Concepts of developing and planning a Soviet city

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Zhytomyr Ivan Franko State University

Tsymbaliuk Olena, Postgraduate student

at the Department of History of Ukraine

Abstract

The considerable flaws of the given concepts should be also mentioned, primarily the persistence of the MarxistLeninist ideology, subordination to the state economic programs, uniform buildings, low housing quality etc. The cities of the USSR period, as compared to the modern standards, are inconvenient for living and require being totally reconstructed regarding the disadvantages of the Soviet experience and the achievements of the global post-industrialization.

Key words. Soviet urban developing concepts, planning, socialist city, industrial residential building, neighbourhood, "khrushchovka".

Introduction

Ukraine is a highly urbanized state. According to the State Bureau of Statistics, the country comprises 461 cities as of January, 1 2019, the percentage of the population amounting to 69,41% from the total population number (Statystychnyi zbirnyk, 2019, p. 5-6).

The appearance and planning of a modern Ukrainian city is the heritage of the USSR in its best and, paradoxically, its worst manifestations at the same time. In the vast majority it presents uniform dull residential buildings satisfying the requirements of the urban development concepts accepted by the Communist party.

The architectural design of the Ukrainian cities developed during the USSR period corresponded to the fundamentals of the Soviet constructivism characterized by rigour, brevity and monolithism of the forms.

The architecture and the city itself was called upon satisfying the needs of the people and, at the same time, reflecting the creation of a totally new world - a Soviet one. The brilliant examples of the Soviet construction heritage are the "Derzhprom" building (the State Industrial House) located in the Liberty Square and the writers' residential building "Slovo" ("A Word") located in the Kultura Street in Kharkiv, the residential building "Rolit" located in the Kotsiubynskyi Street in Kyiv, the commune block in the Metalurhy Avenue, Dnipro Hydroelectric Power Station dam in Zaporizhia, the former cultural and educational centre "Palats Illicha" ("The Lenin Palace") located in the Serhii Nihoian Avenue in Dnipro and many others. Another case in point is the example of the so-called "khrushchovkas" and "briezhnievkas" - uniform residential buildings, massively constructed in the Soviet Ukrainian cities in the 50-60-ies of the XXth century to solve the housing problem (named after the Soviet political leaders Mykyta Khrushchov and Leonid Briezhniev). The Soviet planners of the urban space developed their own concepts of a city image, drawing on the world urban developing expertise transformed according to the Communist ideology and the mission of the party.

Doubtlessly, the emergence and establishment of the modern image of a Ukrainian city have been in the focus of attention of many scholars. Scientific studies paying attention to the problem of a Soviet and a Ukrainian city may be grouped into two periods - a Soviet and a postSoviet ones. The Soviet period can be characterized by a strong spirit of Marxist-Leninist postulates.

For example, one of the first Soviet works by M. Miliutin (Miliutin, 1930) provides a justification of the importance and perfection of a new type of locality - a socialist city. The work is a brilliant example of how excessively ideology-driven the process of the Soviet urban development was since it was formed. The author proclaimed in this sphere the primary priority of the state industrialization and labour for the sake of the country, referring the living conditions of the people and satisfying their social needs to the secondary ones.

The work by Ye. Balakshyna stands as an evidence of evolution of the Soviet urban planners' position (Balakshyna, 1964). The author attracts attention to the needs of the urban population in communication, improvement of the household service and leisure conditions that can be reached by means of introducing a new type of urban planning with the corresponding approaches to the construction. Ye. Balakshyna provides a grounding for the importance of forming neighbourhoods as a solely Soviet variant of resolution of the housing problem and enhancing the living conditions of the working population.

The authors representing the post-Soviet period use the anthropological and sociological approaches while studying a city: they analyze the conditions of the society development and define the achievements and the flaws of the Soviet urbanization, their influence on the citizens' life. M. Meierovych critisized the idea of socialist cities, as far as they were created only for providing the industrial objects with the labour force. The author stresses upon the abscence of the urban population's cultural development leading to the marginalization of the socialist society of that time (Meierovych, 2004). The modern Ukrainian historiography on the problem of the development of the Soviet Ukrainian cities of the second half of the previous century is not numerous. Ya. Hyrych is among the few experts in the sphere of urban history, particularly the phenomenon of a Soviet city. One of his publications is devoted to the description of characteristic features of the Soviet Ukrainian urbanization, determining its ambivalent consequences (Hyrych, 2008). To justify the modern appearance of the Ukrainian cities, it is necessary to investigate the concepts of the urban development suggested by the Soviet power and to compare them with those of non-socialist countries.

