Mammoth-hunter camps in the Scandinavian North Sea sector during the Late Weichselian

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University of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management

University of Copenhagen

Mammoth-hunter Camps in the Scandinavian North Sea Sector during the Late Weichselian

O. Gron

PhD, research scientist

Ostervoldgade, Copenhagen K, Denmark

Annotation

Until recently, the general view of archaeologists was that southern Scandinavia was uninhabited during the last ice age, the Weichselian glaciation. It was thought that humans arriving from south would have met a wall of ice if they tried to penetrate into the area. Recent climate reconstructions and glaciological data, combined with recent faunal finds from the adjacent North Sea sector, promote the idea of a much more moderate and prosperous landscape with large, now submerged, plains accessible. Then this paper argues that large parts of the South Scandinavian North Sea sector were actually inhabitable during most of this glacial period, with extensive ice-free coastal zones even during the Last Glacial Maximum. It is difficult to believe that humans, already well-documented in the adjacent land areas, should not have known to inhabit and exploit such a rich resource zone. In addition to the paleoenvironmental data, ethnoarchaeological evidence is used to document that it was no problem for humans to kill large animals such as mammoths as some researchers have maintained. Furthermore, findings from excavations of mammoth-hunter sites, are used to argue that the large quantities of megafaunal remains fished up from the North Sea in recent years should be seriously considered as representing settlement material associated with mammoth-hunter camps dating from the second half of the Weichsel Glacial Stage. The central question is whether these North Sea faunal remains represent sites similar to the mammoth-hunter camps known from other parts of Europe and from Siberia? If that is the case, the Cultural Heritage management is confronted with a hitherto unrecognised problem.

Keywords: mammoth hunters, mammoth bone remains, Upper Paleolithic, ethoarchaeology, Scandinavia, North Sea, late Weichselian.

Аннотация

Лагеря охотников на мамонтов в Скандинавском секторе Северного моря во время последнего вислинского оледенения?

О. Грюн

д-р философии (археология), науч. сотр., Копенгагенский университет, Дания

Копенгаген К, Остервольдгаде

До недавних пор в археологическом сообществе было распространено мнение о том, что Южная Скандинавия в последнюю (вислинскую) ледниковую эпоху оставалась незаселенной человеком. Так, считалось, что двигавшиеся с юга группы людей при попытке проникнуть на эту территорию столкнулись бы с ледяной стеной. Последние реконструкции климата в совокупности с гляциологическими данными и новыми фа- унистическими находками в прилегающем секторе Северного моря дают основания предполагать более умеренный и благоприятный ландшафт с обширными равнинными участками, ныне затопленными. Таким образом, показано, что значительные области южно-скандинавского сектора Северного моря были обитаемы на протяжении значительной части ледниковой эпохи, в течение которой даже во время последнего ледникового максимума существовали обширные безледные прибрежные зоны. С трудом можно допустить, что люди, присутствие которых на прилегающих сухопутных территориях несомненно, не могли бы заселить и использовать столь богатую ресурсами зону. В дополнение к палеогеографическим данным для доказательства данного тезиса в работе использованы этноархеологические свидетельства, показывающие, что охота даже на таких крупных животных, как мамонты, не представляла собой проблемы для древнего человека. Данные, полученные в результате раскопок стоянок охотников на мамонтов, привлечены для обоснования того, что массовые находки костных остатков мегафауны, в большом количестве собранные в последние годы в результате тралового лова рыбы в Северном море, могут рассматриваться в качестве материалов поселенческих структур, относящихся ко второй половине поздней стадии вислинского оледенения. Главный вопрос состоит в том, являются ли фаунистические остатки, поднятые в Северном море, остатками материалов со стоянок, подобных лагерям охотников на мамонтов, известных в других частях Европы и в Сибири. Если это так, то возникает ранее неизвестная проблема администрирования объектов культурного наследия.

Ключевые слова: охотники на мамонтов, костные остатки мамонтов, верхний палеолит, этноархеология, Скандинавия, Северное море, поздняя стадия вислинского оледенения.

Introduction

Until recently, the Scandinavian North Sea sector was not seen as a relevant area for maritime archaeological investigations of Stone Age remains. Despite the recovery of tree stumps and a range of Mesolithic artefacts Fischer A. Submerged Stone Age -- Danish examples and North Sea potential // Submarine prehistoric archaeology of the North Sea. Research priorities and collaboration with industry. CBA Research Report 141. English Heritage/Council for British Archaeology. 2004. P. 23-36; Koijmans L. Mesolithic Bone and Antler Implements from the North Sea and from the Netherlands // Berichten van de Rijksdienst voor het Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek. Jaargang 20-21. 1971. P. 27-73; Reid C. Submerged Forest. Cambridge, 1913., erosion and redeposition of sediment in this

dynamic environment were thought to have effectively erased any cultural deposits, leaving only heavily abraded artefacts as remnants of former cultural contexts Coles B. Doggerland: a Speculative Survey // Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society. Vol. 64. 1998. P 45-81..

An increasing general focus on submerged Stone Age archaeology, inspired to some degree by significant industrial development of off-shore technology, has recently prompted a systematic appraisal of the potential for locating and investigating submerged Stone Age sites from glacial periods when the sea level was significantly lower than it is today. It is a well-established fact that significant parts of the continental shelf were inhabited during various Stone Age epochs. As far as the English Channel is concerned, for instance, a settlement on land now partly located below present sea level has recently been shown to date back almost a million years in Happisburgh in eastern England Ashton N., Lewis S. G., De Groote I., Duffy S. M., Bates M., Bates R., Hoare P., Lewis M., Parfitt S. A., Peglar S., Williams C., Stringer C. Hominin Footprints from Early Pleistocene Deposits at Happisburgh, UK // PLOS ONE. February 2014. Vol. 9, iss. 2, 13 p.; Bailey G., Sakellariou D. et al. SPLASHCOS: Submerged Prehistoric Archaeology and Landscapes of the Continental Shelf // Antiquity. Vol. 086, iss. 334. December 2012; Bicket A. Submerged Prehistory: Marine ALSF Research in Context. Marine ALSF Science Monograph Series No. 5. (Ed. J. Gardiner). MEPF 10/P150. 2011.; Dix J., Quinn R., Westley K. Re-assessment of the archaeological potential of continental shelves // English Heritage ALSF project No. 3362. University of Southampton, 2008; Flemming N. Research Infrastructure for Systematic Study ofthe Prehistoric Archaeology of the European Submerged Continental Shelf // Submerged Prehistory. Oxford, 2011. P 287-297; Grnn O., Froberg Mortensen L. Stone Age in the Danish North Sea Sector // Maritime Archaeology Newsletter from Denmark. No. 26, Summer 2011. P 3-8; Parfitt S. A., Ashton N. M., Lewis S. G., Abel R. L., Russell Coope G., Field M. H., Gale R., Hoare P G., Larkin N. R., Lewis M. D., Karloukovski V., Maher B. A., Peglar S. M., Preece R. C., Whittaker J. E., Stringer C. B. Early Pleistocene human occupation at the edge of the boreal zone in northwest Europe // Nature. Vol. 466, iss. 7303, 8 Jul. 2010. P 229-233; Peeters H. North Sea Prehistory Research and Management Framework (NSPRMF). Amersfoort, 2009; Arch-Manche: Archaeology, Art and Coastal Heritage -- tools to support management and climate change planning across the Channel Regional Sea: Technical Report // Arch-Manche Technical Report / Eds J. Satchel, L. Tidbury. September. 2014. P 40; Tizzard L., Bicket A., De Loecker D. Seabed Prehistory. Investigating the Palaeogeography and Early Middle Palaeolithic Archaeology in the Southern North Sea. Wessex Archaeology Report 35. 2015..

