All-estate military draft and the Caucasus in the Russian government policy

The relocation of highlanders to Turkey ended in real tragedy. Thus, “only in the Kuban region by 1876 only 90 thousand mountain dwellers had remained out of a million” Kumykov T. Kh. Mukhadzhirstvo v istorii gorskikh narodov Severnogo Kavkaza // Natsionalnoosvoboditelnaia borba narodov Severnogo Kavkaza i problemy mukhadzhirstva. Nalchik, 1994. P. 24.. Many emigrants died en route of hunger, cold, and diseases. However, when they reached Turkey, a “country of their coreligionists”, they suffered enhanced hardships through social and national oppression. Some of them “went broke, sold themselves and their families into slavery, or were forced to join the army (although the Turkish government had promised a 20-year exemption from service)” Tkachenko D. S., Kolosovskaia T. A. Voenno-politicheskaia istoriia Severnogo Kavkaza XVI-XIX vv. P. 258.. Eventually, emigrants-highlanders in large numbers applied to the Russian authorities for the permission to return to their homeland, but their requests were turned down. Despite the bans, they sought all possible illegal ways to cross the Turkish border.

It does not seem possible to estimate the number of these migrants. According to official statistics within the period from 1858 to 1865, 492 000 194 people moved to Turkey. However, experts believe these figures to have been much higher as many mountain dwellers left the country without the knowledge and approval of the authorities Chekmenev S. A. Iz istorii pereseleniia gortsev v Turtsiiu // Natsionalno-osvoboditelnaia bor'ba narodov Severnogo Kavkaza i problemy mukhadzhirstva. Nalchik, 1994. P. 184-185.. In total 1 800 000 people are thought to have left Caucasia. The prevailing view in western historiography is that the number of Caucasian migrants in the process of hijra in this period exceeded one million Ibragimova Z. Kh. Mir chechentsev. XIX v. Moscow, 2007. P. 450.. It is even more difficult to count the number of mountain dwellers who returned from Turkey. It is commonly believed that by the mid-1870 almost a half of those who had previously moved there came back home Ibragimova Z. Kh. Emigratsiia chechentsev v Turtsiiu (60-70 gg. XIX v.). P. 60..

The final meeting of the Committee, which took place on November 21, 1883, focused on the issue of hijra. The authorities of Caucasia had second thoughts about the advisability of the introduction of conscription for “belligerent tribes of Northern Caucasia and Dagestan” and the benefits of a well-trained military force “amidst quite violent and overzealous population”. It was already clear that one of the negative impacts of this step would be the determination of highlanders to move to Turkey. In this regard, the issues which were within the competence of the tsarist authorities were brought up at the meeting, for example: whether it was advisable to give the permission to all who wished to emigrate or to introduce some limitation, for example, to issue passports and exit permits only to “the most unruly and unreliable segment of population”. There was also one more option -- a ban on “any emigration”. Another set of issues addressed the measures needed to avert the projected “more or less serious disturbances in the region” (the number of troops and their deployment) and also the actions in the case of a rebellion. Finally, the members of the committee came up with a question “whether it would be better to extend the conscription to Caucasia but to put on hold its implementation in Northern Caucasia and Dagestan”. It was also proposed to consider all pros and cons, “comparing the expenses” on the possibly untimely demands of the government, on the one hand, and “those moral and political implications” which could entail the government decision to give up the measures which had already been announced “although frowned upon by the population”, on the other O poriadke primeneiia pravil ustava o voinskoi povinnosti... L. 69 ob..

Prince A. M. Dondukov-Korsakov sent his report with the final proposals about the organization of military service in Caucasia to the minister of war. Apart from the report, he prepared a “humble” note on this issue, which was discussed at the meetings of the Cabinet of ministers on January 24 and 32 and February 7, 1884. During the last meeting, the political aspect of this burning issue again came to the fore. A. M. Dondukov-Korsakov suggested taking advantage of the desire of the most overzealous segment of Muslims to move to Turkey, thus getting rid of the most “violent and harmful element”. He also proposed setting a six-month time limit during which all those “who wanted to leave the country could declare their intention to do so” provided their “lands would be subject to forfeiture by the state, and emigrants would be banned from returning to Russia forever”. In the case of disturbances, the rebels would be disarmed and the riots “vigorously suppressed”. The prince also emphasized that “any delay in this matter, let alone” failing to introduce conscription in Caucasia, would be “taken a sign of weakness on the part of the government” Po otnosheniiu voennogo ministra o poriadke primeneniia pravil ustava. L. 16 ob. -- 17..

