Mammoth-hunter camps in the Scandinavian North Sea sector during the Late Weichselian

Several concentrations of Proboscidea remains have been proclaimed so-called `mammoth cemeteries' in the sense of `natural death sites' where single individuals or herds of Proboscidea were caught in natural traps under circumstances that provided good conditions for the preservation of their remains. They are thought to have drowned while crossing rivers, lakes or swamps, to have been covered by falling/sliding earth, stone or other debris or to have fallen into `permafrost wells' (pot holes, sink holes) that can form as part of subsoil ice veins in permafrost areas, or to have drowned in flash floods Vereshchagin N. K.: 1) The mammoth “cemeteries” of North-East Siberia // Polar Record. 1974. Vol. 17, no. 106. P. 3-12; 2) Berelekh mammoth graveyard (in Russian) // Trudy Zoologicheskogo instituta.

1977. Vol. 72. P. 5-50; Vereshchagin N. K., Tomirdiaro S. V. Taphonomic research in permafrost regions: a survey of past and present studies in the former Soviet Union // Mammoths and the Mammoth Fauna: Studies of an Extinct Ecosystem. DEINSEA. 1999. Vol. 6. P. 187-198; Nikolskiy P.A., Basilyan A.E., Sulerzhitskya L. D., Pitulko V. V. Prelude to the extinction: Revision of the Achchagyi-Allaikha and Berelyokh mass accumulations of mammoth // Quaternary International. 2010. Vol. 219. P. 16-25..

In an attempt to distinguish between assemblages of mammoth/elephant remains resulting from hunting by humans and natural causes of death, Germonpre compares two archaeological sites likely to belong to the first category, Yudinovo (`pavilion' -- complexes 3 and 4) and Krakow-Spadzista Street, with concentrations of remains as high as one individual per 1.4--1.9 m2, with two modern African natural death sites where densities are markedly lower, ranging from one elephant individual per 6-35 m2. The individuals found at the latter sites tend also to be significantly younger than those in the assemblages resulting from (presumed) human activities: At least 85 % of the individuals at the two African natural death sites were less than 12 years of age when they died, whereas the average age of the individuals from the archaeological sites was considerably greater Corfield T. F Elephant mortality in Tsavo National Park // East African Wildlife Journal 11. 1973. P. 339-368; Germonpre M., Sablin M., Khlopachev G. A., Grigorieva G. V. Possible evidence of mammoth hunting during the Epigravettian at Yudinovo, Russian Plain // Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 2008. Vol. 27. P. 475-492; Haynes G. Mammoths, Mastodonts, and Elephants. Biology, Behavior, and the Fossil Record. Cambridge, 1991. Tables 4.6-4.7.. Account should be taken of the fact that the two natural death sites in Africa were both in places where elephants tend to sink into the mire. Consequently, young, weaker individuals would be more exposed to danger than older, stronger ones. Natural death sites representing herds that were covered by landslides can, on the other hand, be expected to have a different age profile. However, distinguishing between different site types, based on the age-at-death profiles of the animals involved appears more complicated than stated by Klein. Moreover, in addition to the fact that different types of natural death sites must be expected to produce different age-at-death profiles, the potential coexistence of various well-established hunting strategies further complicates the matter. This is demonstrated by Bosch's study of five mammoth bone assemblages in cultural deposits at four archaeological sites in the Middle Danube region Bosch M. D. Human-Mammoth dynamics in the mid-Upper Paleolithic of the Middle Danube region // Quaternary International. 2012. Vol. 276-277. P. 170-182; Klein R. G. Age (Mortality) Profiles as a Means of Distinguishing Hunted Species from Scavenged Ones in Stone Age Archeological Sites // Paleobiology. 1982. Vol. 8, no. 2 (Spring, 19132). P. 151-158.. Detailed studies of the presence/absence of small foot bones, sorting of specific skeletal parts and the degradation of bone surfaces appear to yield more reliable information about which category a bone assemblage belongs to Germonpre M., Sablin M., Khlopachev G. A., Grigorieva G. V. Possible evidence of mammoth hunting during the Epigravettian at Yudinovo, Russian Plain // Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 2008. Vol. 27. P. 475-492..