The aim of the research is to reveal the content component of the major Soviet urban planning concepts applied for developing new and existing cities in the Ukrainian SSR, the comparative analysis of the global ideas for development of cities, residential buildings and urban space with those brought to life in the USSR.

The outline of the main research material

The classic Marxist theory, despite numerous ideas and provisions, didn't provide a finished concept of a city and the urbanization process (Kholina, 2009, p. 89). The former experience of the unregulated urban development didn't correspond to the planned ground of the administrative and the command system of the Communist government.

In the «best» traditions of the total control over the life of the society and under the conditions of introducing the forced industrialization, the process of the Soviet urbanization had started (Kasatkina, 2012, p. 59).

In the late 20-ies - early 30-ies of the XX century there was a discussion held on the nature of a socialist settlement. Its result was marked by refusal from the «capitalist way of population concentration» and transition to a «balanced socialist settlement» on the basis of eliminating controversy between a city and a village (Bakanov, 2003, p. 1).

At this period the mentioned work by M. Miliutin (Miliutin, 1930) was published, where the author outlined the major problems of the debate and the possibility of their resolution by means of introducing a new type of locality - a socialist city. Socialist cities emerged in the USSR as a totally new type of settlements by the enterprises of extractive and processing industries, military and industrial complexes, science etc.

Moreover, the phenomenon of a socialist city could be formed within a peculiar type of statehood where the social transformations are governed and artificially goal-oriented as prescribed by the power; where the changes in the administrative and management spheres take place only with the initiation or approval of the state apparatus; where the distribution of the financial and material income is planned and regulated by the state; where the ideology of artificially conditioned technical transformation of a person, society or environment is dominant etc. (Meierovych, 2004, p. 95).

The socialist cities were planned as "proletary centres", "nuclea" of the adjacent territories and the surrounding agricultural settlements. Their aim was to accept, accomodate and ensure employment for the new working people who were taken away from the agricultural activity and involved into the industrial one, who came to the urban areas and formed the industrial and household collectives (Meierovych, 2009).

In the late 30-ies of the XXth century there were several socialist cities created in the Soviet Ukraine. The most vivid examples of the realization of this phenomenon included: the socialist city "Novyi Kharkiv" ("The New Kharkiv") - the former satellite city of the Kharkiv tractor plant; the socialist city in Zaporizhia built to serve the Dnipro Hydroelectric Power Station (Kotsariev, 2014); the socialist city in Kryvyi Rih to provide functioning of the industrial giant "Kryvorizhstal" (Vishnievskaia, 2012); a socialist city in Kyiv nearby the Kyiv fibre factory and the Kyiv broadcloth combine (Vishnievskaia, 2012) etc.

While analyzing the interior planning of the socialist cities, numerous common features of housing development are identified. According to the concept of a socialist city, the urban space was required to be unified and standardized. For example, Zaporizhia was projected as "a constellation city" as far as separate districts were interconnected.

There was no concept of a centre with the concentration of the necessary establishments and bodies. Every district had its own administrative buildings. Theatres, cinemas, libraries, learning halls, hospitals, parks and stadiums were decentralized to different districts. The central street in the socialist city of Zaporizhia wasn't provided (Kuzina, 2017, p. 75).

The socialist city "Novyi Kharkiv" ("The New Kharkiv") was intended to be a satellite city of 100-200 thousand inhabitants existing independently from Kharkiv. Out of 97 constructed objects, a part of the buildings was destroyed. The planning structure and the buildings in style of constructivism including the residential buildings and hostels, kindergartens, clubs and refectories were preserved.

The centre of the settlement accomodated the elite residential bulidings for the engineering and technical staff of the plant, and the houses for the workers were located in outlying areas. The level of comfort, the architectural decision of the residences and their location in the settlement system were differentiated due to the status of the future residents (Didenko, 2018, p. 57).

According to the project of the socialist city of Zaporizhia, the residential buildings weren't adjacent to each other, they were detached. Houses for single and married workers formed housing estates with libraries, refectories, kindergartens etc. located nearby. The transition to common household, taking meals, leisure was observed (Kuzina, 2017, p. 76).

