English loanwords of irish origin in the 1850s-1920s

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FEDERAL STATE AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

FOR HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

NATIONAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY HIGHER SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS

Department of Foreign Languages

Field of study: Linguistics

Degree programme: Foreign Languages and Cross-Cultural Communication

English loanwords of irish origin in the 1850s-1920s

Salikhova Daniya Ravilevna

Reviewer

Bayda V.V., PhD

Supervisor

Volkonskaya M.A., PhD

Moscow, 2019



INTRODUCTION

In the course of its history, the English language was influenced by a huge number of other languages of different language groups. The influence touched upon such aspects as grammar, phonetics, and, most importantly, vocabulary.

Without loanwords, the vocabulary of the English language would be very limited. The term “borrowing” is understood as a process in which one language adopts a word from another language. Loanwords form a significant part of English vocabulary, outweighing the native words (according to Dictionary.com (“Word origins”, n.d.) “about 80% of the entries in any English dictionary are borrowed”). historical linguistic loanword

Due to the abundance of borrowings in the English language, there are many approaches to studying and analyzing such words. Firstly, it is crucial to determine the language from which the loanword was borrowed. Secondly, attention needs to be paid to the period in which the word was adopted. And, thirdly, it is necessary to determine the reason why the word was borrowed by a particular language.

In the early periods of the English language, in particular, in the Old English period, borrowed words came from such languages as Latin, Scandinavian and Celtic. Subsequently, in the later periods of English, it was influenced by languages such as French, Dutch, Yiddish, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, Chinese, Japanese and Russian, among others.

The influence of the Celtic languages on the vocabulary of the English language at a later period is rather small, however, it cannot be denied. The Celtic language group includes such languages as Irish, Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, Breton, Manx and Cornish, and each of them had an impact on English vocabulary, some more than others.

The English and the Celts have always been in maximum territorial proximity, which contributed to their continuous contact. The linguistic contact between the Celts and the English arose as a result of the undeniable historical, political, geographical, cultural and religious conditions that created the need for communication between two different peoples with languages belonging to different groups (the English language belongs to the Germanic group, whereas Celtic languages are, consequently, of the Celtic group).

This study examines the English loanwords of the Irish origin adopted in a certain period, specifically during the Irish Home Rule movement, a movement for the autonomy of Ireland in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Irish insisted on their own parliament and self-governing bodies, however, remaining under British sovereignty.

This period of history is very significant to both Ireland and Great Britain, since it led to groundbreaking political changes, for example, the declaration of Irish independence from Great Britain. In this regard, it is worthwhile to trace the relationship between this historical period and the Irish words that were adopted into the English language at the same time frame. Therefore, the main research question of this study is as follows: is there an interrelation between the period of the Irish Home Rule movement and the English loanwords of the Irish origin that were borrowed within the same period of time?

The objectives of this study are the following:

To provide an overview of early historical and linguistic contacts between the Anglo-Saxons and the Celts;

To describe the contacts with the Irish after the 11th century,focusing on the subject of the Irish Home Rule movement;

To find and classify words that came into English from Irish between the 1850s and the 1920s with the help of the Oxford English Dictionary;

To analyze the lexemes and, on the basis of the analysis, conclude whether there is an interrelation between the historical period and the borrowed words.

The main source for the current research is the Oxford English Dictionary.

The methods of this study are data collection, contextual analysis, word classification, and lexeme analysis.

This may contribute to further research on the subject of English loanwords of Celtic origin, and, therefore, English lexicology in general.

This study consists of an introduction, two chapters, conclusion, references, and appendix. The introduction provides brief information about the study and its essence, as well as the goals and objectives of the study. The first chapter gives a historical overview and summarizes the influence of Celtic languages on English in terms of grammar and vocabulary. The second chapter of this study provides a description of the Irish Home Rule movement, as well as the analysis of the lexemes and the sources in which these lexemes are found. In the conclusion, the study is summarized and the outputs are stated.



1. IRISH AND ENGLISH: HISTORICAL AND LINGUISTIC CONTACTS

1.1 HISTORY

ANGLO-SAXONS AND CELTS BEFORE THE 11th CENTURY

The period that lasted from the 5th or 6th century to the 11th century is called the Early Medieval Period or the Early Middle Ages. The Early Medieval Period in Britain was marked by many important changes, such as the transition from the Roman world, the emergence of the first kingdoms on the British Isles, as well as many other shifts in socio-cultural terms. The interaction of the Anglo-Saxons with the Celts was also of particular importance, and this subchapter will be devoted to the contact of the two peoples from the 7th century to the 11th.

It is important to understand the terms “Anglo-Saxon” and “Celt”. According to Higham and Ryan (2013), when we apply an ethnic label such as “Anglo-Saxon” to the peoples of the Early Medieval Period, it can become the subject of debate. The application of labels to the past is usually done as a means to homogenize and oversimplify a group. Nonetheless, it is obvious that the people who are referred to as the “Anglo-Saxons” are, in fact, a vast group of different people. Not only do they comprise people from several Germanic tribes (namely, the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes) who arrived on the British Isles from continental Europe, but also people who were native to the land and adopted the Anglo-Saxon language and culture.

