lawyers, on a very important document for the organization. All this comes in addition to the standard tasks of the personnel department before the New Year.

Generalist's mistakes

Trying to be on time, Mrs. Pirogova sometimes can't carefully check the texts, numbers, confuses the channels for sending information, forgets to give urgent information to employees, etc. Sometimes she can't find a common language with the accounting office, lawyers and other services of the company. The career perspectives of HR generalist N. Pirogova sees in becoming an HR business partner or HR-director: “When you get used to fine-tune work for yourself, to organize processes in your own way, then it's not so interesting to switch to a team under the subordination of a leader for some narrow section of work”.

This case demonstrates that the main quality of a generalist is the ability to perform a wide range of work, replacing several specialists. But, at the same time, it can involve losing quality of work and great stress. The need for such an employee arises in situations where a company (as a rule, from the business sphere), for several reasons, wants to replace several employees with one. As a rule, these are employees from one unit, in our case, the HR department. Such units are available in many companies. Their functionality is quite clearly defined and methodologically supported in the form of theoretical approaches and technologies. The problem of the company is to find such a person who can do it at a high level.

Example 2. Generalists in the Public Sector (public servants, managers)

The term “generalist” is used not only speaking about business organization employees, but also employees of public organizations. In particular, it concerns professions in public and municipal administrations. For example, J. Harper showed that in the “open model” of the public administration created in the United Kingdom, about 75% of civil servants can be classified as generalists. These are professionals working different areas of law, economics, science, technology, etc. (Harper, 1984, p. 43). In other words, a generalist in public administration can carry out all the basic types of administrative and organizational work, such as planning, work with personnel, coordination, reports and budget formation. Entering the public service requires a higher education diploma, although now it is a question of specifying the profile of higher education. Generalists can work in any department of a ministry or department.

One could assume that a generalist is a person who is not an expert in any field of activity. However, a generalist is a person who can be called a professional manager (administrator) if we consider management as a profession, along with medicine, engineering, psychology, etc. In public administration, a generalist combines the features of a manager (administrator) and a politician. As a manager, he is responsible for achieving the result, and as a politician, he is responsible for formulating and solving complex state social, economic problems.

Speaking about jobs in public administration, it should be noted that these jobs cover a wide range of interests and need a wide range of abilities. People working in public administration should be able to analyze information, monitor expenditures, develop and implement governmental policy or strategy, manage people and resources, serve as consultants, and in general work for public interest. Also people working in public administration should be able to deal with a changing organizational environment and to find responses to changing needs of citizens.

In an organization, whether it is a government department, a public sector organization, an enterprise, or any other administrative institution, the generalist, as he moves up the hierarchy, begins to perform functions of a more general managerial nature. These functions are almost identical in any departments, such as healthcare, agriculture, etc. The presence of such employees facilitates the coordination of actions. A generalist is able to transform individual opinions into general proposals for the leader, thanks to a common approach to problems and possession of general skills and competencies (Aseev, 2012). Consequently, being a generalist is a certain mindset, a way of thinking that is acquired, in addition to higher education, through a movement from post to post along an organizational hierarchy with the acquisition of various experiences. This helps the generalist to form an integrated approach to various problems that are not dependent on the presence or absence of highly specialized knowledge in a particular area.

From an organizational point of view, the state authorities give the possibility to specialists to move between sectors, which explains the predominance of the so-called generalists, i.e. specialists not of a narrow profile, but those who, thanks to their qualifications, can freely move from institution to institution, from ministry to ministry, from one industry to another (Obolonsky, 2011).

Now consider the role of the generalist in the organization

First, generalists play an important role in the development and formulation of policies, as well as in assisting political leaders in their development. A civil servant-generalist can be, for example, the head of a department, performing coordinating work and developing the necessary decisions and preparing documents, even in specialized matters, before they are sent to the higher management. Here, it is important to be able to collect the necessary data and recommendations in such a way that they can be used in the future when making management decisions. Generalists also play an important role in resolving conflicts between different points of view. This is possible because of their ability to form a common view of the problem based on their experience and education.