The classic `mammoth cemetery' in the North Yakutian locality of Berelekh was investigated extensively by Vereshchagin in 1970-1972. The excavation uncovered the remains of 140 mammoth individuals deposited in a palaeochannel. They are presumed to have died in small groups along the upper reaches of the proto-Berelekh river, killed either by winter blizzards or by drowning in spring or autumn when crossing the ice or by one or more flash-flood events. The use of `powerful jets of water' in the excavation may have resulted in the loss of Palaeolithic artefacts. The recovery of only 39 tusks is taken to reflect that some tusks were salvaged from the site by Palaeolithic hunters. The central question here is whether the dating of the bone bed to the interval 13,700-11,900 years BP is matched by the local presence of hunters. The Palaeolithic cultural deposits recorded 150 m downstream from the bone bed are dated to c. 12,000-11,500 years BP. However, unstratified finds of bone artefacts found in the area have yielded dates of 11,800, 12,200 and 18,920 years BP respectively, indicating that human presence locally may not have been restricted to the period represented by the cultural deposits first recorded in the area Pitulko V. V. The Berelekh Quest: A Review of Forty Years of Research in the Mammoth Graveyard in Northeast Siberia // Geoarchaeology. 2011. Vol. 26, no. 1. P. 5-32; Pitulko V. V., Basilyan A. E., Pavlova E. Y. The Berelekh Mammoth “Graveyard”: New Chronological and Stratigraphical Data from the 2009 Field Season // Geoarchaeology. 2014. Vol. 29. P. 277-299; Vereshchagin N. K.: 1) The mammoth `cemeteries' of North-East Siberia // Polar Record. 1974. Vol. 17, no. 106. P 3-12; Berelekh mammoth graveyard (in Russian) // Trudy Zoologicheskogo instituta. 1977. Vol. 72. P 5-50.. The fact that natural disasters, such as those suggested by Vereshchagin, may have resulted in the deposition in a palaeochannel of concentrations of mammoth skeletons of this magnitude within such a restricted area is intriguing.

Another important and extensively investigated mammoth mass death site is that at Sevsk, on the central Russian Plain, 600 km south of Moscow, which was excavated in 1988-91. The site, which is interpreted as resulting from a number of mammoths being caught by landslides, consisted of two spatially-connected lenses of alluvial sand and clay, 20 m long, 6-7 m wide and 30-50 cm thick. The lower lens contained all the articulated skeletons from a minimum of 33 individuals, as well as sixteen pieces of worked flint directly associated with the concentration of bones, which show no cutmarks, while the upper lens only contained isolated bones Maschenko E. N., Gablina S. S., Tesakov A. S., Simakova A. N. The Sevsk woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) site in Russia: Taphonomic, biological and behavioral interpretations // Quaternary International. 2006. Vol. 142-143. P 147-165, fig. 2B.. The age and sex distribution of the materials resemble those of modern elephant family groups and is very similar to the situation at Berelekh. The presence of articulated skeletons and small foot bones is taken as indicating that these mammoths died in situ. The dating interval for the bones from the lower bone-bearing lens is quite narrow: c. 13,950 years BP, whereas a tusk from the upper bone-bearing lens has been dated to 13,680 years BP Ibid. P 147-165.. It seems strange, however, that a group of 33 mammoths, including quite a number of strong, adult individuals, could be caught and killed by a landslide that deposited little more than 30-50 cm of sand, at the most. The bottom of the lower sand lens, as presented in the published section, seems to show local pit/depression features related to the visible skeletons (Fig. 4) Ibid. Fig. 2B.. The dimensions of the lower lens, 6-7 x 20 m, correspond to c. 4 m2 per mammoth individual. This is not much more than the area occupied by individual elephants pressed against each other and is very different from the spatial situations observed when screening a large number of photos of elephant herds where the animals are generally seen to be several metres apart. It is difficult to find scientific data on the maximum density of these herds. The minimum indoor space per elephant recommended by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) is, however, 56 m2 for males, 37 m2 females and 56 m2 for females with calves Associations of Zoos & Aquariums: AZA Standards for Elephant Management and Care. Approved March 2011..