The arguments presented by A. M. Dondukov-Korsakov, and the data he provided gave rise to the concerns of the members of the Cabinet of ministers about the risks of destabilization in the region in the case of simultaneous subjection to draft of all the population of Caucasia. Thus, Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich, a former governor-general of Caucasia, expressed doubts whether the implementation of this plan was possible, without “disturbances over the entire region” although he quite approved of the ideas of removing the unruliest maintain-dwellers of the North Caucasia out of the country and “claiming their rich and fertile lands for the Cossacks, who needed them” and other Russian settlers. The arguments of the grand prince were based on his extensive experience of residence in Caucasia. Twice (in Kuban province and Chechnia) he was a “witness to great sorrows” for both the emigrants “and the entire country” caused by such movements. According to him, it was difficult to “control” “masses of people who were so ignorant and infatuated with fantasies”. “Once started, the relocation spreads to entire villages and even districts; it is happening without any preliminary plan and is accompanied by a random sell-out of all the property for next to nothing”, -- argued the grand prince. Consequently, the chaotic emigration of highlanders became a source of great worry for both the Russian and the Turkish government. Many fugitives failed to settle in the new place and had to return to Caucasia “in the most pathetic state”. The Turkish authorities housed other refugees along the border with Russia as could be seen from the experience of the previous war. This contributed to the formation of a “rather dangerous” and hostile to Russia avant-garde of the Turkish army”. Mikhail Aleksandrovich believed that it was only the diplomatic way (through negotiations with Porta) that could solve the problem of hijra. Other members of the Committee supported this point of view Po otnosheniiu voennogo ministra o poriadke primeneniia pravil ustava... L. 18-21..

Finally, the suggestions of A. M. Dondukov-Korsakov and the report of the General Stuff were submitted to the State Council on May 25, 1884. In the course of the discussion on the draft the members of the Council came to a conclusion that concerns about “public protests” on the part of Muslim population in the mountains were not “over-stated”. Senators and senior officials from different agencies agreed with the view of the Caucasian authorities that only after the departure of “the unruliest contingent” from Caucasia, it would be possible to start the process of the enlisting the North Caucasian and Dagestani Muslims to the military service. Nevertheless, “even in this case” the authorities of Caucasia could not guarantee a “peaceful outcome”. One of the documents of the State Council, addressed to the minister of war, stated: “Caucasia seems to be at peace now, but local Muslims still sympathize with their co-religionists in the East”. And a “spark from Turkey or Persia” will be enough to “start a fire of fanaticism” Po otnosheniiu Voennogo Ministra o poriadke privlecheniia k voinskoi povinnosti: a) netuzemnogo naseleniia Zakavkasiia i Severnogo Kavkaza i b) kalmykov i drugikh kachuiushchikh inorodtsev Astrakhanskoi I Stavropolskoi gubernii // RGIA. F. 381. Op. 23. D. 15112. L. 4 ob. -- 5..

After a lengthy discussion the Highest Approved Regulation of the State Council was issued on May 28, 1886. According to it, “all the population of Caucasia (both native and non-native) as well as the alien population of the Terskaia and Kuban provinces” was to be subject to draft. At the same time, Muslim population temporary was exempted from the recruitment of draftees into the army “until further notice” O privlechenii k otbyvaniiu voinskoi povinnosti naseleniia Zakavkaziia i inorodtsev Terskoi i Kubanskoi oblastei // PSZ. Coll. 3. Vol. VI. 1886. No. 3741. St Petersburg, 1888. P. 239.. At the suggestion of Prince A. M. Dondukov-Korsakov it was agreed to introduce a special tax as a substitute for the army service of the Muslims of Caucasia. It was expected to cover the costs of the formation of new military units, thus cutting down on the additional expenses of the state.