The term “Celt” is similar to the term “Anglo-Saxon” in its complexity. According to Koch (2006), “Celt” is a collective name for an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group associated with the use of the Celtic language and culture. By no means are “Celts” one tribe; conversely, the geographic spread of the Celts from the ancient period is disputed to this day. There existed continental and insular Celts; continental Celts, such as the Gauls, or the Celtiberians, lived on the continent, while insular Celts (in particular, the Domnainn, the Demetae, the Parisi, the Decantae, etc.) inhabited the British Isles.

According to Shirokova (2000) the insular Celts did not differ in their way of life from the Celts who lived on the continent. For a long time, the Celts lived in small settlements, but in the 1st century BC, the first Celtic cities began to emerge in the southwestern part of British land, for example, St.Albans, Colchester, York and London (formerly called Verulamium, Camulodunum, Eboracum and Londinium respectively).

Celtic cities were equipped with powerful defensive fortifications and housed shopping and craft centers.

Celtic culture, especially Celtic art, was almost in no way inferior to ancient art. Many examples of Celtic art have survived to this day and, moreover, the Celts created one of the oldest minted coins in the world. (Filip, 1976, p. 67).

By the Early Middle Ages, before the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms began to appear, the British Isles were divided into three main areas according to the language spoken by the Celts in the particular territory. These areas were Brittonic, the south and the center of the Isles, Pictish, in the north, and Goidelic, in the west.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports that the Anglo-Saxons arrived in the south of the British Isles by the end of the fifth century. Their arrival was accompanied by the invasion of such territories as Wessex, Sussex and Kent, where they defeated the Britons, Celtic people who inhabited the land before the AdventusSaxonum (the first arrival of the Anglo-Saxons in Britain, 449AD). These events affected the history of the British Isles; the period was dynamic, during which relations between the peoples, as well as the borders between territories, were constantly changing and shifting.

Speaking of Celtic and Anglo-Saxon contacts, one cannot but mention such an event in the history of the British Isles as the Christianization of Britain. It is impossible to accurately name the date when Christianity came to the British Isles. Encyclopedia Britannica dates the appearance of the first Christian Celtic church to the 2-3 centuries AD.

There is a possibility that individual Christians came to Britain and quietly practiced their religion without imposing it on anyone or establishing churches, whichmeans that the land was familiar with the religion way before the missions. However, the Celts had also a significant influence on the subsequent Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons.

The Anglo-Saxons, who arrived on the British Isles in the 5th century AD, were pagans.In order to show their devotion to the gods, sacrifices were offered on a regular basis. In addition to the usual food and drinks, animals could also be sacrificed. Archaeological evidence shows that Anglo-Saxon paganism was even reflected in the funeral rites.

In addition, amulets were also common among Anglo-Saxon pagans. Archaeological excavations (Williams, 1998) also confirm this fact. The Anglo-Saxons used stones and teeth of animals to create talismans and amulets, and they were sometimes found in the graves.

According to Miller (2012), the Anglo-Saxons enslaved the Brythonic Celts, especially women, which yielded a substratal effect connected with language shift. It led to the lack of influence on the English lexicon because the Celts carried no social or cultural prestige.

The re-Christianization of the British Isles was a lengthy multilayered process. According to Daniel (2007), on the one hand, in 597 Pope Gregory I, also known as Saint Gregory the Great, sent forty-eight monk missionaries to England led by Bishop Augustine. The monks reached Kent, England, through the English Channel, and got to the court of King Ethelbert. With the help of the king's wife, who practiced Christianity herself, they managed to incline Ethelbert to this religion.

Thus, Augustine and his monks received permission to preach and convert the population to their faith. The Pope instructed Augustine to arrange two archbishoprics: in the north, in York, and in the southeast, in London. However, since the capital of Ethelbert was located in Canterbury, Augustine placed the archbishopric in this exact city.

Meanwhile, in Ireland, Christianity appeared in the 5th century and spread through the works of early missionaries such as Palladius (bishop of Ireland, early 5th century-457/461) and Saint Patrick (bishop of Ireland, 385-431), the latter being the primary patron sain of Ireland (Cusack, 2009).

The presence of Roman missionaries in England did not suit the Christian missionaries from Ireland. There was a confrontation between the two sides, the Roman and the Irish, in the course of which each of them maintained their faith and tried to recruit as many supporters as possible.

This confrontation was observed to a greater degree in the kingdom of Northumbria (an Anglo-Saxon state that existed until 867 in the north of Britain). One of the Roman priests, Pauline, had the opportunity to convert the King himself to Christianity. Following this, the Celtic missionaries, led by Saint Aiden, laid down their monastery and missionary center on the coast of Northumbria.

Nevertheless, by joint efforts, by 670 almost all English kings were Christians, though some of the kings moved into the new faith, without really abandoning the old one. According to Keynes (1992, p.105) King Raedwald (reigning from 599 to 624) created two altars; the pagan and the Christian one.