Generalists additioinally play an important role in addressing complex problem situations. Activities in government organizations are becoming “interdisciplinary”, therefore specialists of the so-called “general profile” are needed because they are able to formulate a rational, cost-effective and most beneficial alternative solution. Moreover, in the implementation of decisions, the role of generalists is also universally recognized. The generalist acts as an integrator and coordinator of ideas, knowledge and actions. Admitting that public service is a profession, scholars define several career paths in this profession.

• A professional career of a generalist in the public sector (this is a career of specialists possessing traditional knowledge, skills and competencies in the sphere of public administration, which build a career in the field of general management, budgeting, program planning, HR management etc.);

• A career of a professional public servant (these are specialists with “technical” skills and knowledge in a concrete arear of public administration);

• A professional career of a specialist in public sector organizations (a career of such specialists as accountants, lawyers, engineers etc. working in public organizations) (Plant, 2015).

To be successful, public servants need to become “specialists in generalization” (Rabin, 1995). Nowadays we can even speak about career public administration generalists. Analyzing the choice between vertical or horizontal career paths that are eventually possible for public sector generalists, one of the conditions of a successful vertical career is a wide functional set, which is a characteristic of a generalist. But a horizontal move is also open for generalists - possessing transferrable skills and a wide view on things, they can easily realize cross-ministry moves and easily adapt to different environments and working conditions.

From this case it also follows that the generalist is capable of performing a complex of diverse work tasks requiring various specializations. But in a situation of public administration, the need for such employees is associated not with the task of replacing several employees with one, as in the previous example, but with the special requirements for the managerial profession, the need to simultaneously solve a large block of diverse tasks. It should be noted that, in this case, generalists can meet problems of the complication of the modern public administration system and the need for officials to work with a large number of experts. In other words, in an increasingly complex system of activities, generalists may not be able to cope with the new scope of tasks.

This case also reveales a very complex problem of the activities of officials -- generalists, related to their personal and social self-determination, value attitudes. This is due to the fact that these professionals are often forced to resolve issues with representatives of various social and cultural groups of society, which can have a serious impact on their personality and beliefs.

The conflict between the request for the depth of study of problems and the breadth of coverage of various aspects of the tasks solved by these professionals, as well as the problems of their self-determination, can be resolved through the specialization of officials or the creation of expert communities, the development of new forms of communication and leadership in public administration.

Example 3. Business Psychologist

A business-psychological approach to professional competence of psychologists in business came from the UK, where the first master's programs training business psychologists were opened and the first professional community of business psychologists was created (Ivanova, Mikhailova, Stroh, 2008). This approach is being developed by universities, where such professionals are trained. In recent years, it came to Russia. Business psychologists are generalists who, knowing psychology and understanding the basics of business, can help businessmen to maintain their “human face”, ability to grow personally, communicate with people, develop their own effectiveness, and competitiveness (Antonova, Ivanova, Stroh, 2014). Their advantage over other employees with psychological education working in organizations is that they understand the features of modern business, its versatility, complexity and inconsistency and are able to determine the role of the human factor in the activities of the company. They can carry out various tasks related to human variables in organizations due to the fact that they possess scientific, economic, and managerial thinking.

Business psychologists need the ability to be highly effective in managing themselves, the organization, the development of communications, and image. They should also have more opportunities to understand the life of the organization and develop effective relationships. All this should help them to be involved in the development of strategic issues addressed by the leadership of organizations, to help managers and staff to overcome difficulties, increase competitiveness and ensure the development of the organization (Benton, Ivanova, 2016).

Such specialists have appeared in the world relatively recently. It is still difficult to name clear criteria of the area of responsibility, job duties and competencies of representatives of this profession. But we can distinguish certain basic competencies, areas of activity, professional career and development of business psychologists, based on an analysis of graduates of the Master's program “Psychology in Business” at the National Research University Higher School of Economics, where business psychologists are trained (Antonova, Ivanova, Stroh, 2014).