The date of the first draft in Transcaucasia was set for October -- December 1887, but in Batumskaia, Artvinskaia, Sukhumskaia (with the exception of its Okumskaia part), and Kutaisskaia provinces as well as in Karskii region and Chernomorskii district the draft was postponed until 1889. In the Caucasian region, the annual draft was usually held from October 15 up to December 31, however, some deviations from the rules occurred at times. People, engaged in active service as well as their “families and households”, were exempted from all personal monetary taxes (state, zemskii (territorial) or community). This privilege did not extend to those who joined the army as “volunteers”.

The “alien” residents of the Caucasian region were entitled to some extra first-degree privileges on the grounds of their family situation: for a son-in-law, “the only breadwinner in his disabled father-in-law's or widowed mother-in-law's household” if they lived together or for “single family men” The Charter of 1874 introduced three degrees of privileges for the draftees according to their family situation. The only “breadwinners” in a family -- sons, brothers or grandsons were entitled to the first-degree privilege. Such young people could be recruited only in exceptional cases and only by the decision of the State council, approved by the emperor. “The aliens” of the Caucasian region were entitled to some additional first-degree privileges, depending on their family situation: for sonsin-law, the only breadwinners capable of working in their disabled father-in-law's or widowed mother-in law's households” in case they lived together and for the “single family men”, which meant married men, the only breadwinners for their wives and young children. (Author's note).. It should be noted that Caucasian draftees could apply for the family situation privilege even after the drawing of lots. In such a case they were transferred to the reserve. The changes also affected the rules of granting draft deferments. In particular, the rule which provided deferments of military service to the people whose “families run trade, manufacturing or industrial companies” did not apply to the Caucasian region. However, a one-year deferment could be granted to pastoralists with herds of cattle or small livestock and only in the places where cattle-breeding “was the main industry”. Caucasian students and students of other nationalities accepted to educational institutions before the promulgation of the law were allowed to complete the course without any age restrictions.

Some changes were related to drawing up recruitment list based on birth certificates, family lists, and personal applications. The governor of the Caucasian region supervised the sequence and order of the drawing of lots. One condition remained permanent: recruits from the `native population' were deployed to “special troops” located in Caucasia. As planned, the term of service in such troops was 3 years and 12 years in the reserve. The special troops accepted Christian and Muslim “volunteers” of the age from 21 to 30 years. Their number in every military unit was severely restricted and was not to exceed the standards set by the minister of war O privlechenii k otbyvaniiu voinskoi povinnosti naseleniia Zakavkaziia i inorodtsev Terskoi i Kubanskoi oblastei. P 239-242..

Consequently, the special rules on conscription for the people of Caucasia fully complied with one of the main principles of the imperial national policy pointed out by B. N. Mironov in his fundamental work -- the introduction of “some advantages in legal status in favor of non-Russians in comparison with Russians”. One must agree with his statement that “concerns about separatism forced the central government to continue this situation, which did not correspond to the truly colonial nature of the state” Mironov B. N. Sotsialnaia istoriia Rossii perioda imperii (XVIII -- nachalo XIX v.). Genezis lichnosti, demokraticheskoi sem'i, grazhdanskogo obshchestva i pravovogo gosedarstva: in 2 vols. Vol. 1. St Petersburg. P. 31, 34..

The promulgation of the law took place only in the late August of 1886. Eventually, it took thirteen years (not counting the Russo-Turkish war) to develop the principles of the military reform of 1874 for the Caucasian region. According to the documents, within this period all together 8 committees, commissions and sub-commissions, and three meetings were established with the aim of discussing this very important and urgent issue.

The promulgation of the law on May 28, 1886 did not put an end to the process of the introduction of the universal conscription in Caucasia. Moreover, throughout a year the minister of war and the minister of state property exchanged letters with A. M. Dondukov-Korsakov discussing the issue of the recruitment of Ossetins, Ingilos, Kurds, and Yasidis as well as Kalmyks and other alien nomads of the Astrakhanskaia and Stavropolskaia provinces.

For example, it was suggested that Ossetins would pay a monetary tax instead of military service but in the course of the conversation it turned out that many Christian Ossetins had preserved “some Mohammedan beliefs and customs” and, what is more, some families professed both Christianity and Islam. In such circumstances, Prince Dondukov-Korsakov in order to “ensure justice for all the Ossetins in this matter” encouraged them to fulfill their military obligations by actual service in the armed forces, especially considering the fact that the Ossetins themselves petitioned him claiming to recognize their right to serve in the army O poriadke primeneiia pravil ustava o voinskoi povinnosti... L. 70-70 ob.. The head of the administration likewise did not distinguish between the Ingilos of Zakatalskii district -- some of them had converted to Islam but the majority remained Christians. According to Dondukov-Korsakov, their enrolment in the actual military service in the armed forces could have a negative effect on the activities of the spiritual mission aimed at the propagation of the Orthodox faith among them Ibid..