The question arises, why was there an opposition of any kind between the Romans and the Irish, when both these churches belonged to Christianity? The fact is that these parties shared a number of theological disagreements.

For instance, Easter was celebrated by these churches on different days: in 631, the Romans celebrated Easter on March 24th, whereas the Irish did on April 21st, almost a month later (MacManus, 1921, p.227). In addition, it sometime happened that a king was baptized in the Roman church, whereas his wife was baptized in the Irish church, which caused a great deal of confusion. For example, King Oswiu of Northumbria married an Irish princess, Fín (Ireland, 1991).

The situation grew to an enormous scale, and a church synod was convened in the city of Whitby in 664 to end the dispute and determine which church was given the primacy. The discussion went on for a long time, until King Oswiu of Northumbria decided to give the primacy to Roman Catholicism. Irish missionaries did not agree with the choice of the king and chose to protest, returning to their monastery on Iona.

In addition to the direct contact of the Celts and the Anglo-Saxons during the Christianization of Britain, there were also many other events in which it was possible to trace the interaction of the two peoples. For example, all sorts of battles, one of which is the Battle of Brunanburh of 937.

The battle of Brunanburh is considered the last great clash between the Celts and the Anglo-Saxon invaders. According to Breeze (1999), the battle took place in 937 between King Ethelstan of England and the alliance of Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin, Constantine II, King of Alba, and Owen, King of Strathclyde.Initially, Olaf planned the battle, wishing to take revenge on the King of England for the latter defeated his father and uncle 10 years prior, in 927. The Celtic peoples were inspired by this idea, and therefore Olaf managed to gather an army of Vikings, Scots, people from the Isle of Man and the Britons.

Them and the Anglo-Saxons had a two-day battle, one of the most brutal that ever took place in Britain, but the victory did not go to the Celts. After a bloody battle, the Scots, who had lost many of their leaders, fled, and Olaf's troops followed. The Anglo-Saxons chased after them and finished off fleeing opponents. Olaf, with the remnants of his army, was able to escape death and returned to Ireland. The combined army lost five kings, and this defeat put an end to all the hopes of the Britons to drive the Anglo-Saxons from their land.

To sum up, even though there are only a few sources that have been preserved to this day and a very limited number of those that would allow to fully analyze and retrace the contacts of the Anglo-Saxons and the Celts with the arrival of the first to the British Isles, they are still undeniable. Existing sources reveal enough to conclude that even despite the fact that the influence of the Celts on the Anglo-Saxons was rather limited, it is significant and key in the history of the development of English and Celtic languages, as well as the states as a whole.



1.2 THE BRITISH AND THE IRISH AFTER THE 11th CENTURY

The period in the history of Britain after the 11th century was marked by the gradual expansion of the English language. It was spoken by the majority of the population of England, and also the influence gradually spread to such Celtic territories as Wales, Cornwall and Scotland. After several centuries, Ireland also came under the direct influence of the English language.

However, speaking of the development of English in these regions, one cannot but mention one of the most significant events in the history of English, as well as of Britain as a whole, namely the Norman invasion of England.

According to White (2014; p.6) the Norman invasion of England was not just a military event. It cannot be viewed only in terms of the conflict itself; in order to fully understand the essence of this invasion, it is necessary to turn to the political situation that prevailed during that particular period.

The first event that subsequently influenced the Norman conquest was the death of King Edward (Edward the Confessor) on January 5, 1066. The King did not have children of his own, thus he did not leave behind the direct heirs to the throne. In addition, he did not name people whom he would like to be the successors. For this reason, there were many people who thought they had the right to claim the throne after King Edward's death.

Howarth (1978; 29) emphasizes that the only royal son at the time was Edgar Atheling, son of Edward the Exile. However, at the time of King Edward's death, Edgar was only 5 years old, and, therefore, he could not take the throne. In addition to Edgar, Harold Earl of Wessex and his brother Tostig also claimed the throne, however, they were not of royal blood.

According to Howarth (1978; 21), in addition to these native English pretenders, Swein of Denmark, Harald Hardrada of Norway and Duke William of Normandy also claimed the throne. The latter reported that King Edward had promised him rule after his death. England decided that they did not want a foreign King, and Harold Earl of Wessex became the successor.

Due to the fact that Harold Earl of Wessex himself went to Normandy to confirm the information that Duke William was indeed promised the throne, the latter took the coronation of the former as a personal insult. This was also aggravated by the fact that Harold promised to support William's candidacy as the next King of England during the same visit to Normandy.

Therefore, at the beginning of 1066, Duke William of Normandy decided to invade England, and sought support among his vassals, the general public, and even received official support from the Pope. It was thanks to the blessing from the Pope that the army that William was gathering was supplemented by volunteers from France.

Duke William did not hide his intentions to invade England. For this reason, King Haroldof England moved his army south to defend against the Normans. Howarth (1978; 130) writes that on September 20, 1066, King Harald of Norway landed on the northern coast of England and first burned the city of Scarborough to the ground. Having settled with Scarborough, Harald went to York, where they were met by British forces, but they were not enough to withstand the Norwegians. Thus, King Harald of Norway captured York.

