Causal attribution in culture learning: a case of Chinese students in Russia

I think it's just a ceremony for greetings.

It's normal for me. But it's a bit strange for normal Chinese. Because we think hugging is only for close people and not for a person you see for a second time.

Sasha and Victor hugged her just to say hello. Even though in China we don't behave like this I like such a friendly behavior.

Critical incident 5

Chinese student Ma Tzinway was walking around Moscow with his Russian friends Roman and Pasha. There was a beautiful spring warm weather, friends were making jokes and laughed a lot. When they were approaching the Red Square Roman and Pasha started talking about Russian history and Ma Tzinway was listening to them with interest. Roman said that Moscow Kremlin was built by Italians. Pasha argued that it was not like that because it was built by Russians. Roman got angry and started shouting loudly at Pasha: “How come you don't know it! Everybody knows that Kremlin was built by Italians!”. Pasha also started waving his arms and shouting at Roman: “It's you who doesn't know anything! It was Russian architects!”. Ma Tzinway thought that his Russian friends were going to have a fight and even was scared. However they didn't beat each other and Roman said: “Now we're gong to find out in the Internet who is right!”. It turned out Roman was right. Pasha said peacefully: “Ok, I'm sorry. Actually I don't know anything about Kremlin history”. Friends continued talking peacefully and walking with good mood and Ma Tzinway couldn't calm down and forget that scene for a while.

How would you explain to Ma Tzinway why Roman and Pasha behaved like that?



Table 6. Critical incident 5 “The emotional argument”

3 months group's attributions	7 months group's attributions
Their opinions are not the same but it doesn't mean they can't be friends. Foreigners often have hot arguments. If two people argue it will make them more interested in history but they will not like each other. no answer. Because they love their country. I think that Chinese knows the reason. Why should I explain? I don't know. They are straight-forward people. Russians are ready to acknowledge their mistakes. National cultures are different. I can understand. They treat this problem very seriously. They are serious.	Russians boldly stand for their opinion. But when they realize their mistakes, they correct them. If you are right about this fact, you know this better than me. There are no hurt feelings. Russians are simple and straight-forward people. They are not slippery like Chinese. They say what they want to say. It's easy for them to get angry and also easy to be calm. They are just as typical Russian people very outspoken, straight-forward and emotional. They just wanted to find out who is right and it doesn't influence their mood and friendship. They just discussed Kremlin's history. A quarrel appeared in that process but this is absolutely normal. Russian people sometimes wave hands and talk loudly when they quarrel. And if they find a common ground in something they change their mood quickly and don't talk about this again. That's their character. Russians are often emotional. They get angry quickly and get happy also quickly. They just pay attention to a situation but they are not against person. In Russia people rarely pay attention to “the face”. They like to express their opinion openly and spontaneously. If they don't like or don't want something they tell it directly. It is related with their character. They don't think that such a discussion offend other people and at the same time other people don't take it seriously. They are like real Russians, they argue and find in the Internet who is right. But actually it is not important for friendship. Business is business. It won't influence friendship. Like Russians say: I love you and I'll kill you. They behave like this because Russians are emotional. If they don't agree they have a fight but then immediately make peace. Nothing remains after that. Everything goes like it used to be. Pasha and Roman took building of Kremlin seriously. They actually are not angry at each other. This is the argument about knowledge. I would say it's just a Russian temperament. Usually people are not so reserved as in China. They often say what they think and can't hide their emotions. If they argue about a question, don't worry, it's just about the question and not about people.

Critical incident 6

Chinese student Li Minhao was sitting at the university cafeteria with his Russian friends Sveta and Lena. Lectures were over so they were had dinner peacefully, relaxing and watching a comedy TV show which was going on TV. Li Minhao was very tired so he didn't pay attention to the TV, he was eating chicken rice and Lena and Sveta were watching TV show. Suddenly girls laughed happily. Li Minhao was interested so he asked why they were laughing. Lena said: “Actors in the TV show said a very funny joke about Putin!”. Li Minhao was surprised, why they were laughing at jokes about their country leader?

How would you explain to Li Minhao girls' behavior?

Table 7. Critical incident 6 “Jokes about the president”