Eventually, on July 28, 1887, an imperial decree addressed to the Senate was issued. It granted all the Ossetins, both Muslims and Christians, the right to serve in the regiments of the Terskaia Cossack army under the same conditions as the native population of the Transcaucasian region. Russians and other non-native people of Transcaucasia received the same privileges as the native population and had to serve in the regiments of the Caucasian military district. The peoples of the Stavropolskaia province (Trukhmens, Nogais, Kara-nogais, Kalmyks, and others) as well as Ingilos, practicing both religions, Kurds, and Yazidis had to pay the tax for the Muslim population imposed by the law of 1886 O privlechenii k lichnomu otpravleniiu voinskoi povinnosti na lgotnykh osnovaniiakh osetin musulmanskogo veroispovedaniia i netuzemnogo naseleniia Zakavkazskogo kraia i ob otbyvanii voinskoi povinnosti, posredstvom denezhnogo oblozheniia, inorodtsami Stavropolskoi gubernii i zhiteliami nekotorykh mest Zakavkazskogo kraia // PSZ. Coll. 3. Vol. VII. 1887. No. 4660. St Petersburg, 1889. P 387..

A special fee or tax collected from Muslims to increase the government revenue amounted to 542 940 rubles. This money was legally distributed over all the provinces and districts of the region. Skipping the details of the complicated tax calculation (M. S. Arsanukaeva Arsanukaeva M. S. Otbyvanie voinskoi povinnosti gortsami Severnogo Kavkaza (vtoraia polovina XIX -- nachalo XX vv.). P 18. gives an account of this in her article), I will refer to the “Humble report on the administration of the Caucasian region” written 20 years later by governor of Caucasia Adjutant-General I. I. Vorontsov-Dashkov, in which he in simple terms explained what exactly the tax was supposed to cover: “It was assessed at the ratio of two recruits per a thousand of people with the average length of service having been three years. Supposedly, their average productivity was 60 rubles a year each, 120 rubles -- for two. In three years of service, the annual productivity of these two draftees amounted to 360 rubles. Taking into account these calculations, the total amount of tax for each province and district was set, depending on the number of Muslims living there. The taxation of individual peasants was set in proportion to the household tax, paid for the common needs of the region. As for privileged classes, the tax was levied in accordance with their real estate value and income from trade” Vorontsov-Dashkov H. I. Vsepoddanneishaia zapiska po upravleniiu Kavkazskim kraem generalad'iutanta grafa Vorontsova-Dashkova. St Petersburg, 1907. P 100..

Therefore, in terms of taxpaying the “alien” population fell into two categories: the first one consisted of taxpaying country folks and the second one -- of other taxpayers. The military tax appears to have put additional pressure on the local population. Thus, in the spring of 1895 four residents of the village of Toifugi of the Areshskii district in Elizavetpolskaia province applied to the minister of internal affairs with a petition featuring the unbearable burden of the tax and claiming that “from the day the tax had been imposed in the region, none of the noblemen of their district was able to pay “the requested amount of money”, including the applicants themselves. They had to pay annually 33 rubles for each family and the shortfall, accrued over the years, was so high that “the local police, despite all the efforts, failed to recover it”. The applicants expressed concern that “in the near future” all their movable and immovable property would be distrained and put for sale which would inevitably result in bankruptcy. Facing “such a critical and desperate situation” they plucked up the courage and addressed the minister since their repeated complaints to the local authorities fell on deaf ears. The citizens of the Toifuga village humbly asked to withdraw the shortfall and to distribute the above-mentioned tax “in accordance with their wealth and potential” O poriadke primeneiia pravil ustava o voinskoi povinnosti... L. 181.. Apparently, such requests to the authorities were not uncommon as the governor promised to deal with the issue of fair taxation of the Muslims of Elizavetpolskaia province “in due time”, “in the course of a new calculation of the military tax” Ibid. L. 184 ob..