1. The environmental setting

A central problem relating to the understanding of Stone Age settlement during prehistoric glacial periods is that a rather primitive form of modelling has generally been applied to environmental-cultural interactions in archaeological studies. The edges of prehistoric ice sheets have been perceived as simple walls of ice that blocked human access to `glaciated' areas covering northern land surfaces Bordes F The Old Stone Age. Toronto, 1972. P 9-10, 213; Coles J. M., Higgs E. S. The Archaeology of Early Man. London, 1975. P 18, 419; Honorй P Das Buch der Altsteinzeit -- oder der Streit um die Vorfahren. Wien, 1967. P 101, 399, 406, 430.. Very little attention has been paid to the importance of land/sea interfaces, including the quite common broad ice-free corridors running between the `outer coast' and the `inland ice margin', as recognised in modern glaciology Barron E., van Andel T. H., Pollard D. Glacial Environments II: Reconstructing the Climate of Europe in the Last Glaciation // Neanderthals and modern humans in the European landscape during the last glaciation: archaeological results of the Stage 3 Project. University of Cambridge, 2003. P. 57-78; Kelly M. A., Long A. J. The dimensions of the Greenland Ice Sheet since the Last Glacial Maximum // PAGES News. Vol. 17, no. 2, June 2009. P 60-61; Lambeck K., Purcell A., Zhao J., Svensson N.-O. The Scandinavian Ice Sheet: from MIS 4 to the end of the Last Glacial Maximum // BOREAS. Vol. 39, no. 2. 2010. P 410-435;

Mackintosh A., Colledge N., Domack E., Dunbar R., Leventer A., White D., Pollard D., DeConto R., Fink D., Zwartz D., Gore D., Lavoie C. Retreat of the Antarctic ice sheet during the last glacial termination // Nature Geoscience. Vol. 4. 2011, March. P. 195-202; Passe T., Andersson L. Shore-level displacement in Fennoscandia calculated from empirical data // GFF. Vol. 127 (2005). P. 253-268; Weidick A., Bennike O. Quaternary glaciation history and glaciology of Jakobshavn Isbrs and the Disko Bugt region, West Greenland: a review. Copenhagen, 2007. P. 12, 48-49..

Fig. 1. The permanent ice sheet on Greenland consists of a number of glaciers flowing from the interior out towards the coast. In some areas these glaciers reach fjords where they break up to form icebergs. In other areas the ice melts or evaporates before it reaches the coast. The outer coast does not have permanent ice cover [Weidick, 1995]

There are numerous past and present examples of glaciated areas with ice-free outer coasts, such as modern Greenland (Fig. 1) and the Antarctic during the Last Glacial Maximum, as well as several other similar prehistoric situations Long A. J., Roberts D. H., Wright M. R. Isolation basin stratigraphy and Holocene relative sea-level change on Arvepinsen Ejland, Disko Bugt, West Greenland // Journal of Quaternary Science. Vol. 14(4). 1999. P. 323-345; Mackintosh A., Colledge N., Domack E., Dunbar R., Leventer A., White D., Pollard D., De- Conto R., Fink D., Zwartz D., Gore D., Lavoie C. Retreat of the Antarctic ice sheet during the last glacial termination // Nature Geoscience. Vol. 4, March 2011. P. 195-202; Weidick A., Bennike O. Quaternary glaciation history and glaciology of Jakobshavn Isbrs and the Disko Bugt region, West Greenland: a review. Copenhagen, 2007. P. 12.. In other cases, the ice sheet extends or extended beyond the coastline and into the sea as shelf ice Lemke P., Ren J., Alley R. B., Allison I., Carrasco J., Flato G., Fujii Y., Kaser G., Mote P., Thomas R. H., Zhang T. Observations: Changes in Snow, Ice and Frozen Ground // Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2007. P. 341; Sejrup H. P., Larsen E., Haflidason H., Berstad I. M., Hjelstuen B. O., Jonsdottir H., King E. L., Landvik J., Longva O., Nygard A., Ottesen D., Raunholm S., Rise L., Stalsberg K. Configuration, history and impact of the Norwegian Channel Ice Stream // Boreas. 2003. Vol. 32. P. 18-36..