In the socialist city of Kharkiv as well as of Zaporizhia, the housing development had a complex character, taking into account the inhabitants' need in the social and household objects. For the workers of the tractor plant the housing complexes were built - the estates including a net of buildings and accomodations necessary for total providing of common service of individual needs: schools, clubs, refectories, kindergartens (Liubavskyi, 2012, p. 129).

Despite the developed projects, their realization was doomed due to the lack of finance. The Soviet power agreed that the projects of new socialist cities were unrealistic, besides under the conditions of industrialization the development of the industries, but not the workers' household conditions, had to be funded.

The concept of "social settlement" confirmed the importance and value of constructing socialist cities as locations free from stereotypes on the former ways of life and thus, advantageous for initiating new forms of activity and life organization. Within this concept, the city had been a mere industrial settlement of workers and their families.

The issues concerning where to build the city, the size of its territory (depending on the demand in workers of the industry), the number of its population, the number of cinemas, refectories, educational establishments and their types, stores and what to sell there, were resolved by the state (Meierovych, 2004, p.97).

The structural engineers treated a socialist city as a model of ideal life organization. A socialist model of household relationship didn't fit into the routine experience. The realization of the given settlement model put to light the weaknesses and disadvantages of the housing development and the creation of a new infrastructure of that time (Liubavskyi, 2012, p. 132).

It is obvious that a socialist city had not become a pillar of socialism and the theoretical background required a serious refinement. However, the basic message of the concept of a socialist city - subordinating cities to the industrial and production centres - became a leading one for the Soviet urbanization.

The Soviet economy industrialization of the 50-60-ies of the XXth century preconditioned the rapid development of new cities and the reconstruction of the existing ones. The extreme urbanization rate led to the Ukrainian SSR numbering 339 cities in 1960 (The Ukrainian SSR National Economy, 1987, p. 229) as compared to 255 cities in 1940.

During that historical period a high pace of growth in the urban population was recorded. According to the statistic data, the urban population of the republic comprised 14 million inhabitants in 1940, equalling to 34 per cent of the total country population number.

In 1959 the index increased to 19,2 million inhabitants, taking 46 per cent of the total country population number; in 1966 the republic reached the urbanization level of 33,7 million urban inhabitants (51 per cent of the total country population number (The Ukrainian SSR National Economy, 1987, p. 228). The most urbanized part of the Ukrainian SSR was Donetsk-Prydnistrovsk region, while the less active urbanization processes took place in the Western Ukraine.

The natural and the mechanic population growth and the transformation of the rural locations into the urban ones were the sources of the urban population increase.

The mechanic increase, specifically the migration of the country population to the urban territories, was the most significant factor in that process (Hyrych, 2008, p. 145). At that period in the general structure of the population increase, the growth due to migration in the cities with the population up to 100 thousand inhabitants comprised 75,8 per cent with the natural increase of 24,2 per cent; in the cities with the population over 500 thousand inhabitants - 69,8 and 30,2 per cent correspondingly (Zhuchenko, 1977, p. 64).

In the course of an active increase in the urban population number, the administration of the state faced a new task - to provide housing for new urban residents and to satisfy their household needs.

The first steps towards the mass housing development were made under Mykyta Khrushchov's authority.

As a consequence of the All Union Conference of the Construction Workers in 1954 the Decision of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Counsil of Ministers "On the Elimination of Excessiveness in Designing and Construction" (#1871 dated November, 4 1955) (The Decision of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Counsil of Ministers, 1955), and in 1957 the Decision "On the Development the USSR Housebuilding" (#931 dated July, 31 1957) (The Decision of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Counsil of Ministers, 1957) were accepted.

According to these documents, the typical projects of housing development and the elimination of excessiveness in designing were implemented, and the housing development with the aim of eliminating the shortages of living space for the working people was identified as one of the most important priorities. In the following 10-12 years the state was obliged to provide every Soviet family with a living space. urban ukraine socialist city construction

In order to reach the goals set by the government, the industrial housing development (panel housing development, as it was accentuated in the middle 50-ies of the XXth century) was established (The Decision of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Counsil of Ministers, 1955).

O. Yankovska and D. Bachynskyi in their research "Reforms in the Ukrainian SSR in the Social Sphere (1950-1960): Housing Maintenance" (Yankovska, 2013) provide characterization for the phenomenon of industrial housing development spread worldwide as a global tendency in 1920-ies. After the World War I the architectural dominant of environment minimalism and functionality united the prominent architects Walter Gropius, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier in Berlin school "Bauhaus".