Preparations for the enforcement of the universal conscription in Caucasia started with making family lists which had to contain accurate information about population figures and to provide an overview of “the paying capacity of the families subject to household taxes” Ibid. L. 71-72.. The fears of St Petersburg and Caucasian authorities came true: the compilation of family lists gave rise to unrest among the Muslims of the region. The most serious revolt against conscription took place in the Terskaia province, where several Chechen villages sabotaged the demand of the authorities stubbornly evading the census Zapiski neustanovlennykh lits o sformirovanii voennykh druzhin iz mestnogo naseleniia na Kavkaze i o khode vvedeniia vseobshchei voinskoi povinnosti na Kavkaze // RGIA. F. 932. Op. 1. D. 456. L. 19 ob.. Only the citizens of Dagestan, Tiflisskaia, Bakinskaia, and partly Erivanskaia provinces took the reform calmly. One of the main reasons for public discontent and unrest among the Muslims was the fact that the law on the compilation of family lists (February 24, 1886) had been issued 6 months before its promulgation on May 28, 1886. The people of Caucasia became aware of their exemption from the actual military service in the armed forces and its substitution by the monetary tax only in late August of 1886.

The first draft in Transcaucasia took place in November 1887. An official document states that with few exceptions it was held “in a calm atmosphere without any breach of peace” Ibid. L. 21.. According to the statistics, the recruitment plan for in Transcaucasia was implemented: all together 2397 “native citizens” (planned 2400) and 169 “non-native citizens” (planned 172) were recruited; i. e., the shortage constituted only 6 people. As for the class affiliation, most of the recruits were peasants, with petty bourgeois ranking second (700 men). There were also representatives of the nobility (72), merchants (33), and even 2 officials Statistika Rossiiskoi imperii. X. Sbornik svedenii po Rossii, 1890. St Petersburg, 1890. P. 293.. 621 men did not show up at the recruiting centre, of these 592 were native citizens and 29 -- non-native. According to a special report, the fact that “many persons of military age were away on trade-related or some other business” could have accounted for the “relatively high figures” of non-appearance at the time of draft Zapiski neustanovlennykh lits. P. 22 ob. -- 23..

Thus, addressing the issue of the conscription of the indigenous peoples of Caucasia, the central government pursued several objectives at a time: to incorporate the peoples of the recently tamed Caucasia into the Russian Empire; to engage local mountain dwellers, excellent soldiers, in the military service in Caucasia in the natural and climatic conditions they were accustomed to. Finally, the extension of the conscription to the population of Caucasia was expected to ease the burden of this conscription on the population of European provinces of the empire. At the same time the government had to consider political, economic, religious and ethnic factors, which had intertwined in this sensitive region of the Russian Empire. This multifactorality resulted in the cautious approach, years of discussion of this issue at all levels of the imperial power. Eventually, eager to maintain a balance between the imperial interests (preserving the fragile peace and order in Caucasia) and commitment to the basic principle of the reform of 1874 -- the equality of everyone before the law, Petersburg granted advantages to the peoples of Caucasia in the form of additional privileges and a monetary tax. That was seen as a keystone to the political stability of the Russian Empire.

References

1. Akiev Kh. A. Narody Severnogo Kavkaza v russko-turetskoi voine 1877-1878 gg. Magas, Pilgrim Publ., 2009, 132 p. (In Russian)

2. Alieva S. I., Asker A. Voinskoe delo i musul'manskie narody Severnogo Kavkaza. Sovremennaia nauchnaia mysl', 2013, no. 3, pp. 22-40. (In Russian)

3. Arsanukaeva M. S. Otbyvanie voinskoi povinnosti gortsami Severnogo Kavkaza (vtoraia polovina XIX -- nachalo XX vv.). Pravo igosudarstvo: teoriia ipraktika, 2015, no. 12 (132), pp. 16-19. (In Russian) Arsanukaeva M. S. Proekty vvedeniia voinskoi povinnosti na Severnom Kavkaze (70-80-e gg. XIX v.). Aktual'nye problemy rossiiskogo prava, 2009, no. 2, pp. 91-98. (In Russian)

4. Bratsun E. V. Gortsy Severo-Zapadnogo Kavkaza na voinskoi sluzhbe Rossii (konets XVIII-XIX vv): Diss....kand. ist. nauk. Krasnodar, [s. n.], 2014, 261 p. (In Russian)

