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List of Abbreviations

AIDS: acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

HIV: human immunodeficiency virus

STD: Sexually Transmitted Diseases

STI: Sexually Transmitted Infections

NGO: Non Governmental Organizations

IGO: Inter-Governmental Organization

ATR: African Traditional Religion

MPCSS: Moscow Protestant Chaplaincy Social Services

NAPTIP: National Agency for the Prohibition of Traffic in Persons and Other related Matters

NPF: Nigerian Police Force

NIS: Nigerian Immigration Service

HT: Human Trafficking

FMS: (Federal Migration Service) Federalnaya Migratsionnaya Sluzhba

UN: United Nations

UNODC: United Nations Office on Drug and Crime

JPI: Pathfinders Justice Initiative

WOCON: Women's Consortium of Nigeria

WOTCLEFF: Women Trafficking and Child Labour Eradication Foundation

GPI: Girls Power Initiative

COSUDOW: Committee for the Support of the Dignity of Women

PJG: Pathfinder Justice Initiative



INTRODUCTION

Russia and Nigeria are two important countries separated in terms of distance location, precisely the capital of Abuja and Moscow over 7000 km separated (DistFromTo, 2016). Nevertheless they both share a common sex slavery course. Nigeria and Russia have place in the human trafficking business, they serve as a source, transit and destinations for human trafficking victims. The first rush of victims of trafficking in women and children was from the Filipino and Thai women, followed by the Colombians and Dominicans, while the Ghanaians and Nigerian takes the third place, the Russian and Ukraine maintained the fourth position in the illicit market (Stoecker, 1999).

Furthermore, the overwhelming growth of sex trafficking has made the Russian state to lose value workforce because of the basic education earned by most of the trafficked women from this country in most cases are capable to compete for available employment opportunities wherever they are taken for their services whereas, those women trafficked from Nigeria are uneducated, poverty ridden or segmented people based on their gender and ethnic affiliation (Stoecker, 1999). human trafficking corruption

Nigeria has an uncontrollable population and high unemployment rate (Factbook, 2014). Although Abuja is the administrative policy heart, it is on record that more than 90% of the Nigerian trafficked victims are from Edo state, South-South Nigeria (Lagos, 2008). Nigerian girls are trafficked to Russia as sex slaves and about 300 of the girls are helped to return home from 2012 (Kehinde, 2017).This implies that all effort of states and non state actors geared towards containing the trafficked persons through anti traffic policy amendment of 2003, which empowers a more stricter punishments to offenders thereby permitting investigations, prosecutions, and convictions of traffickers, and regular anti trafficking training to stake holders of states and non state actors, unfortunately her Russian counterparts have not done enough to enact and proffer better solution to the illicit business (USDOS, 2016).These undermine those roles of professional anti-trafficking education in a multi-jurisdictional, systematic and contemporary pattern of human trafficking and the time barrier factor to investigate and bring offenders to book (McCarthy, 2010). In other words, doing justice in terms of carrying out progressive and successful convictions of sex slavery between Nigeria and Russia demands a sincere collaboration of both governments irrespective of the diversity in culture, language, bureaucracy, law enforcements systems (Whelan, 2016).



1. CONCEPT OF SEX SLAVERY

The age long history of slavery has found it roots across the globe whereas so many turn little attention to it because of the unsuspecting pattern it has explores in recent times. However, slavery has never been defeated after the attempt by the British attempts to put an end to it especially in the southern part of the present day Nigeria (Afigbo, 2006). It has only taken other forms such as sex slavery among other (Tiefenbrun, 2004).

Human Trafficking is perceived as a major global menace against the nomenclatures of human right, whereas Sex slavery is in another way human trafficking which may occur in form ethnic, labor and female abuse (Orme & Ross-sheriff, 2015). In other words trafficking of women for business purposes is an impediments to the tenancy of the fundamental rights of women (Assembly, 1948).

The knowledge of the definition of human trafficking provided by the UN, Nigerian and Russian government will go a long way to broaden our understanding of this discussion.

According to the “Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime” (Palermo Protocol), Article 3(a):

“Trafficking in persons” shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs”.