It was Ludwig Mies van der Rohe who developed the idea of a panel house originally called "Plattenbau". Throughout 1930-1940-ies the industrial housing methods were successfully to varying degrees objectified in Netherlands, France, Germany, especially in the postwar reconstruction. Several experimental houses using various technologies, including the trophy project of Plattenbau, were built even in Moscow in 1948. Despite the fact that different types of the house construction were considered - steel frame houses, prefabricated reinforced concrete houses and, in 1950, frameless panel houses - none of them was spread in the USSR.

The mentioned authors give the examples of the industrial housing planning in the developed countries - the USA and England, where in such way the housing for the poor or the temporary housing for students, newlyweds or elderly people was developed. Starting from 1947 it was especially topical, when Bill Hewitt first established the assembly line in construction of one-storied block cottages. Obviously, after Khrushchov beheld the Plattenbau and the American mechanized construction in his overseas trips on the 1950-ies, the new experience was combined with the Soviet developments in the cheap variant of a social housing (Yankovska, 2013, p. 133).

The Soviet architects borrowed the panel construction method from the French. In 1956 delegates from the USSR State Committee for Construction visited the Camus plant in Montesson to get acquainted with the basics of the construction type. Moreover, the French inventor Raymond Camus made an agreement for supplying the panel production lines and provided guidance on the technology of panel building construction.

Still, the state administration made the Soviet developers of the first large-panel houses transform the projects of the new houses into more economical ones. Hence there appeared new features of a building: five floors instead of four as in the French model, downsized appartments, narrowed staircase steps, basements and utility rooms were neglected, maximal simplification and reduction of the building material nomenclature was observed (Kalabin, 2017, p. 58).

Summing up, the first stage of the mass industrial development was distinguished by simple standard five-storeyed buildings as basic housing units of the Soviet cities.

They were called «khrushchovkas» in honour of the ideologist of establishing such housing type Mykyta Khrushchov.

The mass panel construction in the Soviet Ukraine's capital Kyiv was started as early as in 1957 with the construction of the block of five-storeyed houses between Druzhby Narodiv Boulevard (the former Pecherska Avtostrada) and Lykhachov Boulevard (nowadays - Mariia Pryimachenko Boulevard). At that time the first brick house with small-size appartments was built (Kolomyiv Alley in Holosiievo) and the construction of panel small-size appartments in Chokolivka was initiated (Shevchenko, 2018).

The period of the second half of the 1960 - 1980-ies is known in the Soviet history as the epoch of "developed socialism".

Coming to power of a new leadership in the person of Leonid Briezhniev and the proclamation of a new state development program resulted in social and cultural changes, including the sphere of urban development. However, Briezhniev's urban development activity was a mere continuation of Khrushchov's innovations rather than the development of the multi-storeyed section housing (Cherkasova, 2012, p. 157).

The panel housing development made it possible to accelerate the construction processes and to reach a considerable increase in sizes of the houses. Nevertheless, the given technology wasn't elaborated well enough that marked the quality of the houses.

The typical houses of the "1-464" series (Rozanov, 1982, p. 1315) were equipped only by one-, two- and three-room appartments, thus large families had no other way but to move in the three-room appartments. The disadvantages of the «khrushchovkas» were to be eliminated, as follows: through passage rooms, adjacent closets, insufficient isolation of kitchens from living rooms, small hallways and corridors.

The sound- and thermal insulation of the houses was unsatisfactory. Starting from 1965 the projects of new series of houses with improved planning were developed. In particular, the variety of appartment types with different number of rooms was increased; isolated rooms and kitchens were planned; en-suite facilities in all appartments (except for the one-room) were provided; hallways were extended. Alongside the four- and five-storeyed houses, the ninestoreyed buildings called "briezhnievkas" had to be constructed according to the new projects. Since that time the mixed housing development combining the buildings of different types became dominant (Vlasov, 2012, p. 42-43).

The realization of the housing development programs in the Ukranian SSR was highly conducive to the rapid increase of the housing stock - in 1956 - 1985 the republic supplied into operation 11 406 thousand appartments with the total area of 559,3 million square metres (The Ukrainian SSR National Economy, 1987, p. 300).

With the help of the panel housing construction the state managed to provide a relatively qualitative housing for the majority of the population in the shortest terms. Nonetheless it should be mentioned that the panel houses were almost impossible to distinguish due to the peculiarities of their exterior design. In terms of architectural composition, the panel housing created a dull and monotonous image of different cities, consequently designers and constructors were often critisized and mocked at (watch the popular Soviet film «The Irony of Fate, or Enjoy Your Bath!»).