3 months group's attributions	7 months group's attributions
I think it's normal, president is a human, we are equal in China. We don't joke about president openly because we respect our president. In our hearts we really like our president. If it is a good joke then you can make it, if it is a bad joke you can't. President and people are equal that's why country leaders are normal people. Nothing special. I think laughing about country leaders is bad because leaders represent image of the country. The fact that they laughed reflects that they care about their president. Where is the problem? This is also not real! We, Chinese people, often make jokes about president. You actually think that China is still so old, feudal and people can't do anything. Please before asking these questions learn more about China. I think you don't know how everything is developed in China. Most of these questions are not real. I think it is disrespectful for Chinese. China is a country of etiquette, in particular everyone of us should learn how to respect people. Especially president. Because Russia has political freedom. Freedom of speech. President is close to people. National cultures are different. I can understand. This is just a joke. I don't know.	Actually there are the same jokes in China but in Internet and not on TV. We don't have such a strict atmosphere as in North Korea. We have a million of emoticons made of the leader of our country, all of them are very funny. Li Minhao, this is a European tradition of politics. They have TV programs about country leaders and it is legal. That's why people are used to joke about them. They are free to say what they want. It is better than we do. I agree. This is just their culture. They think this is interesting to make jokes about country leaders. This is the type of humor in Russia. There are no restrictions in Russia which exist in China, for example, Russians can use Google and Twitter. There was democracy in Russia when people could tell their opinions in public. And there were many revolutions for the rights in Russian history. In 18th and 19th centuries there was a relatively free social environment and that's why many great masterpieces appeared. Russians think they have a right to perform and they can perceive such jokes with an open heart. Even though we don't make jokes about our country leader on TV or in public we can do it with our friends and there are a lot of emoticons with leaders in WeChat. Even though Putin is a country leader, he is decisive. But people like jokes, so they laugh and relax their nerves because life is difficult. This is also a note which explains that people pay attention to their country leader. Different countries have difficult cultures. Maybe in Russia people can judge and talk about their president. That's why girls don't think that laughing about their country leader is bad. Russians like jokes. A country leader is also a man, so why you can't laugh about a country leader? Besides, it is not an evil joke. Russians don't take politics as seriously as in China. They can laugh about politicians and express their opinions about politics. They can complain so the government could know what to do next. President is elected by people. He serves people that's why Russian laugh, it doesn't mean anything. It is not as serious as in China. In Russia media can discuss leaders easily. Only if jokes are light. They don't laugh about Putin, they laugh about jokes. They think it's just a joke, you shouldn't take in seriously.

Comparative analysis of both groups of students

Table 8. Critical incident 1 “The bribe at the university”

3 months group's attributions (Frequency, %)	7 months group's attributions (Frequency, %)
It is unfair, Sasha misbehaved (100)	It is unfair, Sasha misbehaved (100)
You think Chinese students know only how to study (10)	It happens often in Russia (60)
	This is not Sasha's problem but the problem of educational system (30)

3 months students

All of the students evaluated negatively Sahsa's behavior. “He was dishonest, it is unfair for others”. Students mention that it's important for them to be honest, especially in the field of education: “parents teach us to be honest”. However students didn't give any explanations why Sasha behaved like that. Nobody mentioned teacher as a money receiver. One student mentions that the critical incident implies Chinese students only study and have no other joy in life. It indicates loss of Chinese “face” in the incident despite the fact that it said Zin Chzhichao not only studies but also plays computer games with his friend.

7 months students

All of the students evaluated negatively Sasha's behavior. “You shouldn't cheat, it is unfair”. Seven students gave attributions to Sasha's behavior. They said Sasha's behaved like this because of “problems in (Russian) educational system”, “he was surrounded by such type of behavior” and “other Russian students approved him”. Many students mentioned that such behavior is bad not only for Sasha personally but also for society and educational system in general.

Table 9. Critical incident 2 “The politician's cheating on his wife”

3 months group's attributions (Frequency, %)	7 months group's attributions (Frequency, %)
Cheating won't influence his career (30)	Cheating happens often in Russia and other countries (60)
I don't understand why there's no affect (20)	Cheating in Russia is not as serious as in China (50)
Different people have different opinions (20)	His political talents are more important for his career than private life (20)
Russians pay more attention to their personal freedom (10)
Chinese and Russian concepts of love don't differ (10)
Masha thinks love and career are independent from each other (10)
This idea is absurd (10)

3 months students

Students gave contradictory explanations to that incident. Three students claimed they agree with Masha that cheating on a spouse wouldn't influence career in politics, therefore, they think Russian and Chinese norms are the same in such a situation. Two students gave unclear explanations to the incident. One student said he doesn't understand Masha's opinion because in China it couldn't happen so he confirms Chinese norms described in the incident. Two students gave attributions saying traditions and opinions can be different. One student said Chinese and Russian concepts of love is the same however he didn't mention politics and one student just rephrased Masha's words. Contradictions in attributions probably mean that there is no single social norm in Chinese society regarding cheating and divorces in politics or that such a norm is changing.

7 months students

Students explanations of Chinese norms sometimes are also contradictory but all of the students gave attributions to Masha's behavior saying “in Russia it (cheating) happens often and it's not important in politics”, “it's normal in many countries”, “in Russia cheating is not a surprise”. Other students didn't give clear answer if they find such a situation “strange” or “wrong” in terms of Chinese norms. Contradictory answers probably mean that Chinese norms are changing and not stable in terms of correlation between private life and career in politics.

Table 10. Critical incident 3 “Staying at a friend's place”

3 months group's attributions (Frequency, %)	7 months group's attributions (Frequency, %)
It is normal in China (80)	It is normal in China (100)
I don't know (10)	They want their children to be independent (30)
Parents want their children to live independently (10)	Parents didn't want to argue in front of the guest (10)
Do you think China is still feudal and conservative? (10)
I think Tzian Lee is from Korea (10)



3 months students

Most of the students say that such a behavior is normal in China which means the critical incident was constructed incorrectly and it misinterpreted Chinese social norms. Two students indicated “loss of the face” claiming that Tzian Lee is from Korea and not Chinese and saying “do you think China is still feudal and conservative?”.

7 months students

Most of the students said that this situation is typical for China as well which means the critical incident was constructed incorrectly. One student suggested that Ivan's parents didn't want to argue with their son in front of the guest which reflects Chinese social norm of “saving the face”. Many students however mentioned that Russian children have a lot of freedom and independence.