Areas of activity and competencies of a business psychologist

Business psychologists as broad-based specialists who, well aware of the general meaning of business and management, work in the field of HR, organizational and individual counseling and coaching, studying consumer behavior and others. In addition, business psychologists help businesspeople manage the organization to increase efficiency and competitiveness. They are in demand on the labor market, both in our country and abroad, because they have competencies in the field of effective decision-making, facilitation of group processes and organizational changes, optimization of external and internal organizational communications.

Basic competencies of a business psychologist

A business psychologist needs a wide range of theoretical knowledge and practical skills. A business psychologist should have a broad psychological outlook, but also understand the specifics of the business environment, read at least a popular level literature related to the fundamentals of economics, personnel management, organization of various activities, etc. Thus, the training of business psychologists should be broad and versatile and suggest the existence of individual development paths, since the business is very diverse and it is impossible to include all possible areas of its research and practical work in one program. A business psychologist needs to be able to combine various types of activities, including scientific, analytical, managerial, pedagogical, consulting and practical. A business psychologist should have the ability to clearly state the tasks of scientific and practical activities in the business sphere.

Career of business psychologists

The careers of these specialists are built complex of different skill depending on the goals and objectives, as well as the characteristics of the individual professional trajectory. But in any case, it is based on the identity of the business psychologist as a specialist who received an interdisciplinary education, sees the integrity and interconnection of the phenomena he studies, and understands the importance of an integrated view of professional tasks for his development. This identity underlies the following professional steps. This may be a subsequent specialization in applied psychology, business, and many other areas of activity. Or, on the contrary, the marker of a business psychologist allows specialists to summarize gained knowledge and learned skills into one more general and systemic model.

Data on the career of graduates of the master's program “Psychology in Business” show that business psychologists are in demand on the labor market today, both in our country and abroad, as they have competencies in the field of effective decision-making, facilitation of group processes and organizational changes, optimization of external and internal organizational communications. Employers note that business psychologists, compared with psychologists of the classical form of training, are more effective at efficient adaptation in the business environment, communication with management and staff of organizations, professional identification and methods of presenting information that are understandable to the business, etc. Therefore, they are in demand in the field of work with personnel, organizational, personnel, management consulting. Demand for them is growing from banks, large industrial holdings, medium and small enterprises, and trade organizations.

This case shows that the generalist can reflect a certain stage in the development of a professional in a certain field, serve as the basis for either subsequent specialization, or for systematizing the gained experience and knowledge. The generalist must be able to determine his position in the community, his position in the organization, since he himself chooses his professional path, manages his development and economically calculates the feasibility of the efforts made. The case on business psychologists also reveals the role of values, communication competencies, and the leadership potential of the generalist. In this area, as well as in public administration, there is a high demand for the elaboration of ethical rules and norms of generalists, which allow these specialists to maintain their certainty and pivot when faced with many conflicting events, opinions, influences of other people, etc. All this raises questions regarding the training system for such specialists. Obviously, these generalists need fundamentally new competencies in comparison with classical programs. We will consider examples of training programs for generalist specialists in universities of the Russian Federation.

2.Generalist's Training

The education system is still poorly focused on the training of generalists, although many programs of faculties and schools of public administration have long ago switched to the training of such specialists. For example, the educational program “Management” of the Faculty of Public Administration of Moscow State University “focuses on the model of the “manager-generalist”, in which a significant place is given to decision-making as the main management process, focusing on learning the basic management methods, including in crisis situations.” The bachelor's program in Public and Municipal Administration¹, implemented by the Department of Politics and Administration at the Faculty of Social Sciences of the HSE and received international accreditation by EAPAA http://spa.msu.ru/bakalavriat_menedzhment.html ^{EAPAA - European Association for Public Administration Accreditation (https://www.eapaa.eu/)}, is a positive example of a real attempt to prepare generalists for public administration.

3.Case of Bachelor Programme «Public Administration», HSE, Moscow, Russia

The bachelor's degree programme “Public Administration” (the Programme) is offered by the Department of Politics and Administration at the Faculty of Social Sciences at the Moscow Campus of the National Research University Higher School of Economics. The Programme was launched in 2009 and is training public servants for Russian federal public bodies, regional and municipal administrations as well specialists for public and non-profit organizations. But Programme's graduates are also successfully working in different business organizations and consultancy firms.