It underlines three key elements of trafficking: deception, coercion, and isolation. In addition, it makes clear that not only people who are used for sexual exploitation are considered victims of human trafficking, but also people who are exploited and isolated in any way. Furthermore, the understanding of the three elements of acts, means and purposes in the working definition can never be over emphasized.

Act	Means	Purposes
Recruitment	Threat or use of force	Exploitation including
Transfer	Coercion	Prostitutions of others
Transport	Abductions	Sexual exploitations
Harboring	Fraud	Forced labor
Receipt of persons	Deception	Slavery or similar practices
	Abuse of Power or vulnerability	Removal of organs
	Giving Payments or benefits	Other types of exploitations

(UNODC, 2004)

In fact, according to International Labor Organization labor trafficking is far more extensive than sex trafficking in terms of the numbers of people affected (ILO, 2012). Moreover, the Protocol does not distinguish between victims based on gender and/or race. The Protocol obligates States to protect victims and take measures to prevent and combat trafficking, through establishing appropriate anti-trafficking laws and national strategy (UNODC, 2004).

Interestingly, one key provisions of the Protocol's definition is that one can still be a victim of trafficking despite giving consent, and victim consent does not make a perpetrator less liable to further investigation and persecution of any party suspected to have played a trafficking role.

It is also important to that state must bring individuals, perpetrators and actors who engage in the sex trafficking circle to book through the provision of the agreed definition of human trafficking

Accordingly, when in 2000, Russia agreed to the Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and supplementary Protocol, it became obligated to contain the growing illicit trade in human in the country. In order to comply with the Protocol, in December 2003, the Russian legislature made an effort to incorporate the Protocol's provisions into national law by adding to the criminal code article 127.1 - trafficking in human being - and 127.2 - Use of Slave Labor. Article 127.1 provides the Russian version of definition and elements of trafficking of human beings, which is following:

1. Trafficking in person, i.e. the buying-selling of a person or other actions committed for the purpose of such person's exploitation in the form of recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of such person, shall be punishable by a term of imprisonment of up to 5 years.

2. The same act: Committed

It shall be punishable by a term of imprisonment of 3 to 10 years.

3. Acts identified in Parts One or Two of this Article:

For any of such offences the punishment would range from 8 to 15 years

Since the word “exploitation” created confusion within law enforcement due to lack of judicial and academic guidance in understanding how to apply a new law, along with lack of understanding the severity of the crime, the law was amended in November 2008 to define trafficking as any illegal transactions, “involving a human being” even when the exploitation is not a goal (McCarthy, 2010). Lauren A. McCarthy observed:

Before the amendment clarified that intent to exploit was not a necessary element of the crime, they [law enforcement] took the conservative position on the definition, assuming that any and all acts involved in human trafficking had to be done with the intent of exploitation. Proof of intent is difficult in any legal system… In addition, the amendment added two new aggravating factors: trafficking “committed against victims who were known to be helpless or who were dependent to the accused” and “committed against a woman who the accused knew was pregnant. The amendment also changed the minimum sentence for 127.1 to 6 years, making it human trafficking “grave crime” (McCarthy, 2010).

The Russian definition of human trafficking includes the term “the buying-selling of a person”, which is not a part of the Protocol's definition. It makes harder to apply the Russian definition to situations where trafficking occurs without such “buying-selling” transactions, such as forced prostitution when a victim has been tricked into it, or kidnapping, when a victim is being kidnapped for the purpose of the removal of his/her organs and so on. Furthermore, the Russian definition views trafficking only as transnational crime, combating it only when a victim has been taken across borders, leaving domestic traffic out of scope.

The Russian definition of trafficking does not acknowledge that victim's consent is irrelevant. As a result, the most common defense in case against traffickers is that the relation between a victim and her/his “boss” was voluntary in nature; therefore, the cases are lack the key element of human trafficking: coercion for the purpose of exploitation. The Russian definition ignores the means of the crime, listed in the Protocol, making it open to broad and subjective interpretation of what human trafficking may or may be not.