Table 11. Critical incident 4 “Hugging in greetings”

3 months group's attributions (Frequency, %)	7 months group's attributions (Frequency, %)
Greetings in Russia differ from China (50)	This is a typical greeting in Russia (100)
Such greetings are normal in China too (30)	Greetings in China are different (60)
They like Li Singtong (20)
You think China remained in the last century (10)

3 months students

Five students gave attributions saying that hugging is a Russian social norm of greeting which is different from Chinese norm but they understand it and ready to adapt it. However three students said that Chinese girls wouldn't be surprised and “now it's normal in China”. Two students said Russian friends like their Chinese friend. One student indicated “the loss of face” saying “you think that China remained in the last century but it's not like that”.

7 months students

All of the students gave explanations to the incident saying that such type of greeting is a Russian social norm: “this is just a kind behavior and a greeting”. Six students mentioned that in China greeting is different.

Table 12. Critical incident 5 “The emotional argument”

3 months group's attributions (Frequency, %)	7 months group's attributions (Frequency, %)
National cultures are different (30)	Russians are emotional and straight-forward so such type of behavior is normal for them (100)
I don't know (20)
They treat this problem seriously (20)
Their opinions are different but they still can be friends (10)
They love their country and Chinese knows the reason (10)
They are interested in history but they will not like each other (10)

3 months students

Students' reactions to this critical incident varied a lot. Three students explained Russians behavior as “different” from Chinese social norms: “foreigners often have hot arguments”, “they are straight-forward people”. One of the students indicated “the loss of face” saying: “I think Chinese knows the reason. Why should I explain?”. Two students didn't provide the answer. Two students said Russians took the problem very seriously and one student said they didn't like each other. Overall five students provided attributions with understanding of Russian social norms.

7 months students

All of the students provided attributions to the critical incident saying that Russians are more emotional than Chinese and Roman and Pasha didn't hurt each other feelings. Such answers explain Russian social norms correctly.

Table 13. Critical incident 6 “Jokes about the president”

3 months group's attributions (Frequency, %)	7 months group's attributions (Frequency, %)
Making jokes about president is normal in China (30)	Russian people can make jokes about their president openly, it is normal (100)
Laughing about country leaders is bad (20)	Russian attitude to the president is not as serious as in China (30)
We respect our president (20)	Chinese people also make jokes about their president but not in media (20)
This is just a joke (10)	Russians have a right to speak about politics (20)
I don't know (10)
Russia has freedom of speech (10)
National cultures are different (10)
They care about their president (10)
You think China is old and feudal (10)

3 months students

Students provided answers which varied a lot. Three students were not surprised by Russians behavior saying “it is normal”, “Chinese also make jokes about their president”, “this is just a joke”, “nothing special”. Two of those students indicated “the loss of face” saying: “we are equal in China, we don't make jokes because we respect our president”, “you think China is feudal and people can't do anything”. Two students explained the critical incident according with Chinese social norms saying “laughing about country leaders is bad”, “everyone of us should learn how to respect people, especially president”. Two students provided answers according with Russian social norms: “Russia has political freedom”, “cultures are different”. Two students didn't provide clear answers.

7 months students

Students provided attributions for the critical incident explained Russian social norms: “this is a European tradition of politics”, “this is the type of humor in Russia”, “in Russia people can judge their president” etc. Two students mentioned that in China they can make jokes about political leaders with friends or in the Internet but not on TV. They also mentioned that in China there are some restrictions which don't exist in Russia, for example, using Google or Twitter. Three students mentioned that Chinese attitude to their president is more serious than in Russia. Nobody mentioned “equal rights” in China.



4. Discussion

The results show us that attributions of Russian behavior provided by two groups of Chinese students have significant differences. It means their attributions change during culture learning process significantly and below we would like to discuss the main differences between two groups.

The 3 months group tended to give evaluations of Russian behavior in critical incidents instead of attributions, they didn't write about the reason of behavior. The 7 months group provided detailed explanations of Russian behavior, often comparing Russian social norms with Chinese norms.

Answers of the 3 months group were contradictory for most of the critical incidents. Answers of the 7 months group also contained some contradictions but less than in the 3-months group. It means that 3 months students tended to produce more emotional reactions to the critical incidents whereas 7 months group showed understanding of Russian culture and social norms which made their answers more standardized.

The 3 months group sometimes couldn't provide any answer or their answers were unclear. The 7 months group always provided clear and detailed answers. Probably such a result is caused by different levels of Russian language. Another probable reason for that is understanding of social norms by 7 months group and, therefore, providing standard answers explaining the Russian norms.

The critical incident 3 (“Ivan staying at his friend's for a night”) was constructed incorrectly as both groups claimed such behavior is normal in China and it doesn't contain any problem.

The 3 months group provided answers which often indicated “the loss of face”. There were two students out of ten who showed “the loss of face” in most of the critical incidents. The 7 months group didn't show any signs of “the loss of face” probably because their level of competence in Russian culture made them ready for “unexpected” Russian behavior described in critical incidents so they were not surprised and knew how to react to it.