Again, according to Howarth, in order to get York back to England, King Harold and his army traveled more than 150 miles from London to York. They stopped by the Stamford Bridge to fight King Harald, but the latter assumed that they were planning to surrender, and, therefore, was not ready for battle.

The bloody battle at Stamford Bridge ended with the defeat of King Harald of Norway and the Viking army.

A few weeks later, in early October of the same year, King Harold of England learned that Duke William arrived in London with the Norman army. The exhausted and wounded British army led by King Harold went another 150 miles back to London.

On October 14th, 1066, the famous battle of Hastings took place. Kind Harold of England and Duke William of Normandy met against each other, beginning the decisive battle in the Norman Conquest. The battle itself lasted about ten hours, after which the army of King Harold was completely defeated.

Thus, William became the new English king, and England became a feudal monarchy with a strong centralized authority.

Among the consequences of the Norman Conquest of England are the following:

With the accession to the throne of William, who was Norman, there were more changes in the state system of the country. William gathered state power exclusively from French-speaking Normans. In addition, he changed all the leaders of the churches to Normans.

As a result, only 200 years later, according to Baugh (2013; 110), the English rulers began to speak English again. French for all these 200 years had been the language of the upper class, and English had been one of the lowest, working class.

Due to the fact that the state system was completely changed, as well as the language, borrowings from French of a political, social and religious nature appeared in English.

The Norman Conquest took place not only in England, but also in Ireland. The Norman Conquest of Ireland is mentioned in such resources as ExpugnatioHibernica, written by Gerald of Wales in 1169, and The Deeds of the Normans in Ireland, written by Dermot of Leinster's secretary, Morice Regan.

According to Sposato (2009; p. 28), the Anglo-Norman idea for invading Ireland was reinforced not only by powerful castles, knights and other tools of Anglo-Norman force, but also by a large number of fresh ideas.

Ireland of the 12th century consisted of kingdoms, which, in turn, were divided into other, smaller kingdoms. At the head of everything sat the High King, who had control over other kings, but not the entire state.

The largest towns at that time were Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork and Limerick; however, Norse-Irish people lived in these port cities and had their own leaders.

According to Crooks (2005; p. 27), the invasion initiative came from the Anglo-Norman heads of churches, especially Theobald, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who claimed control of the Irish church.

Pope Adrian IV issued a decree on the need for Gregorian reforms in the Irish Church, and allowed King Henry II of England to invade the Irish state. The plans of King Henry II of England were not only the restoration of the power and influence of the pope in Ireland. He also sought to conquer all of the British Isles, that is, Ireland, Scotland and Wales.

The Irish Church adopted some of the reforms, but the adaptation to them was extremely slow. In order to fully adapt to these reforms, Martin claims (2008; p. 58), that the Irish society needed to change the attitude towards marriage, sacral things, church possessions and clerical celibacy.

For the reason that Ireland was very different from the Anglo-Norman society in its views on life and Christianity, the Irish were considered barbarians, uncultured and strange people.

Therefore, after a rather unsuccessful attempt to completely reform the Irish Church, Bernard of Clairvaux, a famous French abbot, completely blackened the Irish among all of Europe with the works written on the topic of Irish society and how barbaric it was.

The Norman invasion of Ireland itself took place in two stages. The first stage began with the arrival of the Norman knights in Bannow on May 1, 1169, when the expelled king of Leinster, Diarmait Mac Murchada sought the help of the Anglo-Normans in regaining his kingdom.

On October 18, 1171, Henry II landed with an even more numerous army at Waterford to guarantee his control over the previous Norman force. In the process, he conquered Dublin and created the Serene Highness of Ireland, which became part of his Anjou Empire.

In 1185, Henry awarded his Irish territory to his 18-year-old youngest son, John. When John unexpectedly followed his brother Richard as King in 1199, the title of “lordship” was transferred to the Norman English Crown.

The legacy left behind in Ireland by the Normans included new technologies, for example, in castle building. In addition, there is evidence of languages in contact as well. The proof of the existence of the Normans on the Irish soil can be traced in many names of Norman origin, such as: Lynch, Richardson, Cantwell, Butler etc. It is also curious that, as written byGiraldus (Forester, 2000), after the Anglo-Norman invasion the Irish began to master their archery skills, though the bow and arrows of the Irish were of their own making, not like any other.

The Normans influenced Ireland socially and culturally. During the settlement period, the Normans, who lived outside of Dublin in the area known as Pale, adopted the Irish language and Irish traditions, they married and, overall, became much like the Irish.

The Normans contributed greatly to the growth of the Irish cities with their invasion. The population grew, and people began to invest in the construction of fortified towns, as well as castles and churches. Even today there are many more castles left in Ireland than in the United Kingdom.

And finally, the influence of the Normans also spread to the economic situation in Ireland. Before the invasion, cows, pigs, sheep, goats, as well as their milk, butter, cheese and meat, were the only things that kept the economy stable. With the arrival of the Normans, cereals such as oats and wheat also began to be exported. Although the latter were grown before the invasion with the arrival of the Normans, exports increased significantly. In addition, thanks to the feudal system, cash money began to circulate among farmers, which was not seen before, as they paid mostly with services or products.