A complex set of factors controls the configuration of glacial coasts: precipitation, melting of and evaporation from the ice sheet, altitude of the snow line, rate of growth of the ice sheet, sea temperature, presence/absence of permanent sea ice and so on Dansgaard W., White J. W. C., Johnsen S. J. The abrupt termination of the Younger Dryas climate event // Nature. Vol. 339. 15 June. 1989. P. 532-534; Lemke P., Ren J., Alley R. B., Allison I., Carrasco J., Flato G., Fujii Y., Kaser G., Mote P., Thomas R. H., Zhang T. Observations: Changes in Snow, Ice and Frozen Ground. P. 341; Weidick A., Bennike O. Quaternary glaciation history and glaciology of Jakobshavn Isbrs and the Disko Bugt region, West Greenland: a review. Copenhagen, 2007. P. 28-64.. Permanent sea ice will, due to its insulating effect, reduce the impact of the relatively warm seawater (warmer than c. -1.8 °C) on a land-based ice sheet and deflect the sun's rays more efficiently than open water, thereby reducing the sun's heating effect on the sea Armand L. K., Leventer A. Palaeo Sea Ice Distribution -- Reconstruction and Palaeoclimatic Significance // Sea Ice. An Introduction to its Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Geology. Oxford, 2003. P. 333-372; Gildor H., Tziperman E. Sea ice as the glacial cycles' climate switch: Role of seasonal and orbiting forcing // Paleoceanography. Vol. 15(6). 2000. P. 605-615; Golden K. M. Climate Change and the Mathematics of Transport in Sea Ice // Notices of the American Mathematical Society. Vol. 56(5). 2009. P. 562-584. The potential for formation of permanent sea ice will depend on a series of factors, such as the depth and bathymetry of the seabed, currents, wind conditions, etc. Leventer A. Particulate Flux from Sea Ice in Polar Waters // Sea Ice. An Introduction to its Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Geology. Oxford, 2003. P. 303-332; Morison J., Kwok R., Peralta-Ferritz C., Alkire M., Rigor I., Steele M. Changing Arctic Ocean freshwater pathways // Nature. Vol. 481. 5 January. 2012. P. 66-70; Nghiem S. V., Clemente-Colon P., Rigor I. G., Hall D. K., Neumann G. Seafloor control on sea ice // Deep-Sea Research II. Vol. 77-80. 2012. P. 52-61. Recent reconstructions of the Weichselian landscape show extensive ice-free coastal and inland zones for the Scandinavian North Sea margin which, in the southernmost zone, persist throughout the entire glaciation. The Norwegian coast may have been ice-covered through most of the later Weichselian, but its ice/land/sea configuration during this period is difficult to reconstruct in detail Barron E., van Andel T. H., Pollard D. Glacial Environments II: Reconstructing the Climate of Europe in the Last Glaciation. (Eds.) Tjeerd H. van Andel and William Davies // Neanderthals and modern humans in the European landscape during the last glaciation: archaeological results of the Stage 3 Project. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, 2003. P. 57-78; Lambeck K., Purcell A., Zhao J., Svensson N.-O. The Scandinavian Ice Sheet: from MIS 4 to the end of the Last Glacial Maximum // BOREAS. Vol. 39, no. 2. 2010. P. 410-435; Mangerud J. Ice sheet limits in Norway and on the Norwegian continental shelf // Quaternary Glaciations -- Extent and Chronology. Vol. 1. 2004. P. 271-294;

Passe T., Andersson L. Shore-level displacement in Fennoscandia calculated from empirical data // GFF. Vol. 127. 2005. P. 253-268..

In addition to abandoning simplistic ideas about the principles of interaction between human cultures and prehistoric glacial landscapes, we must also accept the existence of greater climatic and environmental complexity and dynamics during these glacial periods. The Greenland ice cores (DYE-3, GRIP, GISP2, NGRIP and NEEM) have revolutionised our ideas of climate dynamics Austin W E. N., HibbertF. D., Rasmussen S. O., Peters C., AbbotP. M., BryantC. L. The synchronization of palaeoclimatic events in the North Atlantic region during Greenland Stadial 3 (ca 27.5 to 23.3 kyr b2k) // Quaternary Science Reviews. Vol. 36. 2012. P. 154-164.. Given the early date demonstrated for Happisburgh Ashton N., Lewis S. G., De Groote I., Duffy S. M., Bates M., Bates R., Hoare P., Lewis M., Parfitt S. A., Peglar S., Williams C., Stringer C. Hominin Footprints from Early Pleistocene Deposits at Happisburgh, UK // PLOS ONE. February 2014. Vol. 9, iss. 2. 13 p., we should be aware of the possible existence in northern Europe of submerged sites during the glacial periods, with their low sea levels and relatively high coastal temperatures, as far back as a million years ago.

A further important argument for the existence of deep coastal Stone Age sites is that, apart from tropical rainforests, shallow marine coasts represent the most productive biotope in existence Odum E. P., Barrett G. W. Fundamentals of Ecology. Belmont, 2005., and they are therefore especially attractive to humans.

2. Cultural factors

Based on studies of the historical territorial development of Australian hunter-gatherer groups, Peter Sutton suggests that the more successful of these groups managed, over time, to extend and move their territories out to the highly productive seashore Sutton P The Pulsating Hearth: Large Scale Cultural and Demographic Processes in Aboriginal Australia // Hunter-Gatherer Demography. Past and Present. University of Sydney, 1990. P 71-80.. Information about very successful coastal hunter-gatherer groups, such as the Northwest Coast Indians, the coastal Nivkh/Gilyak of the Amur River estuary and the Ainu of Sakhalin and Hokkaido, also seems to support the general idea that highly productive marine coasts Odum E. P., Barrett G. W. Fundamentals of Ecology. Belmont, 2005. hold a particular attraction for humans and represent a special potential for human cultural development Black L. The Nivkh (Gilyak) of Sakhalin and the Lower Amur // Arctic Anthropology. Vol. 10(1). 1973. P 1-110; Ohnuki-Tierney E. The Ainu of the Northwest Coast of Southern Sakhalin. New York, 1974; Shternberg L. I. The Socal Organisation of the Gilyak // Anthropological Papers of The American Museum of Natural History. No. 82, 1999; Northwest Coast / ed. by W. Suttles. Washington, 1990; Watanabe H. The Ainu Ecosystem. Environment and Group Structure. Seattle, 1973.. A growing understanding of the importance of coastal resources in the Palaeolithic, including the Late Palaeolithic of northern Europe, is reflected in the more recent literature Bjerck H. B. Tidligmesolittsk tid (TM) og Fosnatradisjon 9500-8000 BC. // Ormen Lange Nyhamnia. NTNU Vitenskapsmuseets arkeologiske undersokelser. Trondheim, 2008. P 552-570; Bjerck H. B. Colonising seascapes: comparative perspectives on the development of maritime relations in the Pleistocene/Holocene transition in north-west Europe // Mesolithic Horizons. Oxford, 2009. P. 16-23; Bradley B., Stanford D. The North Atlantic ice-edge corridor: a possible Palaeolithic route to the New World // World Archaeology. Vol. 36(4). 2004. P 459-478; Cortes-Sanchez M., Morales-Muniz A., Simon-Vallejo M. D., Lozano-Fran- cisco M. C., Vera-Pelaez J. L., Finlayson C., Rodriguez-Vidal J., Delgado-Huertas A., Jimenez-Espejo F J., Martinez-Ruiz F., Martinez-Aguirre M. A., Pascual-Granged A. J., Bergada-Zapata M. M., Gibaja-Bao J. F., Ri- quelme-Cantal J. A., Lopez-Saez J. A., Rodrigo-Gamez M., Sakai S., Sugisaki S., Finlayson G., Fa D. A., Bicho N. Earliest Known Use of Marine Resources by Neanderthals // PLoS one. Vol. 6(9): e24026. 2011. Available: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0024026 (accessed: 04.02.2019); Fischer A., Mortensen M. F., Henriksen P. S., Mathiassen D. R., Olsen J. Dating the Trollesgave site and the Bromme culture -- chronological fix-points for the Lateglacial settlement of Southern Scandinavia // Journal of Archaeological Science. 2013. Vol. 40 P. 1-12; E18 Brunlanesprosjektet. Arkeologiske undersokelser i Larvik kommune, Vestfold fylke. Arsrapport 2007. Oslo, 2008. P. 42-51, 59-61; E18 Brunlanesprosjektet. Arkeologiske undersokelser i Larvik og Porsgrunn kommuner, Vestfold og Telemark fylker. Arsrapport 2008 / ed. by L. Jaksland. Oslo, 2009. P. 19-27, 30-31; Parfitt S.A., Barendregt R. W., Breds M., Collins M. J., Coope G. R., Durbridge P., Field M. H., Lee J. R., Lister A. M., Mutch R., Penkman K. E. H., Preece R. C., Rose J., Stringer C. B., Symmons R., Whittaker J. E., Wymer J. J., Stuart A. J. The earliest record of human activity in northern Europe // Nature. 2005. Vol. 438, no. 7070, 15 December. P. 1008-1012; Parfitt S. A., Ashton N. M., Lewis S. G., Abel R. L., Russell Coope G., Field M. H., Gale R., Hoare P G., Larkin N. R., Lewis M. D., Karlouk- ovski V., Maher B. A., Peglar S. M., Preece R. C., Whittaker J. E., Stringer C. B. Early Pleistocene human occupation at the edge of the boreal zone in northwest Europe // Nature. 2010. Vol. 466, no. 7303, 8 July. P. 229233; Ramos J., Domiguez-Bella S., Cantillo J. J., Soriguer M., Perez M., Hernando J., Vijande E., Zabala C., Clemente I., Bernal D. Marine resources exploitation by Palaeolithic hunter-fisher-gatherers and Neolithic tribal societies in the historical region of the Strait of Gibraltar // Quaternary International. 2011. Vol. 239. P. 104-113; Richards M. P., Jacobi R., Cook J., Pettitt P B., Stringer C. B. Isotope evidence for the intensive use of marine foods by Late Upper Palaeolithic humans // Journal of Human Evolution. 2005. Vol. 49. P. 390-394; Shackleton J. C., van Andel T. Prehistoric Shore Environments, Shellfish Availability, and Shellfish Gathering at Frantchi, Greece // Geoarchaeology. 1986. Vol. 1, no. 2. P. 127-143; Wikell R., Molin F., Pettersson M. The archipelago of Eastern Middle Sweden -- Mesolithic settlement in comparison with C14 and shoreline dating // Chronology and Evolution within the Mesolithic of North-West Europe. 2009. P. 417-434..