Fig. 4. Vertical section through the excavation at Sevsk

1 -- Alluvial sand deposits underlying the bone-bearing lenticular layer; 2 -- The lower bone-bearing lenticular layer,

30-50 cm thick, containing well-preserved bones, skeletons and skeletal fragments; 3 -- The upper part of the bonebearing lenticular layer with isolated bones does not contain any complete skeletons or skeletal fragments; 4 -- Deposits overlaying the bone-bearing layer [Maschenko, 2006, fig. 2B]

A third possible “mammoth cemetery” is the north Siberian site of Achchagyi-Al- laikha, located 125 km to the east of the Berelokh locality. The site was discovered in the early 1970s in the side of the Achchagyi-Allaikha channel. It was partially excavated in 1982, with further investigation in 2003-04. All the faunal remains recovered so far represent material redeposited from one or more layers located higher up in the channel side. The distribution of the material is restricted to a 30-40 m zone along the channel. The mammoth remains include small bones, but no intact tusks, complete skulls or lower jaws and only a few isolated teeth. This situation probably reflects the easy accessibility of the site, and extraction of tusks, teeth and occasionally also large bones is known to have taken place (at times through large-scale excavation) with the involvement of local people from the Chokurdal settlement located 20 km away. A MNI (minimum number of individuals) of 21 individuals from the most recent campaign may overlap to some degree with the MNI of 14 individuals recovered in the first excavation. In terms of age and gender, the remains recovered during the most recent campaign match the composition of family groups of modern elephants. The material is coeval with Berelekh, with radiocarbon dates covering the interval from 12,500 to 12,300 years BP. Even though a few stone tools (two bifaces and a flake) were found during the 1982 excavation, prehistoric human activity at the site is thought to have been restricted to scavenging for tusks. As for the cause of death of these mammoths, it is suggested that early spring flooding (possibly aggravated by ice drift) was responsible Nikolskiy P A., Basilyan A. E., Sulerzhitskya L. D., Pitulko V. V. Prelude to the extinction: Revision of the Achchagyi-Allaikha and Berelyokh mass accumulations of mammoth // Quaternary International. 2010. Vol. 219. P. 16-25.. Again, it is rather difficult to understand how flooding could have led to the formation of such a small, spatially restricted concentration of bones. megafauna bone settlement glaciation

It is worth noting that several Russian researchers have, in recent years, become increasingly accepting of the general idea of humans as central agents in the creation of mammoth bone concentrations Pitulko V. V., Nikolskiy P A., Basilyan A. E., Pavlova E. Y. Dating mass accumulations of mammoth across Arctic Eurasia // The Quaternary in all of its variety. Basic issues, results, and major trends of further

research. Proceedings of the VII All-Russian Quaternary Conference (Apatity, September 12-17, 2011), Vol. 2. The Geological Institute KSC RAS. 2011. P. 146-149..

Based on evidence from the Gontsy site, Iakovleva et al. Iakovleva L., Djindjian F., Maschenko E. N., Kronik S., Moigne A.-M. The late Upper Palaeolithic site of Gontsy (Ukraine): A reference for the reconstruction of the hunter-gatherer system based on a mammoth economy // Quaternary International. 2012. Vol. 255. P. 86-93. describe the typical position of a mammoth-hunter base camp from the end of the Weichselian glaciation -- around 15,000-14,000 BP -- in the landscape, as well as the spatial `modules' that appear to make up such sites. They are generally located on promontories bordered by ravines cut into the slopes of river valleys and generally consist of:

A. An area with mammoth-bone huts and associated pits (up to ten pits around each hut) and other related structures, separated by zones of working areas with hearths.

B. Dump areas with remains of hearth debris and flint debitage.

C. Butchering areas used specifically for small and medium-sized mammals (reindeer, carnivores and rodents)

D. A mammoth `bone bed' typically located in a palaeo-ravine not far from the other settlement modules. This can contain bones of other mammals, hearths and artefacts of bone and flint apparently reflecting exploitation of the bone bed. The content of the latter shows an under-representation of the scapulae, pelvises, skulls, tusks, long bones and jaws typically found in mammoth-bone huts.