“The loss of face” indicated in the 3 months group by some students had some consequences. Those students who “lost their face” claimed that China is as developed as Russia and, therefore, has the same social norms, for example, Chinese people also can make jokes about their political leaders or hug each other during greetings. It seems that Chinese students who “lost their face” tend to consider traditional Chinese norms as “old, feudal and not preferable” and Russian norms as “new, modern and preferable”. Probably that may be the reason why they said that there is no difference between Russian and Chinese behavior described in the critical incidents. It's important to mention that students from 7 months group didn't “lose their face” probably because they were absolutely aware of the differences between Chinese and Russian cultures and they perceived such differences as “normal”. In other words, they didn't see Chinese and Russian social norms as “feudal” or “modern”, “good” or “bad”, they accepted both kinds of norms which allowed them to “save their face”.

Attributions made by 7 months group of Chinese students tend to be isomorphic which means they are aware of the differences between Russian and Chinese cultures and explain behavior of Russian people considering Russian social norms. Whereas attributions made by 3 months group of Chinese students tended to be non-isomorphic as they often evaluated behavior of Russian people as “bad” and “inappropriate” or they couldn't provide any explanation at all which means they don't know how to deal with Russian social norms.

If we consider the factors which influence culture learning and think what exactly influenced Chinese students' attributions we might have some suggestions.

1. Language proficiency. 7 months students speak Russian fluently and, therefore, have an opportunity to read Russian magazines, watch Russian movies and communicate with Russian people. 3 months students have beginner's level of Russian so communication for them is quite difficult.

2. Previous experience in Russian culture. 7 months students studied Russian language, history and culture before arriving to Russia. They had a chance to watch Russian movies which formed some expectations of Russian people and let them know how to react in various situations in Russian everyday life.

3. Intercultural contact. 3 months students' contacts with Russian people were quite limited because they didn't speak Russian language that well and they preferred to stay together within Chinese group. Whereas 7 months students had many Russian friends.

4. Travelling. 7 months students often walked in Moscow, visited various places such as museums, cafes, events, traveled to other Russian cities etc. They had a chance to observe Russian behavior, take part in it and, therefore, learn how to behave as well.

5. Age and personal experience. 3 months students were a bit younger and less experienced in general because they came to Moscow right after graduating from school in China. 7 months students were a couple of years older, they were studying for 2 years at the university in China before arriving to Moscow so probably their life experience allowed them to make more isomorphic attributions.



Conclusion

The current study examined Chinese students' attributions which they make to explain typical behavioral patterns of Russian people. We found that such attributions change during culture learning process. The group of students who stayed in Russia for 3 months and were no so competent in Russian culture provided less isomorphic attributions comparing with the group who stayed in Russia for 7 months and had better level of competence in Russian culture. We described a number of factors which facilitated culture learning process for students: language proficiency, previous experience in Russian culture, intercultural contacts, travelling, age and personal experience. It's important to mention that second-culture competence allows sojourners not only feel confident in the new cultural environment but also “keep their face safe” and, therefore, avoid various confusions and misunderstandings. Isomorphic attributions help sojourners to perceive norms of a foreign culture accurately and interact with representatives of other cultures effectively and successfully.

Implications

The results of our study showed that culture learning process has a significant effect on attributions of people's behavior. Sojourners might find information about factors affecting culture learning process quite useful. Learning language, history of another culture, watching movies, reading published materials, making friends, visiting different places would help foreign students to understand better a host country culture. Length of residence and number of contacts with local people also influence how comfortable sojourners would feel in a new challenging environment.

Limitations

The current study has a number of limitations that we would like to discuss.

Gender and age differences between groups. 3 months group includes 6 men and 4 women whereas 7 months group includes 1 men and 9 women. Gender disbalance might have influenced the results. Students from 3 months group were also a few years younger than 7 months group so they had different experience in life which also might have influenced the results.

Language proficiency. 3 months group had to answer in Russian and that might cause difficulties for them and influence their answers. We tried to eliminate that limitation by giving them a lot of time to ponder so they filled in the questionnaires at home. We also encouraged them to use dictionaries.

Critical incident 3. That critical incident (“Staying at the friend's place”) was constructed incorrectly because the results showed the absence of differences between Chinese and Russian cultures.

We hope that future studies will be conducted considering the current study's limitations which would allow to receive more precise results. Future research on that problem might use the results of the current study for developing a cross-cultural training for Chinese students in Russia (for example, a culture assimilator). Another direction of future studies might be construction of a measure to evaluate second-culture competence using factors influencing culture learning process. We hope that the current study added some new knowledge to the field of culture learning and other researchers will continue to work on that topic.

References

1. Altman, I. & Gauvain, M. (1981). A cross-cultural and dialectical analysis of homes. In L. Liben, A. Patterson, & N. Newcombe (Eds.), Spatial Representation and Behaviour Across the Life Span, pp. 283-300. New York: Academic Press.

2. Argyle, M. (1969). Social interaction. London: Methuen.

3. Argyle, M. (1982). Intercultural communication. In S. Bochner (ed.), Cultures in contact: studies in cross-cultural interaction (pp. 61-79). Oxford: Pergamon.

4. Areviev A.L. (2014). In 2015 in Russia there will be even more Chinese students. World education journal. http://5top100.ru/news/12982/.