Ireland experienced numerous invasions again in the 13th century, when the English kings wanted to weaken the power of the Norman lords in Ireland. In the 14th century, the Black Plague descended on the island. By the time Ireland shifted away from the epidemic, the English influence was weakened, because the British were busy with the War of the Roses; however, from the beginning of the 16th century, the Tudor dynasty decided to return Ireland under the British influence.

At the same time, the desire to get rid of the shackles of the British seized the people of Ireland. Thus, the term “Irish nationalism” has emerged, which will be key to further research. Irish nationalism was largely influenced by the Catholic Church, because it was the thing that contributed to the unity of the people for the sake of the common goal of ending the oppressive rule of Britain.

In order to better understand the cause of Irish nationalism, it is necessary to revert to the period from the 16th to the 18th century, when the end of the War of Roses established a new dynasty of English kings, the Tudors. Adelman (2010) writes, that in 1541 King Henry VIII of England received the status of King of Ireland and introduced a new land tenure system, following the English model. The early Irish model implied ownership of the land by the entire clan; moreover, the land could not be taken away from the clan, even if the clan leader suffered condemnation in the dispute or was accused of treason. In the new system, the Irish clans gradually lost their rights to the land, and the territories were withdrawn by the British.

Moreover, King Henry VIII was the one to break with the Roman Catholic Church, to then establish the Church of England. The tradition of Anglicanism is mostly based on the Protestant teachings of Martin Luther and John Calvin. Thus, the beginning of the conflict between the Catholics (Ireland) and Protestants (England) was marked.

With the arrival of Queen Elizabeth I on the throne, attempts were made to completely conquer Ireland, and the queen relied entirely on military force, but did not impose a ban on Catholicism, and the Irish continued to practice their religion. However, the period from 1610 to 1700 was marked by the fact that the British pursued a policy of colonization of the province of Ulster, where Irish landowners were deprived of their status, and by the beginning of the 18th century in Ulster, the ancient Catholic Irish families were ousted by Anglicans.

Religious unrest of the 17th century and the process of land depletion brought the Gaelic and Anglo-Norman lords, who remained Catholics, closer together. This led to mass uprisings against the new settlers of Ulster in 1641, after which the Irish succeeded in 1648 and limited the power of the English crown to Pale's territorial borders.

With the arrival of Oliver Cromwell in 1649, the bloodiest page in the history of Ireland began. According to Morton (1999), during the rule of Oliver Cromwell, the population of Ireland decreased from 1.5 million to 850 thousand people. Cromwell made England regain control of Ireland, conducted mass confiscations of the lands that he then gave to his soldiers; and on his orders Irish catholic priests were torn to pieces, some even burned right in the churches.

Thus, by the end of the 19th century the relationship between the Irish and the British had deteriorated significantly. Speaking of linguistic contacts, only a meager amount of words was borrowed from Irish to English. Moreover, the status of the Irish language fell to a critical point, starting to disappear from most of Ireland.

The Great Famine and emigration mainly contributed to the fact that the language began to gradually disappear, but the opening of national schools in 1831 almost destroyed the Irish language. Initially, it was forbidden to teach Irish in such schools. When, by the beginning of the 20th century, the Irish language was allowed to be chosen as a subject, there were no teachers to teach it.

The only part of Ireland that remained loyal to the Irish language was Gaeltacht.

1.3 LINGUISTICS

VOCABULARY

Despite the close proximity of the Anglo-Saxons and the Celts, the Celtic languages, especially Goidelic, had almost no influence on the Old English language in terms of vocabulary. The influence of Brittonic on the Old English vocabulary was present, but it was also minimal.

According to Durkin (2014; p. 77) the following are words which are possibly or likely to be Brittonic borrowings:

Brock “a badger” (Old English broc, brocc) is of Celtic origin, however, it is unclear which variety of Celtic it was borrowed from. The Oxford English Dictionary suggests that the word originated from the Old Celtic *broccos, and is quite possibly a cognate of the Greek word ?ïñêüò “grey”. It can be assumed that the word was borrowed for the reason that in Old English there was no noun for this animal. However, later, with the appearance of the word “badger”, “brock” became less used. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, “brock” is last recorded in the 19th century in The Daily News.

Bin “a receptacle, a hutch” (Old English binn(e)) may be of Celtic origin, but borrowed via Latin.

Coomb “a small valley” (Old English cumb) is of British origin. Can be found in place names such as Eastcumb (now Eastcomb), Sealtcumb (now Salcombe) and others.

Hog (Old English hogg) has various possible definitions. It may refer to pigs, especially domestic ones, or pigs on slaughter, but it can also describe an animal that is said to resemble a pig in one way or another. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the origin of this word is unknown, however, it is thought to be of Celtic origin if one is to compare it withhuch (Old Welsh) or hoch(Old Cornish).

Durkin (2014; p. 79) also suggests that there may be a few very rare Old English words borrowed from Old Irish, such as clugge“a bell”, ¿stel“a bookmark”, cîne“a sheet of parchment folded in four”. It is assumed that these lexemes appeared in the language due to the contacts of the Anglo-Saxon pagans and Irish missionaries, although other cases of contact are possible.