Territorial manoeuvring over time at clan level, or direct migration, either locally or over greater distances, are both well-known phenomena in hunter-gatherer societies Alden Smith E., Hill K., Marlowe F W., Nolin D., Wiessner P., Gurven M., Bowles S., Mulder M. B., Hertz T., Bell A. Wealth Transmission and Inequality among Hunter-Gatherers // Current Anthropology. 2010. Vol. 51 (1), February. P. 19-34; Gran O., Turov M., Klokkernes T. Settling in the landscape -- settling the land: Ideological aspects of territoriality in a Siberian hunter-gatherer society // Archaeology of Settlements and Landscape in the North Umea University. 2008. P. 57-80; Layton R. Political and Territorial Structures Among Hunter-Gatherers // Man. New Series. 1986. Vol. 21(1), March. P. 18-33; Pettipas L. Aboriginal Migrations. A History of Movements in Southern Manitoba. Manitoba, 1996; Raghavan M. et al. Upper Palaeolithic Siberian genome reveals dual ancestry of Native Americans // Nature. 2014. Vol. 505, no. 7481, 2 January. P. 87-94; Reich D., Patterson N., Campbell D., Tandon A., Mazieres S. et al. Reconstructing Native American population history // Nature. 2012. Vol. 488, no. 7411, 16 August. P. 370-376.. This introduces the interesting possibility that deeper submerged coastlines may have been densely populated by cultural groups that differed markedly from those we can observe in today's terrestrial situations.

The author has had the opportunity to study the Siberian Evenk and has recorded a rather high level of curiosity-driven long-distance travel by them. This concurs with Parry's observations of the Inuit living in the Melville Peninsula area Parry W. E. Journal of a Second Voyage for the Discovery of a North-West Passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific; Performed in the Years 1821-22-23 in his Majesty's ships Fury and Hecla, under the Orders of Captain William Edward Parry, R. N., F. R. S., and Commander of the Expedition. London, 1824. P. 175, 185, 196-199, 252, 296, 303-305, 512-513.. Long-distance pre-contact trading expeditions to areas more than a thousand kilometres from their homes appear to have been a well-known phenomenon among the Indians of the Canadian Plains as well as those of the North American Southwest. Travel and related exchange activities must be seen as something in which hunter-gatherers liked to engage Brown J. S. H. History of the Canadian Plains Until 1870 // Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 13 -- Plains. Washington, 2001. P. 300-312; Clark J. G. D. Prehistoric Europe. The Economic Basis. London, 1952. P. 241-256; Fitzgerald R. T., Jones T. L., Schroth A. Ancient long-distance trade in Western North America: new AMS radiocarbon dates from Southern California // Journal of Archaeological Science. Vol. 32. 2005. P. 423-434; Grindon A. J., Davison A. Irish Cepaea nemoralis Land Snails Have a Cryptic Fran- co-Iberian Origin That Is Most Easily Explained by the Movements of Mesolithic Humans // PLoS ONE 8(6): e65792. 2013. Available: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0065792 (accessed: 04.02.2019); Klassen L. Jade und Kupfer. Untersuchungen zum Neolithisierungsprozess im westlichen Ostseeraum unter besonderer Berьcksichtigung der Kulturentwicklung Europas 5500-3500 BC. Aarhus, 2009. P. 24-148; Ray A. J. Some Thoughts about the Reasons for Spatial Dynamism in the Early Fur Trade. 1580-1800 // Three Hundred Prairie Years: Henry Kelsey's “Inland Country of Good Report”. University of Regina, 1993. P. 114, 121; Reimer R. Reassessing the role of Mount Edziza obsidian in northwestern North America // Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015). P. 418-426; Swagerty W R. Indian Trade in the Trans-Mississippi West to 1870 // Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 4 -- History of Indian -- White Relations. Washington, 1988. P. 351-374; Sulgostowska Z. Mesolithic mobility and contacts on areas of the Baltic Sea watershed, the Sudety, and Carpathian Mountains // Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 2006. Vol. 25. P. 193-203..