Still it should be taken into consideration that there was no other way to solve the problem of providing every family with an individual appartment. Despite all the disadvantages of the large-panel housing development (low quality, monotony etc.), its priority had a sufficient justification (Vlasov, 2012, p. 44).

The mass housing development of the late 1950-ies and early 1960-ies also required developing a net of schools, establishments for children and public offices for ensuring household services for the population.

The construction of the mentioned institutions was possible under the conditions of additional areas and new forms of planning the urban space. The resolution of the problem was found in realization of the concept of an urban «neighbourhood».

The origin and evolution of the notion of a neighbourhood in the projecting and construction practice came to the 20-ies of the XXth century. It was established by the American architect Clarence Perry. The idea of a neighbourhood lied in the fact that the residential houses were to be surrounded by household service establishments, schools, stores etc.

The pedestrian walkways met in the centre of the territory without crossing the arterial streets. Perry insisted that well planned neighbourhoods, due to everyday contacts of the population attending household service establishments, would experience a lively public life and favourable social environment (Kartsev, 2011, p. 68).

According to Perry's concept, a secondary school was to be centred in the neighbourhood (1000 families per 5 thousand inhabitants) within an easy foot access of 800-1200 metres.

Generally every neighbourhood included a minimal diversity of public service objects: a primary school, shops and public recreational and leisure areas. The construction of a church, multifunctional auditoriums, clubs, libraries and swimming pools was planned in the affluent areas (Kartsev, 2011, p. 68).

Taking into account the Soviet interpretation of the idea, the territory of a neighbourhood, located in a relative proximity to the residential buildings, had to become their natural continuation offering space for a large part of the social processes and population's leisure. The Soviet architects faced a set of goals for the development and the exterior beautification of the neighbourhood system:

- establishing a healthy environment for the population that resembled a natural one;

- ensuring conditions for a qualitative leisure of the adults and adequate development of their children;

- providing hosehold service for the population.

The exterior beautification encompassed a wide range of issues, connected, first and foremost, with the usage of natural factors (relief, water bodies, prevailing vegetation, rocky outcrops etc.). Secondly, it was closely connected with the rationalization of the neighbourhood territory (beautification of particular areas of the neighbourhood, location of driveways, pedestrian walkways, playgrounds, greenery). Thirdly, it was concerned with the location of various beautification elements (swimming pools, small architectural forms, playground equipment) (Balakshyna, 1964, p. 3).

As defined by Ye. Balakshyna, a neighbourhood is a complex and diverse system comprising separate and functionally different areas. The territory of a neighbourhood contained several major components, namely a residential area, a neighbourhood park (a recreational area), a sporting area, schools and establishments for children, a public centre represented by utility, cultural and household service institutions.

All these components were closely interrelated, however, depending on their destination and architectural and compositional value, required different degrees of beautification (Balakshyna, 1964, p. 12).

While accomodating cultural and household institutions in a neighbourhood, it was necessary to take into account the distance to the most remote residential buildings: 0,7-1 km from a school, 0,5-0,7 km from a kindergarten and a store. A public shopping mall building was required to be located in 15 minutes walk, not farther than 1 km from the most remote residential buildings (Hyrych, 2008, p. 147).

The daily or weekly needs of the population were to be satisfied in the neighbourhood, as it was planned by the Soviet developers. An exclusive occasion, for example, visiting a theatre, could make the inhabitants leave the neighbourhood residential area. Nothing could distract a Soviet person from the primary task - labour for the sake of the state and promoting communism. It should be stated with a great deal of regret that meeting the household needs was minimal. Due to the financial shortages there were fewer household and public service institutions constructed than it was required.

The disadvantages of urban space developing, as it was planned according to the concept of neighbourhoods, showed after the USSR had been disintegrated. In reality most of the citizens' needs are realized in the post-Soviet cities beyond the borders of the residential area, getting to job and back home being the first and foremost example.

The neighbourhoods make up the so-called "quiet districts" intended for residence only, while the commercial and business centres are located in the central parts of the cities. Such situation initiates pendulum migration and traffic jams in the morning and evening hours. And as far as is known, except for sleeping and working hours there are many important aspects of human life, including education, medicine, entertainment, gastronomy etc., the absence of which makes citizens suffer from a serious discomfort (Ilyin, 2018, p. 11).