Traces of Celtic influence are also found in toponyms. However, to be sure that the Celtic influence is traced in a particular place name is almost impossible. According to Zhuk (2015; p. 232) toponyms of Celtic origin are divided into several subgroups due to the existence of different dialects of the Celtic language. These include:

Toponyms of Britton origin:

Glasgow. From Proto-Brythonic *glas cutranslated as “green hollow”.

Leeds. (Old English Leodis). From Proto-Brythonic *Ladenses translated as “people by the fast-flowing river” or “the river area”.

Toponyms of Welsh origin:

Cardiff. From Welsh caer “fort” and Taf “Taff” (the name of the river). The translation is “a fortified city on the River Taff”.

Toponyms of Irish and Scottish origin:

Douglas. From Goidelic dubh “black” and glais “stream”. The translation is “black stream”.

In addition, Celtic elements can often be traced in hydronyms (river names), such as:

Mersey. Could be of Celtic mor-afon “sea river”.

Severn. From Proto-Brythonic *Sabrina of uncertain meaning. It later became Sabrina to the Roman people and Hafren to the Welsh.

Thames. (Old English Temes, Temese). Possibly from Proto-Celtic *tamesas “river”, literally “darkness”.

Trent. The contraction of the Celtic tros “over” and hynt“way”.

It is obvious that, compared to the number of borrowings from other languages (such as Latin and Scandinavian languages), the number of loanwords from Celtic languages is very small. This may be due to several reasons.

Firstly, borrowings from Latin could appear in Celtic languages with zero change of the original form and later be borrowed by the Anglo-Saxons. Thus, it becomes difficult to track which of the languages influenced Old English.

Secondly, as the above-mentioned borrowingsare colloquialwords which rather reflect everyday contacts, other possible Celtic borrowings of a similar nature could simply not make it to written sources during the Old English period.

However, another explanation is possible for such a small number of loanwords, which lies in the substrate position of the Celtic languages.

The English had no need to learn anything from the Celtic languages. On the contrary, some Celts themselves sought to know English and, in the subsequent period, French, deliberately abandoning their native languages.

Also, little to no influence can be explained by the fact that scholars have not yet figured out the very process of merging of the two peoples and their languages. It is possible that the influence had been bigger than what is known now, and it is only a matter of time before the linguists present more and more evidence of the importance of the Celts in the development of English.

Thus, it can be concluded, that, despite the small number of borrowings and toponyms of Celtic origin, they are still important for the English language and are related to the historical situation that occurred at that time.

1.4 GRAMMAR

According to Miller (2012), the idea of the influence of the Celtic substrate on the English grammar has a long history. Various studies have tried to add or subtract from the list of potentially influential structures. In this subsection only a few examples of the influence of Celtic languages on the Old English grammar will be listed.

The main researchers in the field of Celtic influence on the grammar of the Old English language at the moment are MarkkuFlippula, JuhaniClemola and HeliPaulusto. According to them, as well as to many other researchers (such as Vennemann and Tristram), the English language occupies a special position among other Germanic languages, since, unlike them, it prioritizes internal possessor constructions instead of the external ones.

According to Flippula (2008; p. 30), internal possession “denotes constructions in which the possessor assumes the form of a possessive pronoun.”,

e.g. She has a scar on her face.

External possession, on the other hand, implies the use of the definite article instead of a possessive pronoun,

e.g. She has a scar on the face.

In the early period of the English language, the preference was given to external possession. However, over time, the situation has changed, and already in modern English mostly internal possession prevails. It is speculated that this was influenced by the Celtic languages.

In Irish and Welsh, possessive pronouns are used when it comes to clothes, body parts, everyday objects, as well as in describing a person's physical and mental states and characteristics. For example, according to Pokorny (1927; p. 252), this can be traced in the Old Irish phrase:

benaid a chend de “he cut his head off”

However, in Modern Irish it is possible to use the definite article, too. In Welsh, preference will always be given to the possessive pronoun, as in the phrase:

Mi a dinnais fy esgidiau. “I took off my shoes”

The researchers' assumption is that English borrowed this type of constructions from Celtic languages, which, in turn, owe this trend to pre-Indo-European. This development is possible for the reason that the preference for internal possession was given by the Celtic languages much earlier than English. However, there might be other possible explanations as to why it happened in English grammar.

Another grammatical characteristic of the Old English language which may have been influenced by the Celtic languages is the distinction between *es- and *bheu- forms of the verb “to be”.

According to Flippula (2008; p. 40), in contrast to the above-mentioned construction of internal and external possession, which has survived in one way or another in Modern English, this grammatical feature is characteristic only for Old English.

Keller (1925; p. 55) was the first one to point out the distinction between the two forms of the verb “to be”, *es- and *bheu, and the supposed Celtic influence on them. The influence lies in the parallel of the meanings “is always” or “is repeatedly/will be” of Old English and Celtic, in particular, Cymric.