It must of course be expected that other, less visible, types of site were employed by the same cultures responsible for these highly visible localities and that there was considerable variation over time in this site organisation pattern. What is interesting, however, is the concept of a separate bone bed being an integral part of these massive settlements, serving as a storage facility for larger, more or less articulated, parts of mammoths (reflected in the presence of ribs, vertebrae and distal leg bones). The meat was for consumption and the extremely fat-rich Proboscidea bones were used for fuel -- a widely recognised practice in the mammoth-hunter cultures of the last glaciation Iakovleva L., Djindjian F., Maschenko E. N., Kronik S., Moigne A.-M. The late Upper Palaeolithic site of Gontsy (Ukraine): A reference for the reconstruction of the hunter-gatherer system based on a mammoth economy // Quaternary International. 2012. Vol. 255. P. 86-93; Marquer L., Otto T., Nespoulet R., Chiotti L. A new approach to study the fuel used in hearths by hunter-gatherers at the Upper Palaeolithic site of Abri Pataud (Dordogne, France) // Journal of Archaeological Science. 2010. Vol. 37. P. 2735-2746; Praslov N. D., Stanko V. N., Abramova Z. A., Sapozhnikov I. V., Brozijak I. A. The steppes in the Late Palaeolithic // Antiquity. 1989. Vol. 63(241). P. 784-792; Soffer O. The Upper Paleolithic of the Central Russian Plain. New York, 1985. P. 258-259..

Even in an Arctic climate, the bodies of larger animals left unprotected on the surface must be assumed to have become unsuitable for human consumption within a few days, as a result of chemical-bacterial degradation, in addition to the more useful parts being removed by scavengers Haynes G. Longitudinal Studies of African Elephant Death and Bone Deposits // Journal of Archaeological Science. 1988. Vol. 15. P. 131-157.. In general, the actual bones would disappear rather quickly due to the actions and effects of rodents, fungi, sun and rain. Even a relatively rapid loess deposition of several centimetres per year, forming `dunes' around the dead bodies, as suggested by Vereshchagin, is unlikely to have preserved the skeletons Vereshchagin N. K. The mammoth “cemeteries” of North-East Siberia // Polar Record. 1974. Vol. 17, no. 106. P. 3-12..

The assumption is that these bone beds, in many cases representing permafrost-based meat stores in the vicinity of base camps, containing large chunks of Proboscidea meat deposited in palaeo-ravines and palaeochannels and covered by insulating sediment, combined with burning of the bones following subsequent processing and consumption of this meat, can explain the good preservation of the material, as well as the very restricted appearance of cutmarks on the large quantities of preserved Proboscidea bones. In this respect, it is interesting that the ravine containing the bone bed at Gontsy was apparently rapidly filled with up to 75 cm of sand and silt. The absence of evidence of gnawing by carnivores or weathering indicates that its contents were not left exposed to the open air Iakovleva L., Djindjian F., Maschenko E. N., Kronik S., Moigne A.-M. The late Upper Palaeolithic site of Gontsy (Ukraine): A reference for the reconstruction of the hunter-gatherer system based on a mammoth economy // Quaternary International. 2012. Vol. 255. P. 86-93.. This may not be a natural but a cultural phenomenon.

The bone beds at Dolni Vestonice I and II showed some degree of sorting of articulated rib elements, vertebrae and groups of carpals/tarsals, whereas in the bone bed at Gontsy these skeletal elements in some cases appeared in `anatomical groups', interpreted as representing parts of individual animals Ibid; Svoboda J, Pean S., Wojtal P Mammoth bone deposits and subsistence practices during MidUpper Palaeolithic in Central Europe: three cases from Moravia and Poland // Quaternary International. 2005. Vol. 126-128. P. 209-221; Wojtal P., Sobczyk K. Taphonomy of the Gravettian site -- Krakow Spadzista Street (B) // DEINSEA. 2003. Vol. 126-128. P. 557-562.. These observations support the interpretation of the bone beds as storage facilities.