The Programme is initially oriented to prepare graduates to a generalist career in a chosen area of activity. The Programme's mission is to train generalists in the field of public administration that are familiar with public administration theories and possess the necessary skills for solving administrative problems in the public sector. The Programme's goals are to prepare professionals with bachelor's degrees that meet contemporary civil service standards and to train socially responsible individuals.

The field ofstudy “Public Administration” (PA) is recognized to be an independent multidisciplinary area of knowledge, differing from the sphere of management, so training programmes in this field should contain course blocks on public administration and administrative processes, the foundations of management and policymaking, social and economic processes and policymaking, democratic values, and financial management in the public sector. As the PA bachelor's programme has the mission of preparing generalists, the Programme is multidisciplinary in nature and includes a broad range of core general courses in economics, public administration management law, behaviour science, mathematics, etc. Furthermore, students take courses taught at other faculties (whether from the minor list or from the list of open elective courses).

During the first year, students primarily take the core courses of the general block that give a general background in the humanities and social sciences as well as core courses from the professional block (Major). During the second year, students mostly take core courses from the professional block. During the third year, students take courses both from the core component and from the specialization. Some core courses are theoretical (for example, institutional economics), while others are applied (for example, decision making methods in public management). Depending on what specialization they choose, students delve either into financial management or management in social sphere. During the fourth year, students take elective courses from the core component and the courses of their specialization.

The learning outcomes of the programme include wide knowledge in several neighbouring fields and a set of transferable skills that are used in different professions. The Programme equips students with a working understanding of key theories of public management, and introduces them to a broad range of tools of governance. Students will be able to select the right tools in each appropriate context, anticipate and assess impact of decisions made. Such set of competencies and skills is appropriate to a generalist potential and is best acquired through a compilation of traditional lectures and seminars and master-classes with working professionals, interactive seminars, discussions, computer simulations, business and role-playing games, case studies, training seminars, group discussions, student research groups, and intrauniversity and interuniversity conferences. The applied education makes up at least a fourth of the curriculum. During seminars and practical classes, students are expected to use theoretical knowledge gained from different programme courses for making case studies and proposing and critically analyzing solutions. During these types of work, the main general skills are formed: students are required to work independently and professionally, individually or as a team on these projects and present their solutions to other students . This allows them to develop and master the skills of communicating their conclusions to specialist and non-specialist audiences clearly and unambiguously. Over four years of study, students learn the skills and know-how of searching for, collecting and processing information, creating and updating databases, employing statistical, sociological and other empiric methods and research techniques, and processing and presenting research results. Also, during the 2^nd and the 3^d years of education, students are able to acquire knowledge in areas outside of their specialization by choosing a minor consisting of four courses in any field from IT to economic sociology; these courses are listed in the diploma.

So, the programme gives to graduates an optimal set of skills and competencies for practical work as a generalist in the domain of public and municipal administration or for pursuing other careers. In line with the Programme's mission, students build up the necessary theoretical background in public administration, which would allow them to become top-quality professionals, and build a successful career in governmental agencies and public sector organizations, including educational and research organizations. As a result, graduates can follow several professional and perform the following tasks.

As a federal civil servant, he should effectively:

- draft administrative regulations, performance indicators of government ministries and departments, and labour productivity indicators of employees;

- support the work of coordinating, deliberative and advisory bodies to the President, Legislature and Government of the Russian Federation and federal executive bodies;

- draft official reports, evaluations and financial and economic feasibility studies (with the necessary figures) for legislative bills, normative legal acts and orders of authorized bodies and officials and make anticorruption assessments;

- assess the regulatory impact of public services and monitor and evaluate their quality;

- optimize procurement activities, make procurements for state and municipal needs, including procurement planning, implementing competitive procedures, signing and managing contracts, and monitoring and controlling procurement activities.