The researchers also consider other examples of substrate influence of Celtic languages on the formation of English grammar, but there is still no consensus on them, such as relative clause structures, a periphrastic “do” and so on.



2. IRISH NATIONALISM AND THE LOANWORDS OF THE SAME PERIOD

2.1 IRISH NATIONALISM AND THE IRISH HOME RULE MOVEMENT

The Irish Home Rule movement was a political movement of Irish nationalism from 1870 to 1918. Before exploring the movement itself, it is necessary to turn to the phenomenon of Irish nationalism, identifying its causes and key points.

Three terms should be distinguished here, namely “nation”, “nation state” and “nationalism”.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a nation can be defined as “a large body of people united by common descent, history, culture, or language, inhabiting a particular state or territory” (Nation, n.d.). In addition, a group of people comprising a nation are also bound by the rights of citizens, the same for all members, and a sense of cohesion and unity based on common experience.

A nation state is defined as “a sovereign state of which most of the citizens or subjects are united also by factors which define a nation, such as language or common descent” (Nation state, n.d.) Nation states have goals that include, for instance, political and social unity, development and social cohesion, improvement of citizens' capabilities, as well as collective national progress, such as economic growth and a rise in living standards.

And, finally, the term nationalism is defined as “identification with one's own nation and support for its interests, especially to the exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations” (Nationalism, n.d.). However, besides identification, nationalism is also an ideology, according to which the nation is primary in the state-forming process and is the highest form of social unity.

Irish nationalism is a complex phenomenon that involves many factors. It can be assumed that Irish nationalism developed as a response to the oppression of Great Britain, but the phenomenon is not a mere reaction to the eternal confrontation between the two conflicting parties. It also did not arise as a result of the relationship between the three nations living on the same territory, in particular, the Irish, the Anglo-Irish, and the English.

According to Maltseva (2013), the uniqueness of Irish nationalism is that even within the Irish national groups there is no unity, and ethnic characteristics are blurred. In the course of history, the Irish have repeatedly lost their lands, the British invaded their possession, and the Irish practically had no political influence on their country.

The beginning of the formation of Irish nationalism is considered to be the 17th century, but the prerequisites appeared much earlier, namely in 1169, when the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland occurred under the leadership of King Henry II of England.

By that time, Christianity on the island of Ireland existed for seven centuries. As mentioned earlier in this paper, Ireland adopted Christianity in the 5th century. With the presence of the British on the island, the control of the Catholic Church increased.

Again, referring to what was mentioned above, Ireland for the Anglo-Normans was the land of barbarians, and the main goal of the Pope, as well as all his subordinates, was to proclaim acceptable Christian truths, thereby establishing maximum control over the Irish churches (Maltseva; p. 140).

Among historians there is an opinion that the Irish history was not tragic because the invaders encroached on its land, but because they did not capture it completely. The incompleteness of the conquest gave rise to a political and socio-economic question up until the 20th century.

Over time, Catholics in Ireland began to be perceived as second-rate people. Ireland was ruled by England, and the Irish parliament had virtually no authority. The 18th century is considered to be the birth of Irish Nationalism, which began with the activities of the Protestant patriots, which, in the end, led to the fact that the Irish parliament gained legislative independence in 1782.

However, the Irish nationalism of the 19th century changed its character, and turned from a movement of the Protestant elite into a movement of Catholics who fought for their rights.

The 19th century Irish nationalism incorporates two traditions: constitutional and revolutionary.

The constitutional tradition upheld the interests of Ireland in Westminster and was represented by politicians such as Daniel O'Conell and Charles Parnell. By their joint efforts in 1829, the emancipation of Catholics was carried out, and in 1870-1881, the land question was revised.

The revolutionary tradition was formed by the uprisings of 1798 (the uprising of the Irish, supported by the French, against English dominion), in 1803 and 1848. These events, as well as many others, led to the Irish War of Independence in the early 20th century.

In contrast to Catholic nationalism, a tradition called unionism was formed at the end of the 18th century. This movement originated in Ulster, and its supporters advocated for maintaining links with the United Kingdom. Thus, in the XIX century in Ireland there were two political powers: Ulster's Protestants, Unionists, and Catholics seeking independence from the metropolis.

Irish Home Rule is a program of self-government of Ireland within the framework of the British Empire, launched in the 1870s. The program provided for the creation of the Irish Parliament and national authorities, while maintaining the supreme power of Great Britain over Ireland. This program was launched by the Irish liberal Isaac Butt, and he also founded the Irish Self-Government Association of Ireland in 1870, which in 1873 was renamed the Irish Home Rule League. (MacDonagh, 1920)

In the elections of 1874, 60 members of the Home Rule League entered the English Parliament. Supporters of the movement wanted to enlist the approval of the people, and for that reason Charles Parnell, the leader of the homerulers, and his supporters contributed to the founding of the Land League in 1870.

The growing influence of the Irish opposition forced the Liberal Party in 1866 and 1893 to nominate a bill of Home Rule in the parliament, but the conservatives and some of the liberals who split up from the party, failed the bill each time. In 1890, the party itself split.