The Sevsk bone bed, which includes ribs, vertebrae and carpals/tarsals, as well as skulls and tusks that do not normally appear in settlement bone beds, could hypothetically represent a storage facility for entire mammoth individuals.



6. Back to the North Sea -- discussion

The above discussion demonstrates the massive extent of human hunting of Proboscidea during the Late Weichselian glaciation and suggests that a major proportion of the preserved bones and tusks from these animals may owe its preservation to artificial deposition in permafrost-based storage facilities or use as structural materials for dwellings and other constructions. For example, at Kostienki I, the tusks used to support the roofs over the dwelling pits were, following their collapse, protected by the fill within these pits Praslov N. D., Rogachev A. N. (eds.) Palaeolithic of the Kostenko-Borshchevo area on the river Don. 1879-1979: Results of field investigations (in Russian). Leningrad, 1982. P. 45, 48-49..

In a discussion of the actual significance and origin of the abundant mammoth remains recovered from the Danish, German, British and Dutch North Sea sectors, the possibility that a significant proportion of these represent bones and tusks preserved because they were associated with settlements and/or kill-site storage facilities, based on an updated understanding of land-based Eurasian mammoth and mammoth-hunter sites, seems much more plausible than hitherto assumed. In principle, the majority of the Proboscidea remains trawled up from the North Sea may represent human settlement material.

A general problem that apparently prevents proper archaeological interpretation of the mammoth faunal remains from the North Sea, as well as a large proportion of the eastern “Mammoth-cemeteries”, is that they have long been regarded primarily as zoological phenomena. Their full archaeological potential has only recently begun to become clear.

Many modern elephant populations are known to embark on seasonal or periodic long-distance migrations within their `home ranges'. The home range of a population extends over an area of about 1000 to 9000 km2 and is often centred on a significant river or lake basin. A rough estimate of the size of similar home-range populations in an undisturbed `pre-agricultural' environment is of the order of 500 animals. Movement is in herds of varying size, from a few individuals to several hundred animals, organised in a hierarchy of families, bond groups and clans Jachmann H. Direct Counts of Elephants From the Ground (Chapter 6) // Studying Elephants. AWF Technical Handbook Series. Nairobi, Kenya. 1996. P. 49-56; Smit I. P L., Grant C. C., Whyte I. J. Landscapescale sexual segregation in the dry season distribution and resource utilization of elephants in Kruger National Park, South Africa // Biodiversity Research. 2007. Vol. 13. P. 225-236; Thomas B., Holland J. D., Minot E. Seasonal home ranges of elephants (Loxodonta africana) and their movements between Sabi Sand Reserve and Kruger National Park // African Journal of Ecology (earlier: East African Wildlife Journal). 2011. Vol. 50, iss. 4. P. 131-139; Western D., Lindsay W. K. Seasonal herd Dynamics of a Savanna Elephant Population. African Journal of Ecology (earlier: East African Wildlife Journal). 1984. Vol. 22, iss. 4. P. 229244; Whyte I. J. Studying Elephant Movements (Chapter 8) // Studying Elephants. AWF Technical Handbook Series. Nairobi, Kenya. 1996. P. 75-89; Wittemyer G. W., Getz W. M., Vollrath F., Douglas-Hamilton I. Social dominance, seasonal movements, and spatial segregation in African elephants: a contribution to conservation behaviour // Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 2007. Vol. 61, no. 12 (October). P. 1919-1931.. Isotope studies indicate that prehistoric elephant species also exhibited migratory behaviour Hoppe K. A. Late Pleistocene mammoth herd structure, migration patterns, and Clovis hunting strategies inferred from isotopic analyses of multiple death assemblages // Paleobiology. 2004. Vol. 30(1). P. 129-145; Hoppe K. A., Koch P L., Carlson R. W., Webb S. D. Tracking mammoths and mastodons: Reconstruction of migratory behavior using strontium isotope ratios // Geology. 2012. Vol. 27, no. 5. P. 439442; Sharp Z. D., Atudorei V., Panarello H. O., Fernandez J., Douthitt C. Hydrogen isotope systematics of hair: archeological and forensic applications // Journal of Archaeological Science. 2003. Vol. 30. P. 1709-1716., most likely of the same kind as today's elephants.