Whereas the southernmost parts of the Scandinavian North Sea coastal areas and their hinterlands were apparently without ice cover throughout the entire Weichselian glaciation, and the Danish North Sea zone was only partly glaciated during the relatively short Late Glacial Maximum, it is possible that larger parts of the Norwegian North Sea coast were glaciated even though there were most probably significant ice-free refugia Barron E., van Andel T. H., Pollard D. Glacial Environments II: Reconstructing the Climate of Europe in the Last Glaciation // Neanderthals and modern humans in the European landscape during the last glaciation: archaeological results of the Stage 3 Project. Cambridge, 2003. P. 57-78; Lambeck K., Purcell A., Zhao J., Svensson N.-O. The Scandinavian Ice Sheet: from MIS 4 to the end of the Last Glacial Maximum // BOREAS. 2010. Vol. 39, no. 2. P. 410-435; Mangerud J. Ice sheet limits in Norway and on the Norwegian continental shelf // Quaternary Glaciations -- Extent and Chronology. Vol. 1 Europe, Elsevier. Amsterdam, 2004. P. 271-294; Parducci L., Jorgensen T., Tollefsrud M. M., Elverland E., Alm T., Fontana S. L., Bennett K. D., Haile J. Matetovici I., Suyama Y., Edwards M. E. Andersen K., Rasmussen M., Boessenkool S., Coissac E., Brochmann C., Taberlet P, Houmark-Nielsen M., Krog Larsen N., Orlando L., Gilbert T. P., Kjxr K. H., Greve Alsos I., Willerslev E. Glacial Survival of Boreal Trees in Northern Scandinavia // Science. 2012. Vol. 335, 2 March. 2014. P. 1083-1087; Pдsse T., Andersson L. Shore-level displacement in Fennoscan- dia calculated from empirical data // GFF. 2005. Vol. 127. P. 253-268.. This does not imply, however, that it would have been a problem for humans to move around and subsist here. With an ice sheet extending all the way to the sea, there should be a good basis for solid sea ice in winter, which is traditionally the travelling season in northern coastal areas. `The Sea Ice is Our Highway' is for instance the title of a contribution to the Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment from the Inuit Circumpolar Council of Canada (2008). The Inuit have demonstrated that a winter economy based on fishing and hunting through and on sea ice can be quite an attractive option Birket-Smith K. The Chugach Eskimo // Nationalmuseets Skrifter, Ecnografisk Rskke, VI, Copenhagen, 1953..

On the other hand, if there was a generally unglaciated land/sea interface, transportation along the North Sea Coast without boats would also be an obvious possibility. The presence or absence of people along the Scandinavian North Sea coast seems therefore mainly to have been a question of the nature of the available resources.

3. Evidence for a mammoth fauna at the ice/land/sea interface in the Scandinavian North Sea sector during the Weichselian glaciation

The huge quantities of faunal remains trawled up by Dutch fishermen from the North Sea, including the Danish North Sea sector, show that an actual mammoth fauna existed here for extensive periods during the second half of the Weichselian glaciation Glimmerveen J., Mol D., Post K., Reumer J. W F, van der Plicht H., de Vos J., van Reenen G., Pals J. P Submarine prehistoric archaeology of the North Sea. Research priorities and collaboration with industry // CBA Research Report 141, English Heritage/Council for British Archaeology. 2004. P. 43-52.. In turn, this demonstrates the existence here of extensive and highly productive ice-free coastal landscapes. Regardless of the debate about the type of vegetation upon which the mammoth fauna depended, and also helped to maintain, there is no doubt that the existence of extensive open landscapes was a precondition for their presence in this area Kozhevnikov J. P., Ukraintseva V V. Pleistocene tundra-steppe: arguments pro and con // Mammoths and the Mammoth Fauna: Studies of an Extinct Ecosystem. Proceedings of the First International Mammoth

Conference St. Petersburg, Russia, October 16-21, 1995. DEINSEA 6. 1999. P. 199-210; Putshkov P V. The impact of mammoths on their biome: clash of two paradigms // Advances in Mammoth Research. Proceedings of the Second International Mammoth Conference, Rotterdam, May 16-20 1999. DEINSEA 9. 2003. P 365-379; Willerslev et al. Fifty thousand years of Arctic vegetation and megafaunal diet // Nature. 2014. Vol. 506, no. 7486, 6 February. P 47-51..

Mammoth remains have been recovered from the Dutch and British North Sea sectors for the past 150 years and are heavily represented in Dutch natural history museums Mol D., Post K., Reumer J. W F., van der Pflicht J., de Vos J., van Geel B., van Reenen G., Pals J. P., Glimmerveen J. The Eurogeul -- first report of the palaeontologica, palynological and archaeological investigations of this part of the North Sea // Quaternary International. 2006. Vol. 142-143. P 178-185; Interdisciplinary Archaeological Research Programme Maasvlakte 2, Rotterdam, Part 2. BOORrapporten 566 / eds J. M. Moree, M. M. Sier. 2015. P 357; Peeters H. North Sea Prehistory Research and Management Framework (NSPRMF). Amersfoort, 2009; Glimmerveen J., Mol D., Post K., Reumer J. WF., van der Plicht H., de Vos J., van Reenen G., Pals J. P Submarine prehistoric archaeology of the North Sea. Research priorities and collaboration with industry // CBA Research Report 141, English Heritage/Council for British Archaeology. 2004. P. 43-52. (Fig. 3). Over a period of about 40 years, enormous quantities of palaeontological remains, including bones of mammoth, deer, woolly rhinoceros, wolf, bear, musk-ox, sabre-toothed tiger and other species, were recovered from the sea by Dutch fishermen using beam trawls. This is a type of trawl that, until the technology was recently improved, scraped through the upper 30-40 cm of the seabed with a heavy metal chain. The consumers of this by-catch were palaeontological collectors around the world. The material was sorted into categories for sale, which is legally permitted, as the material was allegedly found outside the territorial limit of 24 nautical miles Dromgoole S. Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Law. Cambridge, 2013. P 28-64.. There was a requirement to report bone artefacts to the archaeological authorities, and this rule was complied with. A qualified estimate is that, during this 40-year-period, about 10-20 tonnes of diverse palaeontological remains were landed each year by trawlers at the various ports.