5. Balezina I., Nikonov M. (2013). Corruption in the student environment. Sociological studies, 7.

6. Bergelson, M. (2003). Russian cultural values and workplace communication styles. Communication Studies 2003: Modern Anthology. 2003.

7. Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2001). Evolution of culture assimilators: toward theory-based assimilators. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25.

8. Bhawuk, D. P. S. (1998). The role of culture theory in cross-cultural training: a multimethod study of culture-specific, culture-general, and culture theory-based assimilators. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 29(5).

9. Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Brislin, R. W. (2000). Cross-Cultural Training: A Review. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 49(1).

10. Brislin, R. W., Cushner, K., Cherrie, C., & Yong, M. (1986). Intercultural interactions: A practical guide. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

11. Brislin, R. (1986).A culture general assimilator: Preparation for various types of sojourn. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10.

12. Bochner, S. (1972). Problems in culture learning. In S. Bochner & P. Wicks (eds.), Overseas students in Australia (pp. 65-81). Sydney: University of NewSouth Wales Press.

13. Chen, W. H. (2006). Divorce rate surges across China (p. 3). China Daily.

14. Fang T., Faure G. (2008). Changing Chinese values: Keeping up with paradoxes. International Business Review, 17.

15. Cortazzi, M., and L. Jin. (2006). Changing practices in Chinese cultures of learning. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 19.

16. Cortazzi, M., and L. Jin. 1997. Communication for learning across cultures. In Overseas students in higher education, ed. D. McNamara and R. Harris, 76-90. London: Routledge.

17. Fiedler, F.E., Mitchell, T.R., & Triandis, H.C. (1971). The culture assimilator: An approach to cross-cultural training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 55.

18. Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin.

19. Furnham, A. (2004). Foreign students: Education and culture shock. The Psychologist 17.

20. Gao, G., Ting-Toomey, S., & Gudykunst, W. B. (1996). Chinese communication processes. In M.H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 280-293). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.

21. Gao, G., Ting-Toomey, S. (1998). Communicating effectively with the Chinese. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

22. Gudykunst, W. (1997). Cultural variability in communication. An Introduction. Communication research, 4.

23. Harrison, J. K. (1992). Individual and combined effects of behavior modeling and the culture assimilator in cross-cultural management training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77.

24. Heider F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.

25. Hewstone, M., Stroebe, W. (2001). Introduction to Social Psychology, A European Perspective. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford.

26. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequence. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

27. Hu, H.C. (1944). The Chinese concepts of “Face”. American Anthropologist, 46(1), 45-64.

28. Ilyinykh S. (2012). Family values of young people: traditions and transformations. Philosophy. Sociology. Political science, 4 (20).

29. Landis, D., Brislin, R. W., & Hulgus, J. (1985). Attribution training versus contact in acculturative learning: A laboratory study. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 15.

30. Lebedeva N. (2014). Ethnopsychology. Textbook and handbook. Moscow: Urlight.

31. Lewis, R. (2006). When cultures collide: leading across cultures.3^rd ed.

32. Lozovskii Y., Vinnik M. (2014). Russians in Chinese eyes: stereotypes of perception. Vestnik Priamurskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta after Sholom-Aleichem, 2(15).

33. Masgoret, A.-M., & Ward, C. (2006). Culture learning approach to acculturation. In J.W. Berry & D.L. Sam (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of acculturation psychology. (pp. 58-77). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

34. E. Popova, Tang J. (2014). Culture shock: communication between Chinese students and representatives of Russian culture. Dialogues of cultures - dialogue in culture, 25.

35. Pratt, D.D. (1991). Conceptions of self within China and the United States: Contrasting foundations for adult education. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 15.

36. Schwartz, S.H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, vol. 25. New York, NY: Academic Press.

37. Sheng H. (2010). National features of nonverbal communication. Vestnik Buriatskogo Gosuniversiteta, 8.

38. Spencer-Oatey, Helen and Xiong, Zhaoning. (2006). Chinese students' psychological and sociocultural adjustments to Britain: an empirical study. Language, Culture and Curriculum, Vol. 19 (No.1).

39. Shipulina N. (2010). Image of teacher in Soviet and modern Russian cinema. Izvestia Volgogradskogo Gosudarstvennogo Pedagogicheskogo Universiteta, 5.

40. Stefanenko T. (2013). Ethnopsychology. Handbook. Moscow: Aspect-press.

41. Triandis, H.C. (1990). Cross-cultural studies of individualism and collectivism. In J. Bremen (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1989. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

42. Triandis, H.C. (1975). Culture training, cognitive complexity, and interpersonal altitudes. In R. Brislin, S. Bochner, & Lonner (Eds.) Cross-cultural perspectives on learning (pp. 39-78). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage and Wiley Halsted.

43. Trompenaars, A. (1993). Riding the waves of culture. London: Economist Books.

44. Tu, W.-M. (1984). Confucian ethics today: The Singapore challenge. Singapore: Federal Publications.

45. United Nations Statistical Division. Divorces and crude divorce rates by urban/rural residence: 2002 - 2006, Released: 21 July 2008.

46. Ward C., Bochner S., Furnham A. (2001) The psychology of culture shock.

47. Weiner, В. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion. New York: Springer Verlag.

48. Wight, A.R. (1995). The critical incident as a training tool. In: S.M. Fowler (Ed.). Intercultural Sourcebook: Cross-Cultural Training Methods. Vol.1 Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, pp. 127-140.