The fact that no classic mammoth-hunter camps have so far been identified in Scandinavia may well be due to these being located on the major prehistoric rivers here, which are today all found below sea level.

Scandinavia's now submerged North Sea coastal zones and hinterlands of glacial and other colder periods may well represent an important research potential with respect to both local cultural developments and the environmental settings in which these took place. It is important to bear in mind that we should not only be aware of the potential for submerged settlements from the Weichselian glaciation, but also from earlier glacial periods. The immediate expectation is, however, that it may be possible to obtain information on actual tangible submerged mammoth hunter sites dating from the later Weichselian period, which are located in the southern part of the Scandinavian North Sea sector, where mammoth fauna remains, including parts of Proboscidea, are known to have been found.

In order to enter this field of research in a meaningful way, we need new and cost-effective methodologies for the mapping, management and investigation of submerged Stone Age landscapes as alternatives to our present relatively inefficient early-phase approaches that are mainly based on topographical modelling which ignores the significant dynamics of the vegetation and fauna Bicket A. Submerged Prehistory: Marine ALSF Research in Context. Marine ALSF Science Monograph Series No. 5. (Ed. J. Gardiner). MEPF 10/P150. 2011; Submarine prehistoric archaeology of the North Sea. Research priorities and collaboration with industry // CBA Research Report 141. English Heritage/Council for British Archaeology / ed. by N. Flemming. 2004; Gron O. Some problems with modelling.

Before the first systematic excavations in Baltic waters documented well-preserved submerged Mesolithic settlement surfaces and associated waste accumulationsthe positions of prehistoric hunter-gatherer settlements on the basis of landscape topography. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. Vol. 20. 2018. P. 192-199; Grnn O., Boldreel L. O. Chirping for Large- Scale Maritime Archaeological Survey. A Strategy Developed from a Practical Experience-Based Approach // Journal of Archaeology. 2014. Vol. Article ID 147390. 2014; Grnn O., Dell'Anno A., Hermand J.-P. Investigations of deep, submerged Stone Age settlements covered by sea-floor sediments: preliminary methodological considerations // IEEEXplore. 2013. P. 1-4; Grnn O., Boldreel L. O., Hermand J.-P., Rasmussen H., Dell'Anno A., Cvikel D., Galili E., Madsen B., Normark E. Detecting human-knapped flint with marine high-resolution reflection seismics. A preliminary study of new possibilities for sub-sea mapping of submerged Stone Age sites // Underwater Technology. 2018. Vol. 35(1); Hermand J.-P., Grnn O., Asch M., Ren Q.-L Modelling flint acoustics for detection of submerged Stone Age sites // Proc. OCEANS'11 MTS/ IEEE Kona Conf. (Oceans of Opportunity: International cooperation and partnership across the Pacific). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, IEEE. Sept. 2011; Hermand J.-P., Tayong R. Geoacoustic characterization of Stone Age cultural layers: Preliminary FE modelling // IEEEXplore. 2013. P. 1-6.

⁷² Andersen S. H. Tybrind Vig. Submerged Mesolithic settlements in Denmark // Jutland Archaeological Society Publications. 2013. Vol. 77; Skaarup J., Grnn O. Mollegabet II. A submerged Mesolithic settlement in southern Denmark. BAR International Series 1328. Oxford, 2004., there was a robust and widespread view that no settlement deposits could have survived the wave action inherent in marine transgressions. Large areas will of course have been damaged by erosion, for example the central parts of many sounds and belts, but this is not necessarily the general case. Even though the North Sea is more dynamic than the Baltic, we must also expect preserved pockets to be here, in locations protected by bathymetric features. Many of the faunal remains that have been fished up are so well preserved that it is obvious they have not been exposed to dynamic sediment processes.



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