5. Chekmenev S. A. Iz istorii pereseleniia gortsev v Turtsiiu. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba narodov Severnogo Kavkaza iproblemy mukhadzhirstva. Nalchik, El'brus Publ., 1994, pp. 181-191. (In Russian) Egorova V. P. Uchastie dagestanskikh polkov vo vneshnepoliticheskikh aktsiiakh Rossii v Srednei Azii vo vtoroi polovine XIX veka (po materialam E. I. Kozubskogo). Narody Severnogo Kavkaza na gosudarstvennoi sluzhbe Rossii: istoriia i sovremennost'. Makhachkala, [s. n.], 2018, pp. 106-113. (In Russian) Ibragimova Z. Kh. Emigratsiia chechentsev v Turtsiiu (60-70 gg. XIX v.). Moscow, MAKS-Press Publ., 2000, 69 p. (In Russian)

6. Ibragimova Z. Kh. The world of Chechens. XIX century. Moscow, PRO BEL-2000 Publ., 2007, 1024 p. (In Russian)

7. Idrisov M. M., Magomeddadaev A. M. Dagestantsy na sluzhbe Rossii v Russko-turetskoi voine 1877-1878 gg. Narody Severnogo Kavkaza na gosudarstvennoi sluzhbe Rossii: istoriia i sovremennost'. Makhachkala, [s. n.], 2018, pp. 114-120. (In Russian)

8. Kumykov T. Kh. Mukhadzhirstvo v istorii gorskikh narodov Severnogo Kavkaza. Natsional'no-osvoboditel'naia bor'ba narodov Severnogo Kavkaza i problemy mukhadzhirstva. Nalchik, El'brus Publ., 1994, pp. 15-26. (In Russian)

9. Lapin V. V. Armiia Rossii v Kavkazskoi voine XVIII-XIX vv. St Petersburg, European House Publ., 2008, 396 p. (In Russian)

10. Lapin V. V. Vvedenie vsesoslovnoi voinskoi povinnosti na Kavkaze (konets XIX -- nachalo XX vv.). Vlast', obshchestvo i reformy v Rossii: istoriia, istochniki, istoriografiia. St Petersburg, Olearius Press Publ., 2007, 557 p. (In Russian)

11. Megrelidze Sh. V. Zakavkaze v Russko-Turetskoi voine 1877-1878gg. Tbilisi, Metsniereba Publ., 1972, 303 p. (In Russian)

12. Milyutin D. A. Dnevnik. 1882-1890. Moscow, ROSSPEN Publ., 2010, 584 p. (In Russian)

13. Mironov B. N. Sotsial'naia istoriia Rossii perioda imperii (XVIII -- nachalo XIX v.): Genezis lichnosti, demokraticheskoi sem'i, grazhdanskogo obshchestva ipravovogo gosudarstva. Vol. 1. St Petersburg, Dmitry Bulanin Publ., 2003, 548 p. (In Russian)

14. Prokudin K. A. Gorskie narody Severnogo Kavkaza na gosudarstvennoi sluzhbe v Rossiiskoi imperii (XIX vek): Diss.... kand. ist. nauk. Rostov-on-Don, [s. n.], 2013, 275 p. (In Russian)

15. Sanakoev M. P. Iz istorii boevogo sodruzhestva russkogo i osetinskogo narodov (XVIII -- nach. XX vv.). Tskhinvali, Iryston Publ., 1987, 162 p. (In Russian)

16. Tkachenko D. S., Kolosovskaya T. A. Voenno-politicheskaia istoriia Severnogo Kavkaza XVI-XIX vv.: fakty, sobytiia, liudi. Stavropol, Stavropol State University Press, 2009, 290 р. (In Russian)

17. Volkonsky N. A. Biografiia general-ad'iutanta, generala ot kavalerii, kniazia Aleksandra Mikhailovicha Dondukova-Korsakova. Tiflis, [s. n.], 1883, 38 p. (In Russian)

18. Vorontsov-Dashkov H. I. Vsepoddanneishaia zapiska po upravleniiu Kavkazskim kraem general-ad'iutanta grafa Vorontsova-Dashkova. St Petersburg, State printing office Publ., 1907, 164 p. (In Russian)