49. Yao, W. (1983). The importance of being KEQI: A Note on Communication Difficulties. In R. A. Kapp (Ed.), Communicating with China (pp. 71-75). Chicago: Intercultural Press.



Appendix

First stage results “Collection of conflict situations”

Critical incident	Attribution
Studies
A Russian student gave a bribe to his teacher at the exam.	Money is more important for students than quality of their education.
A teacher can't punish students who cheat at the exams.	A teacher doesn't have any respect or prestige in Russia.
Russian students often don't listen to their teacher.	A teacher doesn't have any respect or prestige in Russia.
If Russian teacher at the university don't come to the lecture within 15 mins students can leave. In China students should stay in the classroom and study without their teacher.
Russian students are more active in the classroom than Chinese students.
Russian students smoke and talk together near university gates. It's not like that in China.
It's difficult for Chinese students to show themselves.	In China there is a written exam and no oral exams. Also too many students in one classroom.
Time and space
Working day usually starts at 10 or 11 am which is too late.
There are separate bathroom and toilet rooms in Russia.
There are no public toilets in Moscow.
I suffered because of lunch time in Russia. In China we have lunch from 12 till 13 am and then have rest for 1 hour. Chinese start working at 8 am. But in Russia people have lunch at 14 am and don't sleep after that.	Russians don't like to interrupt their work to have rest. They want to finish as soon as possible.
When I was in the metro I saw people teaching their children to change their seats so other people could sit together. It is warm and kind.
In the dormitory men and women live in the same building. In China it's not like that.
It's not polite to come late in China but in Russia it's okay.
The distance between people in China is not that big because Chinese think the closer the better and kinder. Russians don't like to stand close to each other.
I needed to extend my visa and administrator told me it would be ready in a week. But actually they made it only in a month. I thought that Russians don't work efficiently.
Russian students ask questions immediately. When they are interrupted they get offended.
In the metro Russians like to sit far away from each other.
People don't like to get closer in the street but people like to hug with friends during greetings and saying goodbye.
Russian like to stand in cues, it's important to join a cue and ask: “Who's the last one?”. In China we don't pay so much attention to cues.
Language
Sometimes I use at first “вы” then “ты” and then “вы” again because I want to show respect. It's confusing.
Russian old people speak very fast.
Russian names are too long and we can't remember them.
It's not clear how we should address strangers. Девушка, бабушка, мужчина? I think people rarely speak with strangers.
Usual Chinese name sound like a swearing in Russian. For example, хуй.
Roles
Relationship between Russian parents and children are closer than in China. Parents have their private life and children have more freedom.
When you ask for directions in Russian you shouldn't say “Mister or Miss”. It's surprising.
I ate an ice-cream and shared it with my Russian friends. They were surprised. They asked why everybody wouldn't order their own ice-cream. But we think it's rational to share food.
When I was walking in the street with my Chinese friend a Russian stranger came to us and asked if we have a cigarette. It's impossible in China.
Policemen in China are respected by everybody, they are kind and helpful. Policemen in Russia want money from foreigners.
When I had a lunch with a Russian man he wanted to pay for me. But I am an independent woman so I paid for myself.	Russian men want to be gentlemen and pay for women.
Rich Russian parents make their children study so much, I don't understand why.
Russian women sacrifice their rest for their family.
Russian men behave badly after wedding. They are chauvinists.
Chinese people appreciate husbands who care about their wives and don't cheat. A celebrity can destroy they career if they cheat on their spouse.
In China parents do everything for their children, they cook, wash their clothes. In Russian children are more independent.
In Russia men and women can hug during meetings. In China it looks not decent.
Group vs. individual
People don't like to talk loud in the street or in transport.	It's not polite to talk loud in Russia.
Traditions
If it rains or snows Russians use hats instead of umbrellas	Russians don't care about their clothes
For Russians lunch is not so important comparing with dinner.
Russians like even and Chinese like odd numbers.
Russian people like to say “Be healthy” after sneezing. It's embarrassing.
Chinese people don't like to eat sweets.
Russians like cats and dogs, can kiss them and live with them. I can't do like this!
Class and status
Values
Russians like to express emotions openly, to love and to hate. But it scares foreigners.
There is no small business in Russia, only big supermarkets.
Some Russian students are shy but at first I thought they are arrogant. They just don't like to smile. Probably they think we are not serious.
When I was walking in a park I smiled to a child. But he got angry and asked me with angry face: “What's so funny?”. I was surprised.
There are a lot of drunk people in the street. You shouldn't talk to them.
When I was at the library I noticed some people were talking loudly. They were also laughing.	Maybe it's okay to speak loudly in Russia. Or it depends on the person.
Russian people change their mood unpredictably (especially women). At first they get angry and then they are happy. There are few such people in China.
If Russians don't like what you're doing they will let you know this immediately.
Russians read books in the metro. People in China read smartphones.	Russians like reading books.
Russians are very emotional, they get angry easily but soon forget why they got angry.
Russian people like culture more than Chinese, they have a lot of theatres, museums and galleries.
Russian people can make jokes about their president on TV but it's forbidden in China.
Russians have direct character and like to make jokes.
Russian people like to show themselves and to attract attention.
Russian people love madly and hate madly. You shouldn't pay attention to their emotions.
Russians can criticize openly. In China people respect their “face”.