After the beginning of World War I (1914-1918), the Home Rule Bill was given the force of law by the royal sanction (on September 17, 1914), but its enactment was postponed until the war ended.

The Irish uprising of 1916 was the Irish response to the British colonization policy. When the war ended, another revolutionary crisis arose. The Sinn Fein party refused to recognize the act of Home Rule and led the fight for the Irish Republic. On December 6, 1921, the English government signed an agreement with the members of Sinn Fein on the formation of a free state consisting of 26 southern counties, the Republic of Ireland.

2.2 IRISH LOANWORDS OF THE 1850S-1920S

Through the advanced search in the Oxford English Dictionary for the query “English loanwords of the Irish origin from the 1850s to the 1920s”, 56 lexemes were found. In this study, the lexemes were analyzed and classified according to their part of speech, frequency, and the date of first occurrence.

For clarity, the words were grouped in a table and classified according to their part of speech, semantic group, frequency, origin, etymology, as well as the sources through which lexemes were adopted into the English language. The account that follows relies on the data from the Oxford English Dictionary.

Out of the 56 found lexemes, 51 nouns (91%), 3 interjections (5%), 1 verb (2%) and 1 adjective (2%) were revealed.



The huge difference in numbers can be explained by the following factors.

Nouns of any language possess objectivity, which makes it possible to form verbs from a noun. Thus, nouns are usually the first words to be borrowed from another language.

In different languages there can be different unique objects,realia, the names for which could be adopted into another culture during a language contact. The same cannot be said about unique actions (they are extremely rare), since, in general, actions in all languages are about the same.

The earliest date of the first occurrence within the specified period (from the 1850s to the 1920s) is 1851 (the word crannog, n.). The latest date of the first occurrence is 1919 (the phraseDailEireann, n.).



As follows from the graph, in the period from 1850 to 1920 each year one or two lexemes were recorded. The largest number of borrowed words fell on the year 1910 (5 lexemes). These include bawneen/bauneen “a sleeved waistcoat”, drisheen “a sausage made from sheep's blood”, Gaeltacht “a region in Ireland in which Irish is the predominant language”, sliotar “the hard leather-covered ball used in hurling” and spaug “a clumsy, awkward foot”.

At first glance, these words have nothing to do with the political events that took place in Ireland and Great Britain in 1910, with the exception of one, Gaeltacht.

Gaeltacht derives from Irish Gaeltacht, †Gaedhealtacht referring to all Irish-speaking people. The first occurrence of this word occurred in 1910 in the Irish newspaperThe Irish Times. In the newspaper issue of December 13, 1910, a professor Mr. Steven McKenna was mentioned, because he gave a lecture with the title “Ireland Revisited from Dublin to Gaeltacht”. The reason why this lexeme is directly related to political events is the official consolidation of the status of Gaeltacht in 1910.



Another criterion for the classification of lexemes that was used in this research is frequency. Frequency in linguistics is a term intended to define the most common words. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, frequency is measured in bands from 1 to 8, where Band 1 are the rarest words that most likely will never appear in modern texts, and Band 8 are words that occur more than 1000 times per one million words.

Frequency, however, is not stated for obsolete words, thus only 55 lexemes out of 56 were classified according to frequency, as moulrush, “the saithe”, a species of marine fish which occurs in the North Atlantic”, is now obsolete. From the Irish mulras “pollack”. However, judging by the form of the word, it might also be a borrowing from the Irish nominative plural mulrais. The word was mentioned once in 1864 in the book by J. Couch Historical Fishes of the British Islands and is now obsolete.

The lowest frequency value among the words analyzed in this study is Band 1, the highest is Band 4.

As can be seen from the pie chart, the greatest number of lexemes fall under Band 2. Band 2 includes words that occur less than 0.01 times per million words in modern English. They are rare and are practically not used in casual discourse. Moreover, for most people, these words will be unknown.

Only one word out of 55 falls under Band 4, and that is the word esker, “a long, winding ridge of sand and gravel”, from Irish eiscir. The word was first recorded in 1852, in the book of E.Forbes where the Headon Hill (a geological formation found in the Isle of Wight and south Hampshire) was described. At first, the word was limited only to Irish and British terrain, but now it extends to other territories. For example, in the issue of The Scientific American dated September, 1955, this lexeme is mentioned in the following quote: “Winding across the center [of the Tasnuna Valley, Alaska] is an esker, a narrow ridge of gravel left by a stream that ran through the glacier.”.

Another criterion by which words were classified is semantic categories. Categories include:

Words related to literature (3 lexemes).

All words belonging to this category are related only to Irish literature, and are mentioned only in relation to it in English texts.

These are the words aisling, a type of poem in the Irish language that depicts the conversation between the poet and a spirit who is usually a personification of Ireland, fili, the word denoting the ancient order of poets, andimmram, the Irish stories about sea voyages.

Words used in everyday life that do not fall under any other particular category (9 lexemes).

Taking into account the emotionality of the Irish, three interjections of Irish nature were adopted into the English language. These include interjections, such as moryah, used to express deep skepticism,wurra, used to express grief, and yerra, an asseverative oath.

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