Fig. 2. Sketch maps showing the distribution of land, sea and ice during three phases of the last glaciation (the Weichselian -- 117 ky -- 11.6 ky BP). Right: Ice sheets shown as white areas. Left: Ice sheets shown as transparent areas with white outlines to give a better impression of the present-day areas they covered. Water: blue; land today: dark grey; additional land during the different phases: light grey. Top: 15 ky BP. Middle: Last Glacial Maximum -- LGM -- 18 ky BP. Bottom: OIS-3 warm phase 37 ky BP. Based on [Barron et al., 2003; Clark et al., 2012; Sejrup et al., 2000; Sejrup et al., 2003; and Svendsen et al., 2004]

The items acquired by palaeontological collectors have, in some cases, been analysed and presented in scientific publications Mol D., de Vos J., Bakker R., van Geel B., Glimmerveen J., van der Plicht H., Post K. Mammoeten, neushoorns en andere dieren van de Noordzeebodem. Veen Magazines. Diemen, 2008., while bones that were sold commercially have probably not been recorded or published. Most of the faunal remains have been found across a wide area straddling the Dutch-UK maritime boundary in the central-southern part of the North Sea, although some have been recovered further north in the UK, German and Danish sectors.

Radiocarbon dates have been published for several items, with an apparent focus on material from the Brown Bank. The time interval indicated by the 13 dates for mammoth, two for musk-ox and one each for giant deer and hyena, is 45-34 ky BP. The nine dates for reindeer span the interval from 45 ky -- 30 ky BP Glimmerveen J., Mol D., Post K., Reumer J. W F, van der Plicht H., de Vos J., van Reenen G., Pals J. P Submarine prehistoric archaeology of the North Sea. Research priorities and collaboration with industry // CBA Research Report 141, English Heritage/Council for British Archaeology. 2004. P 43-52.. The mammoth fauna recovered from the Eurogeul shipping lane and the Yangtze harbour in the Rotterdam area, and especially its later part in the Dutch Yangtze Harbour study, has also been dated to the Weichselian glaciation Mol D., Post K., Reumer J. W F., van der Pflicht J., de Vos J., van Geel B., van Reenen G., Pals J. P., Glimmerveen J. The Eurogeul -- first report of the palaeontologica, palynological and archaeological investigations of this part of the North Sea // Quaternary International. 2006. Vol. 142-143. P 178-185;

Interdisciplinary Archaeological Research Programme Maasvlakte 2, Rotterdam. Pt. 2. BOORrapporten 566 / eds J. M. Moree, M. M. Sier. 2015. P. 370, 382..

Fig. 3. Example of megafaunal remains trawled up from the North Sea (photo by Jan Meulmeester)

The key questions are: What do these remains of the mammoth fauna represent? Are they from animals that died of natural causes -- possibly in so-called `mammoth cemeteries' -- due to natural catastrophes, or were they the prey of prehistoric hunters? Why were they preserved? Unburied bones, including those of the order Proboscidea, i.e. elephants and mammoths that are left unburied on the ground, normally do not survive for long Bell L. S., Skinner M. F, Jones S. J. The speed of post mortem change to the human skeleton and its taphonomic significance // Forensic Science International. 1996. Vol. 82. P. 129-140; Haynes G. Longitudinal Studies of African Elephant Death and Bone Deposits // Journal of Archaeological Science. 1988. Vol. 15. P. 131-157; Trueman C. N. G., Behrensmeyer A. K., Tuross N., Weiner S. Mineralogical and compositional changes in bones exposed on soil surfaces in Amboseli National Park, Kenya: diagenetic mechanisms and the role of sediment pore fluids // Journal of Archaeological Science. 2004. Vol. 31. P. 721-739..To what extent do these remains represent material associated with prehistoric settlements where their chances of preservation were significantly improved by, for instance, deposition in pits or other forms of burial? The ability of prehistoric hunter-gatherers to kill prehistoric elephants, including mammoths, has been questioned Binford L. R. Human Ancestors; Changing Views of Their Behavior // Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. Vol. 4. 1985. P. 292-327; Bosch M. D. Human-Mammoth dynamics in the mid-Upper Paleolithic of the Middle Danube region // Quaternary International. 2012. Vol. 276-277. P. 170-182; Soffer O. The Upper Paleolithic of the Central Russian Plain. New York, 1985. P. 477.. This aspect must therefore be investigated as a basis for further discussion.

4. Ethno-archaeological evidence for human hunting of Elephant/ Mammoth family

The ethnographic record demonstrates that hunter-gatherers are able to kill Proboscidea. The pygmies of the Congo and Cameroon jungle had no apparent problems in killing elephants with their fire-hardened wooden spears (in a few cases apparently tipped with poison) or sometimes with harpoons. These large animals were targeted in their soft underbellies, just behind the ribs, or had their Achilles tendons cut. The aim of the former was to puncture the animal's bladder. Wounds inflicted in this way would leave few traces on the skeleton, and they enabled a single hunter to kill an elephant. The animal would die within a couple of days of the attack, in many cases far away from where it had been speared Putnam A. E. Eight Years with Congo Pigmies. London, 1955. P. 91-96; Turnbull C. M. The Mbuti Pygmies: An Ethnographic Survey // Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. 50, pt. 3. New York 1965. P. 206-207; Zwilling E. A. Unvergessenes Kamerun. Zehn Jahre Wanderungen und Jagden 1928-1938. Berlin, 1941.. Cutting an elephant's Achilles tendons required a group of four to five pygmy hunters, but was also an efficient hunting method, which left the elephant to die where it had been attacked. According to W^hle, the older pygmies in his study area were also acquainted with pygmy use of spear-falls and self-shot mechanisms, while the younger pygmies were not Turnbull C.M.: 1) The Mbuti Pygmies: An Ethnographic Survey // Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. 50, pt. 3. New York 1965. P. 208; 2) The Mbuti Pygmies. Change and Adaptation. New York, 1983. P. 19-20. (W^hle personal communication).

According to Schebesta, some Asian Semang (the Ple from Ulu Sengoh/Perak) apparently also hunted elephants for food using foot-traps or spear-falls, even though most of the groups in this area had a food taboo relating to the animals Schebesta P Die Negritos Asiens. II Bd. Etnographie der Negrito. 1. Halbband, Wirtschaft und Soziologie. Mцdling, 1954. S. 58.. The Indian Kadar of Cochin trapped elephants for use as presents but did not eat their flesh because of a similar food taboo Ehrenfels U. R. Kadar of Cochin. Madras University Anthropological Series, no. I. University of Madras, 1952. P. 17, 57, 71, 110, 112, 180-181..

All in all, it seems that hunting Proboscidea apparently posed no problems for either recent pygmy hunter-gatherers or a number of other cultural groups.

5. Archaeological evidence for human hunting of Elephant/Mammoth family

The body of archaeological evidence for human hunting of Proboscidea is presently increasing rather rapidly due to a new research focus on this theme. New mammoth sites with evidence for hunting have been found and old sites and finds have been re-examined, resulting in new observations and identifications of traces indicating hunting and butchering.