As a regional and municipal civil servant, he should be able to:

- support the activities of high-level regional legislative and executive bodies and local government bodies as well as coordinating, deliberative and advisory bodies;

- make feasibility studies and participate in monitoring the execution of projects and programmes, different areas of urban and municipal development, the management of the spatial development of agglomerations, and the elaboration and assessment of documents relating to territorial planning and urban zoning as well as projects of territorial planning and demarcation;

- assess and monitor social self-organization practices, manifestations of social solidarity and social tension in local communities, and measures taken to prevent or overcome the latter.

As a specialist in the nonprofit sector, the programme graduate knows:

- the specifics of civil society, the work of non-commercial organizations in Russia and abroad, the functioning of international organizations, and the forms and types of national and intergovernmental organizations;

- the methods of external interaction between local government bodies, international organizations and non-commercial organizations;

- innovative methods in the public domain;

- how to involve NCOs in solving current social problems and support them in these activities using the best national and international practices.

As a financial manager for public organizations, the graduate knows how to:

- participate in managing concrete finances and taxes, making financial statements and performing other types of accounting using international financial accounting standards, among others;

- make a financial analysis of projects;

- manage the process of redistributing financial resources between different participants of the financial system (and within each of them) and attract and effectively use financial resources;

- conduct financial audits;

- use information technologies and financial management systems;

- organize procurements.

The result of such training is the formation of highly qualified specialists, demanded, first of all, in public administration. Mr. Alexey Lavrov, Deputy Minister of Finance of the Russian Federation: “Graduates of the program “Public Administration”are interesting for the Ministry of Finance of Russia because they have a broad outlook -- they know not only the basics of financial management, but the principles and mechanisms of state (municipal) management in general and in specific sectors of the public sector”.

“The demonstrated abilities, as well as the acquired knowledge and skills in practice make it possible to characterize HSE students as future high potential employees demanded in the modern labor market” (from a Letter of Appreciation from the Director of the Project Management and Personnel Development Department of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation, Mrs. O. Mukhina).

Case of Master's Programme "Psychology in Business", HSE, Moscow, Russia

In Russia, the first Programme of training business psychologists “Psychology in Business” was opened at the Department of Psychology of the National Research University Higher School of Economics in 2004. At the programme “Psychology in Business”, both business representatives and undergraduate are study. Owners of companies, heads and managers of various departments come from business organizations, primarily HR, marketing, organizational development, etc. Among bachelor's graduates, psychologists, economists, managers, political scientists, lawyers, etc. study at the programme.

Based on the approach to business psychology that is developing at the HSE, the training programme includes blocks of disciplines that form competencies in the field of working with the businessman's personality, organization and market. Students learn to analyze business as an organization, activity and social institution, study its impact on the social and professional formation of the individual; master the principles and technologies of psychological support for business organizations, individual and group counseling and coaching, organization of in-house training, marketing research, etc. All this helps students to prepare professionally for the implementation of various types of professional activities: consulting, training, expert, research, design.

The content of the programme “Psychology in Business” is based on the psychology of labor, social and organizational psychology, personality psychology, but it is also open to other areas in psychology and the humanities. The main task of the graduates of this programme is to increase the effectiveness of individual or collective work in the business sphere. Directions for the training of psychologists within the Programme are:

• psychology of professional activity of a businessman (emotional-volitional regulation of activity, psychological aspects of decision making, professional development of a subject of activity, etc.);

• psychology of the businessman's personality (motivational-semantic sphere of the personality, methods and means of social, personal and professional self-determination);

• psychology of business relations (creation and management of an organization as a business tool, sociocultural conditioning of the interaction of business organizations in a market economic environment);

• psychology of consumer behavior;

• the structure and content of economic consciousness (sociocultural characteristics), psychological patterns of consumer behavior.

Student feedback on their studies

Olga Shilova: "I am very glad that many of my classmates, who did not receive their first education at the Higher School of Economics, entered this master's program. "Psychology in business" is the best that is in HSE for a variety of indicators: it is equally interesting for people with different needs, it is very dynamic, teachers are open to dialogue, the most practical courses and even the schedule are designed so that we can study without damage to work. Of all my acquaintances, bachelor's graduates who entered the master programme at the same time as me, only I could proudly say that I have the best and most useful program and I am very pleased that I went to study!"

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