Conclusions

The urban development processes in the Soviet Ukraine were totally subjected to the programs and goals set by the Communist party. Despite the fact that the fundamental concepts of the Soviet city development, namely industrial residential development, panel construction, notion of neighbourhoods were borrowed from the global urban development experience, the Soviet system made its own corrections. The basic idea of these corrections presupposed the persistence of the Marxist-Leninist ideology embodied in the notion of «leveling» (treated as equality), abiding by the programs of domestic economic growth seen in the state industrialization, artificial creation of the industrial labour force, formation of a living environment providing the minimal quality of life and household service.

Although the Ukrainian cities developed in the period of the USSR provided the resolution of the housing problem, they are still considered to be inconvenient for living. The residential and public areas require constant systemic reconstruction taking into account the flaws of the previous concepts and the achievements of the global postindustrialization. The criterion of life quality for all social layers and categories of population should be chosen as the background for the transformation of a city.

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Анотація

Впровадження досліджуваних концепцій містобудування забезпечило свого часу активізацію урбаністичних процесів й вирішення житлової проблеми у містах Радянської України. Та варто відмітити й значні недоліки даних концептів: домінування ідеологічної складової у всіх сферах життя, у тому числі й житловому будівництві; підпорядкування державним економічних програмам, однотипна забудова, низька якість житла, забезпечення побутових потреб населення на мінімальному рівні та ін. Відповідно до сучасних стандартів, міста, розбудовані в період УРСР, є незручними для життя та потребують системної реконструкції. Головне завдання сучасного будівництва та архітектури -- розроблення нових містобудівних концепцій з врахуванням недоліків радянських практик розбудови міст та досягнень світової постіндустріалізації. Подальші наукові дослідження даної тематики дозволять встановити вплив міської забудови на формування повсякденних практик та побуту міського населення Радянської України другої половини ХХ ст.

Ключові слова. Радянські містобудівні концепції, планування, соцмісто, індустріальна житлова забудова, мікрорайон, «хрущовка».

Streszczenie

W toku badan zastosowano metodq analizy i syntezy w celu okreslenia tresci idei miasta socjalistycznego, rozwoju budownictwa mieszkaniowego, budowy paneli i podziaiu przestrzeni miejskiej na dzielnice. Etapy powstawania i rozwoju procesцw miejskich na radzieckiej Ukrainie okreslono metodq periodyzacji. Na rцznych etapach istnienia ZSRR rozwцj miast zalezat od politycznych i gospodarczych zadan postawionych przez rzqd: uprzemystowienia kraju, tworzenia nowych zasobцw pracy, budowy tanich mieszkan socjalnych, rцwnosci warunkцw zycia obywateli itp. Metodq porцwnawczq stosuje siq do ustalenia wspцlnych i wyrцzniajqcych siq cech swiatowej i radzieckiej idei praktyki urbanistycznej.

Nowosciq naukowq jest przeprowadzenie kompleksowej analizy podstawowych koncepcji rozwoju miast w praktyce swiatowej i radzieckiej. Zbadano szczegцlne powiqzania miqdzy programami rozwoju obszarцw miejskich a programami rozwoju budownictwa mieszkaniowego z krajowymi programami rozwoju gospodarczego.

Wprowadzenie badanych koncepcji urbanistycznych zapewnito w odpowiednim czasie aktywacjq procesцw miejskich i rozwiqzanie problemu mieszkaniowego w miastach radzieckiej Ukrainy. Warto jednak zauwazyc znaczqce wady tych pojqc: nieroztqcznosc ideologii marksistowsko-

leninowskiej, podporzqdkowanie panstwowym programom gospodarczym, ten sam rodzaj rozwoju, niskq jakosc mieszkan, minimalne zaspokojenie potrzeb gospodarstw domowych itp. Miasta okresu ZSRR, zgodnie ze wspцtczesnymi standardami, sq niewygodne dla zycia i wymagajq systematycznej przebudowy. Gtцwnym zadaniem planowania urbanistycznego jest opracowanie nowych koncepcji, z uwzglqdnieniem niedociqgniqc praktyk sowieckich i osiqgniqc swiatowej postindustrializacji.

Slowa kluczowe. Radzieckie koncepcje urbanistyczne, portale spotecznosciowe, zabudowa przemystowa, dzielnica mieszkaniowa.

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