5.1 Associated hunting weapons and remains of Proboscidea that indicate hunting

A fire-hardened wooden (ebony) spear from the Upper Acheulian, found between the ribs of the skeleton of a straight-tusked elephant at Lehringen in Germany, demonstrates that, as has been pointed out by Jacob-Friesen and Movius, spear-hunting techniques like those of pygmy groups/tribes were practised during the Palaeolithic Jacob-Friesen K. H. Grosswildjдger des Eiszeitalters in Niedersachsen. Kosmos, Heft 11. November, 1949. P. 408-412; Movius Jr. H. L. A Wooden Spear of Third Interglacial Age from Lower Saxony

// Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 1950. Vol. 6, no. 2. P. 139-142; Thieme H. Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany // Nature. 1997. Vol. 385, no. 6619, 27 February. P 807-810.. A clumsily-made, roughly-pointed artefact, fashioned from the split long bone of a deer, was found in the more or less articulated skeleton of an enormous forest elephant (calculated head height 4.2 m) that had partly sunk into the muddy shore sediments of a prehistoric lake at Neumark-Grobern, Germany. Clearly associated with this skeleton were also 26 Palaeolithic flint flakes Mania D., Thomae M., Litt T., Weber T. Neumark-Grobern. Beitrage zur Jagd des mittelpalaolithi- schen Menschen. Berlin, 1990. P 117-121, 215-235.. The authors doubt whether this irregular bone point would have been able to penetrate the 2-3 cm thick `leather hide' of the elephant. However, it should be borne in mind that the animal's belly is much less well protected than the rest of its body, making this the ideal point of attack. The tip of what appears to have been a wooden spear of yew, not fire-hardened, was found at Clacton-on-Sea, in a Clactonian flint artefact context, in deposits containing faunal remains that included forest elephant (Elephas antiquus) Oakley K. P., Andrews P, Keeley L. H., Clark J. D. A Reappraisal of the Clacton Spearpoint // Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society. 1977. Vol. 43. P 13-30.. An interesting note in Nature (1888) mentions the discovery near Southall, west of London, of a mammoth skeleton surrounded by flint artefacts, including hand axes:

Several implements were found in Norwood Lane, in close proximity to the remains, and a well-formed spear-head, nearly 5 inches in length, of exactly the same shape as the spear-heads of obsidian until recently in use among the natives of the Admiral Islands, and other savages, was discovered in actual contact with the bones; smaller spear-head flakes, less symmetrically worked, were also found at this spot. They are symmetrically formed for easy insertion into the shafts by thinning out the butt ends, similar to those found abundantly by the author at the workshop floor, Acton, and described by him in his recently published work, “Palaeolithic Man in North-West Middlesex” Brown J. A. Discovery of Elephas Primigenius associated with flint implements at Southall // Nature. 1888. Vol. 38, iss. 977, July 19. P 283-284..

5.2 Projectile impacts and butchering traces

The increasing number of records of spear, lance and other projectile points, or evidence of the impact of such weapons, found on prehistoric mammoth/elephant skeletons, demonstrates that Proboscidea were hunted by humans during the Palaeolithic. The YMAM site, near the Yana Palaeolithic Site (RHS), in Arctic Siberia, is an accumulation of mammoth bones representing a minimum of 31 individuals, over a period extending from 31,200 to 25,100 BP. Of the four projectile impacts recorded there, three had struck three right scapulae and the fourth -- a pelvis Nikolskiy P A., Pitulko V. V. Evidence from the Yana Palaeolithic site, Arctic Siberia, yields clues to the riddle of mammoth hunting // Journal of Archaeological Science. 2013. Vol. 40. P 4189-4197.. At Kostienki I, dated to around 210 BP, a mammoth rib was found with a tip fragment from a flint point embedded in it Praslov N. Outils de chasse du Paleolithique de Kostenki // Anthropologie et Prehistoire. 2000. Vol. 111. P 37; Sinitsyn A. A., Praslov N. D., Svezhentsev Yu. S., Sulerzhitskii L. D. Radiouglerodnaia khronologiia paleolita Vostochnoi Evropy // Radiouglerodnaia khronologiia paleolita Vostochnoi Evropy i Severnoi Azii. Problemy i perspektivy. St. Petersburg, 1997. P. 21-66.. At Lugovskoe, western Siberia, the skeleton of an adult female mammoth, dating from around 13,500 BP, had a penetrating injury to a thoracic vertebra caused by what appears to have been a point with two slots for quartzite inserts Zenin V. N., Leshchinskiy S. V., ZolotarevK. V., GrootesP M., NadeauM.-J. Lugovskoe: geoarchaeology and culture of a Paleolithic site // Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia. 2006. Vol. 25. P. 4153.. In 2011, a concentration of faunal remains, including those of at least five mammoths, was found at the Orto-Stan site on the Buor-Khaya Peninsula, Siberia. Two well-preserved pelvic bones of mammoth showed clear projectile impacts and one of these had clear traces of the removal of the head of the femur with a chopping tool. In addition, a right innominate bone of a horse had distinct cutmarks made by a lithic tool. The three bones with impacts resulting from human activity are dated to 28,790-27,080 BP Pitulko V. V., Yakshina I., Strauss J., Schirrmeister L., Knzuetsova T., Nikolskiy P., Pavlova E. Y. A MIS 3 kill-butchery mammoth site on Buor-Khaya Peninsula, Eastern Laptev Sea, Russian Arctic // Scientific Annals, School of Geology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece, VI^th International Conference on Mammoths and their Relatives, Grevena -- Siatista. Special Vol. 102. Thessaloniki, 2014. P. 158-159.. By the Maksunuokha river in Siberia, the Nikita site consists of a redeposited concentration of faunal remains that includes at least 11 individuals. Several mammoth ribs show clear butchering marks, and some have lithic tool fragments embedded in them. The site has been radiocarbon dated to 12,050-11,960 BP and contains ivory debitage, spearhead preforms and actual lithic artefacts including teardrop bifaces Ibid. P 155.. On the Ilin-Syalakh river, in the Yana-Indighirka interfluve, a smaller concentration of mammoth remains, the ISYLAKI-034 site, includes several mammoth ribs with clear human impact traces that can be interpreted as either butchering marks or projectile impacts. A mammoth mandible from this site gave a date of 22,700 BC Ibid.. At the Valea Morilor Palaeolithic site, Moldova, a mammoth ulna showed evidence of having been pierced by a pointed weapon Obada T., van der Plicht J., Markova A., Prepelitsa A. Preliminary results of studies of the Valea Morilor Upper Palaeolithic site (Chisinau, Republic of Moldova): A new camp of mammoth hunters // Quaternary International. 2012. Vol. 276-277. P 227-241.. At the Gontsy Palaeolithic site in the Ukraine, a bladelet was found lodged in a mammoth rib Iakovleva L., Djindjian F. New data on Mammoth bone settlements of Eastern Europe in the light of the new excavations of the Gontsy site (Ukraine) // Quaternary International. 2005. Vol. 126-128. P 195207.. At the Manis Mastodons site, on Washington's Olympic Peninsula, a mastodon skeleton had a point made from a mastodon bone embedded in a 12th, 13th or (most likely) 14th rib; the point has been dated to 13,800 BP Lawler A. Pre-Clovis Mastodon Hunters Make a Point. Science Vol. 334, 21 October, 2011; Waters M. R., Stafford T. W. jr., McDonald H. G., Gustafson C., Rasmussen M., Cappellini E., Olsen J. V., Szklarczyk D., Jensen L. J., Gilbert T. P., Willerslev E. Pre-Clovis Mastodon Hunting 13,800 Years Ago at the Manis Site, Washington // Science. 2011. Vol. 334, 21 October. P 351-353..