Анкета

µчІй±н

Дорогой студент! Я провожу исследование жизни китайских студентов в России. Результатом моего исследования будет тренинг для китайских студентов, который поможет им лучше понимать русскую культуру. Ваше участие в исследовании полностью анонимно, Вам не нужно указывать Ваше имя. Спасибо за помощь в исследовании! Вместе мы сделаем жизнь китайских студентов в России лучше и интереснее

??оЬФТЉwЈ¬?ыїЈЎдІо¤?¬dо¤д­сйЌ‘ЧєЉwЯжоЬЯжьАЏу™vЎЈдІоЬ?¬d?НэЏ«?рѕсйЌ‘ЧєЉwЯжМЪыїтўЦхъ°д­?ЮЩЩюыщЎЈ?оЬЋQ—^гАиЗопТыЩЈоЬЈ¬?ЬфвНй©?мэ?оЬЩЈн®ЎЈ??±zоЬ?рѕЈЎ?дІ?мйСГ?рѕсйЌ‘ЧєЉwЯжо¤д­?ЮЩЯжьАФрМЪыїЎў МЪкуц¬ЎЈ

Задание

Пожалуйста, представьте, что Вы говорите с китайским студентом, который недавно приехал в Россию и ничего не знает о русской культуре. Вы хотите помочь ему и рассказать о сложных ситуациях в России, которые не похожи на жизнь в Китае. Опишите такую ситуацию и напишите, почему, по Вашему мнению, русские люди так вели себя. Постарайтесь вспомнить и написать как можно больше таких ситуаций.

мт?

?ЯМЯЪмйщ»Ј¬?о¤ыъ??д­?ЮЩЬфОщоЬсйЌ‘ЉwЯжОЯ?ЎЈцв?д­?ЮЩЩюыщмйЩйб¶т±ЎЈ?ЯМй©?рѕцвЈ¬Н±?цвмйЮБо¤д­?ЮЩ—^сйЌ‘ЬфФТоЬ??пЧ™vЎЈЩЪвы??оЬпЧМШ›уу¦ЋКху??Фрд­?ЮЩмС?д§??¤\с®ЎЈ?ьЮ?¦}?хуђsК¦ТцТэоЬ??пЧМШ

Пример ситуации

Когда я гулял на улице, я увидел симпатичного ребенка, который шел со своим папой. Я подошел к ним и сказал ребенку: «Привет! Как дела?». Ребенок улыбался мне, но его отец очень разозлился и начал кричать на меня. Я испугался и убежал. Эта ситуация удивила и напугала меня. Я подумал, что может быть, в России нельзя разговаривать с незнакомыми детьми на улице. Или у отца ребенка было просто плохое настроение.

пЧМШ?ЦЗ

µ±ОТЧЯФЪЅЦЙПК±Ј¬ОТїґјыТ»ёцїЙ°®µДєўЧУєНЛэёёЗЧТ»ЖрЎЈОТЧЯµЅЛыёъЗ°Ј¬Лµ:“ДгєГСЅЈЎ”РЎєўіеОТР¦БЛЈ¬µ«ЛыµДёёЗЧ·ЗіЈЙъЖшЈ¬їЄКјіеОТЅРє°ЎЈОТєЬє¦ЕВѕНЕЬµфБЛЎЈХвЦЦЗйїцИГОТѕхµГєЬѕЄСИТІПЕµЅОТБЛЎЈОТПлЈ¬ТІРнФЪ¶нВЮЛ№І»ДЬёъЅЦЙПµДД°ЙъєўЧУЅІ»°Ј¬µ«ТІїЙДЬЦ»КЗєўЧУёёЗЧµДРДЗйІ»єГЎЈ

Темы ситуаций

Зйѕ°ЦчМв

Учеба. Какие ситуации во время учебы в университете вызвали у Вас непонимание, беспокойство или удивление? Это может работа в классе, общение с русскими студентами, жизнь в общежитии, отношение студентов к учебе в общем и т.д.

1.С§П°ЎЈФЪґуѧѧϰʱʲôЗйїцИГДгёРµЅІ»ЅвЎўµЈРД»тѕЄСИЈїЛьїЙТФКЗ°ај¶ИООсЎўєН¶нВЮЛ№С§ЙъµД№µНЁЎўЧЎЛЮЙъ»оЎў¶ФС§П°µДМ¬¶ИµИµИЎЈ

Время и пространство. Что Вы думаете об отношении русских ко времени - насколько важно все делать вовремя? Были ли у Вас сложные ситуации, связанные с разными пониманием времени? Были ли у Вас сложные ситуации, связанные с разными пониманием пространства, места между людьми или предметами?

2.К±јдУлїХјдЎЈ Дъ¶Ф¶нВЮЛ№ИЛµДК±јд№ЫДоУРКІГґСщµДїґ·ЁЈї±ИИз°ґК±ЧцКВ¶ФУЪЛыГЗАґЛµУР¶аЦШТЄЈїДъКЗ·сѕ­Аъ№эТтОЄУл¶нВЮЛ№ИЛ¶ФК±јд№ЫДоАнЅвІ»Н¬¶ш·ўЙъµДА§ДСµДЗйїцЈїДъКЗ·сѕ­Аъ№эТтОЄ¶ФїХјдёЕДоЈ¬±ИИзИЛєНОпМејдµДѕаАлАнЅвІ»Н¬¶шІъЙъµДА§ѕіЈї

Язык. Какие сложные ситуации у Вас были, связанные с русским и/или китайским языком в России?