5.3 Configurations of Proboscidea remains indicating butchering

Several Palaeolithic sites have also been found to contain varying concentrations of Proboscidea remains, where the configuration of these bones, their relation to human artefacts, or to bones of other hunted species, cutmarks, bone breakage patterns, the surface conditions and/or the sorting of various skeletal parts etc., strongly indicate that these assemblages represent hunted and butchered animals. Examples include: Dolni Vestonice II, Pavlov I and Milovice G and IV, the Czech Republic; Geissenklosterlee, Hohle Fels,

Krems Wachtberg and the Neumark-Grцbern sites, Germany; Valea Morilor, the Republic of Moldova; the Maastricht-Belvйdиre Sites (B, C, G, N) and the Veldwezelt-Hezerwater sites (WFL, TL, MLMB), the Netherlands and Belgium; Krakow-Spadzista Street (B), Poland; Yudinovo (pavilion), Kostienki I and YMAM, Russia; Ambrona, Spain; Mezhirich and Gontsy, the Ukraine; La Sena and Lovewell, USA (Nebraska and Kansas) Fladerer F A., Salcher-Jedrasiak T. A., Hдndel M. Hearth-side bone assemblages within the 27 ka BP Krems-Wachtberg settlement: Fired ribs and the mammoth bone-grease hypothesis // Quaternary International -- in press -- (2012); Germonprй M., Sablin M., Khlopachev G. A., Grigorieva G. V. Possible evidence of mammoth hunting during the Epigravettian at Yudinovo, Russian Plain // Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 2008. Vol. 27. P. 475-492; Hoffecker J. F., Kuz'mina I. E., Syromyatnikova E. V., Anikovich M. V., Sinitsyn A. A. Popov V. V., Holliday V. T. Evidence for kill-butchery events of early Upper Paleolithic age at Kostenki, Russia // Journal of Archaeological Science. 2010. Vol. 37. P. 1073-1089; Holen S. R. Taphonomy of two last glacial maximum mammoth sites in the central Great Plains of North America: A preliminary report on La Sena and Lovewell // Quaternary International. 2006. Vol. 142-143. P. 30-43; Iakovleva L., Djindjian F., Maschenko E. N., Kronik S., Moigne A.-M. The late Upper Palaeolithic site of Gontsy (Ukraine): A reference for the reconstruction of the hunter-gatherer system based on a mammoth economy // Quaternary International. 2012. Vol. 255. P. 86-93; Kozlowski J. Mammoth bone accumulations and dwelling structures: discussing some arguments around Krakow-Spadzista B site // Perceived Landscapes and Built Environments. The Cultural Geography of Late Paleolithic Eurasia, BAR International Series. 2003. Vol. 1122. P. 59-64; Mania D., Thomae M., Litt T., Weber T. Neumark- Grobern. Beitrage zur Jagd des mittelpalaolithischen Menschen. Berlin, 1990. S. 36, 113-114, 117-121, 125-126, 215-235; Mьnzel S. C. Seasonal hunting of mammoth in the Ach-Valley of the Swabian Jura // The World of Elephants. Proceedings of the 1^st International Congress, Rome, 16-20 october, 2001. P. 318-322; Nikolskiy P A., Pitulko V. V. Evidence from the Yana Palaeolithic site, Arctic Siberia, yields clues to the riddle of mammoth hunting // Journal of Archaeological Science. 2013. Vol. 40. P. 4189-4197; Obada T., van der Plicht J., Markova A., Prepelitsa A. Preliminary results of studies of the Valea Morilor Upper Palaeolithic site (Chiзinвu, Republic of Moldova): A new camp of mammoth hunters // Quaternary International. 2012. Vol. 276-277. P. 227-241; Pidoplichko l.G. Upper Palaeolithic Dwellings of Mammoth Bones in the Ukraine // BAR International Series. Oxford, 1998. Vol. 712. P. 87-105, 157; Sinitsyn A.A., Stephanova K.N. Models of Landscape use in the Upper Palaeolithic. Geomorphic Processes and Geoarchaeology // From Landscape Archaeology to Archaeotourism. International conference, August 20-24. 2012, Moscow -- Smolensk, Russia. Extended Abstracts. P. 257-260; Svoboda J., Pйan S., Wojtal P Mammoth bone deposits and subsistence practices during Mid-Upper Palaeolithic in Central Europe: three cases from Moravia and Poland // Quaternary International. 2005. Vol. 126-128. P. 209-221; Svoboda J., Bochenski Z. M., Culikovд V., Dohnalovд A., Hladilovд S., Hlozek M., Horдcek I., Ivanov M., Krдlik M., Novдk M., Pryor A. J. E., Sдzelovд S., Stevens R. E., Wilczynski, Wojtal P Paleolithic Hunting in a Southern Moravian Landscape: The Case of Milovice IV, Czech Republic // Geoarchaeology: An International Journal. 2011, Vol. 26, no. 6. P. 838-866; Villa P., Soto E., Santonja M., Pйrez-Gonzдles A., Mora R., Parcerisas J., Sesй C. New data from Ambrona: closing the hunting versus scavenging debate // Quaternary International. 2005. Vol. 126-128. P. 223-250; Warrimont J. P L. M. N. de. Prospecting Middle Palaeolithic open-air sites in the Dutch-Belgian border area near Maastricht // PalArch's Journal of Archaeology of Northwest Europe 1. 2007. Vol. 3. P. 40-89; Wojtal P., Sobczyk K. Taphonomy of the Gravettian site -- Krakow Spadzista Street (B) // DEINSEA. 2003. Vol. 9. P. 557-562; Wojtal P., Wilczynski J., Bochenski Z. M., Svoboda J. A. The scene of spectacular feasts: Animal remains from Pavlov I south-east, the Czech Republic // Quaternary International. 2012. Vol. 252. P. 122141..