3.УпСФЎЈДъФЪ¶нВЮЛ№Фшѕ­ТтОЄ¶нУп»тХЯЦРОДµДУпСФ№µНЁОКМвѕ­Аъ№эФхСщµДА§ДСЈї

Роли. Роль - это обычное поведение человека в семье, на работе, с друзьями и т.д. Например, роль отца, роль матери, роль друга, роль начальника. Какие сложные ситуации были у Вас, когда Вы не поняли, почему русские люди ведут себя так в какой-то роли? Или русские люди делали что-то неожиданное для их роли родителя, ребенка, начальника, подчиненного и т.д.?

4.ЅЗЙ«ЎЈЅЗЙ«----ХвКЗИЛ±нПЦФЪјТНҐЦРЎў№¤ЧчЙПЎўЕуУСјдј°ЖдЛы»·ѕіЦРСФРРѕЩЦ№ЎЈѕЩАэАґЛµЈ¬УР°Ц°ЦЈ¬ВиВиЈ¬ЕуУСЈ¬ЙПЛѕµИЅЗЙ«ЎЈДЗДъКЗ·сУР№эТтОЄІ»АнЅвОЄКІГґ¶нВЮЛ№ИЛФЪ°зСЭЖдЦРТ»ёцЅЗЙ«К±ТЄДЗСщЧц¶шІъЙъµДТЙ»уЈїУЦ»тХЯЛµДъКЗ·сѕ­Аъ№эµ±¶нВЮЛ№ИЛФЪ°зСЭёёДёЈ¬єўЧУЈ¬ЙПЛѕЈ¬ПВКф»тЖдЛыЅЗЙ«К±ЧціцДгГ»УРФ¤БПµЅµДКВµДЗйїцЈї

Группа и человек. Иногда мы должны действовать в интересах группы, иногда - в своих собственных интересах. Какие сложные ситуации были у Вас в России, когда Вы не понимали, почему русские люди так ведут себя в группе?

5Ј®јЇМеУлёцИЛЎЈУРК±ДъУ¦ёГФЪјЇМеАыТжГжЗ°·ў»УЧФјєµДЧчУГЈ¬¶шУРК±Ц»КЗОЄБЛЧФјєµДёцИЛАыТжЎЈДЗДъФЪ¶нВЮЛ№КЗ·сУР№эТтОЄІ»АнЅвОЄКІГґ¶нВЮЛ№ИЛФЪјЇМеЦР»бУРДЗСщµДРРОЄ¶шІъЙъ№эТЙ»уµДЗйРОЈї

Традиции и приметы. Какие русские традиции или приметы вызвали у Вас попадание в сложные ситуации и непонимание?

6Ј®ґ«НіП°ЛЧєНМШРФЎЈУРДДР©¶нВЮЛ№µДµДґ«НіП°ЛЧєНМШРФИГДгІъЙъ№эТЙ»уІ»Ѕв¶шПЭИлА§ѕіЈї

Класс и статус. В какие сложные ситуации Вы попадали из-за непонимания статуса человека? Или когда люди вели себя не так, как должны вести себя по статусу?

7.µИј¶µШО»ЎЈДъФшѕ­ѕ­Аъ№эДДР©ТтОЄ¶ФТ»ёцИЛµДµШО»ёЯµНІ»БЛЅв¶шІъЙъµДА§ДСµДЗйїцЈї»тХЯЛµТтОЄ¶нВЮЛ№ИЛГ»УР°ґЧФјєµДµШО»ёЯµНАґРРКВ¶шК№ДгПЭИл№эФхСщµДѕЅѕіЈї

Ценности. В какие сложные ситуации Вы попадали в России из-за непонимания религии, политики, экономики, истории России и культурных ценностей русских людей?

8.јЫЦµ№ЫЎЈДъФшѕ­ТтОЄ¶Ф¶нВЮЛ№µДЧЪЅМЎўХюЦОЎўѕ­јГЎўАъК·єН¶нВЮЛ№ИЛµДОД»ЇјЫЦµ№ЫІ»АнЅв¶шПЭИл№эФхСщµДА§ѕіЈї

Если Вы хотите узнать результаты исследования, но напишите Ваш email, и я пришлю их Вам, как только они будут готовы. Если у Вас есть какие-либо вопросы, Вы можете написать их мне на email dindi@inbox.ru.

Из№ыДъПлТЄБЛЅвХвґОµчІйЅб№ыµД»°їЙТФ·ўУКјюёшОТЈ¬µ±ОТµГµЅµчІйЅб№ыєу»бБўјґЅ«ЛьГЗ·ўЛНёшДъЎЈИз№ыДъУРКІГґСщµДОКМвТІН¬СщїЙТФЅ«ЛьГЗ·ўЛНµЅОТµДУКПдdindi@inbox.ru.

Спасибо за участие в исследовании!

ёРР»ІОУлґЛґОµчІйЈЎ

Размещено на Allbest.ru

...