Based on the observation detailed above, it can be concluded that Russia's legal definition of human trafficking is vague and limited, making it difficult for law enforcement to apply.

Nevertheless, the anti-trafficking law is a small, promising step towards solving the problem of human trafficking. However, as Colin Powell said, “Enforcement is key. Good intentions are not enough”. In this context, the first step to enforce the law is to inform law enforcement of what threats human trafficking is imposing on a State

Whenever person are crossed over the borders to be exploited it falls under human trafficking (Kigbu & Hassan, 2015).

Just like the Russian definition of human trafficking, the Nigeria definition of human trafficking is not expansive enough to project all the factors covered by the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime” (Palermo Protocol), Article 3(a). It is unarguable that the act includes some important elements, that is an individual may be

Ш Recruited,

Ш Bought

Ш Sold

Ш Received

Ш Labored

Ш Transported

It was insufficient to capture the fact that the above actions may be realized not limited to deceptions, debt bondages, or coercion but also by fraudulent means and power abuse by someone's hierarchical position of any forms or situations that causes victim's vulnerability and those in the war or turmoil zones.

Furthermore, the act has failed to expatiate on the give and take payment for compensation as a means of ascertaining person consent to have control over another to exploit victims which has been the most common means of recruitment of children in the trafficking circle in Nigeria.

Also, this definition has been criticized for not capturing and grasping the fact that victims maybe solely be trafficked for the purpose of organ detachment for sales or random call rituals as a common practice in the present day Nigeria even when an offence as regards this was captured under Section 20 of the same Act. The Act is short of the liability embedded in the trafficking protocol of Article 3 where a child is a victim even when other means not mention is used. Similarly, there is a gap in the on victim's knowledge or consent to exploitation which was is meaningless as far as the trafficking protocol is concerned.

From the ongoing, one could see why sex slavery and child labor in the Nigeria context is taken with levity making it to seems as a normal phenomenon to be experienced in the society

Human Trafficking in Nigeria and Russia

Nigeria and Russia

Nigeria and Russia share some similarities such as natural resources endowment, high population and ethnic plurality (Russia Review, 2016). Nigeria and Russia have an established route for traffickers (USDOS, 2016). Nigeria is actually the trafficking hub of Africa and one of the world's main sources for HT and ST. The 2016 Global Slavery Index gives Nigerians a vulnerability to modern slavery score of 62.34 out of 100, which is one of the highest in the world. The score is a mean of four indexes representing civil and political protections; social, health, and economic rights; personal security; and refugees and conflict. For comparison, the Central African Republic has the highest score, with 70, and Denmark has the lowest, with 17.3 (Whelan, 2016).

While Nigeria is a prime sender country, Russia is also a prime receiver country. HT first became prominent in Russia after the fall of the Soviet Union due to the harsh economic, political, and social conditions of the time. Poverty, lack of employment opportunities, and the degradation of social security systems pushed people into accepting exploitative labour conditions (Mukomel, 2013). Those most affected were women and children, making them easy prey for criminal organizations to lure them into sexual exploitation, domestic servitude and sweatshop labour (Stoecker, 1999).

1.1 Causes of Human Trafficking in Nigeria and Russia

Nigeria is a very wealthy nation, blessed with different minerals and natural resources, claiming the greater portion of the African continent. More so, Nigeria has over 250 ethnic groups and speaks over 500 hundred languages. Unfortunately, instead of harnessing the diversity for national development, the country has been bedeviled with ethnic hatred, mutual suspicion, greed and corruption among others.

Nigeria is a global contributor of the illicit trade in human (USDOS, 2016). Nigeria girls mostly Edo girls have a long history to have been trafficked across Europe including Italy, Germany, Russia, Spain, Belgium and so on for sexual exploitations (Finnish, 2015).

The major causes for human trafficking in Nigeria

Ш Poverty

Ш Desire to migrate to study and work in urban city

Ш Conflicts (Chibok girls kidnapped and married by Boko Haram and the child foot soldiers)

Ш Weak Legal System

Ш Lack of adequate legislation and political will

Ш Entrusting poor children to affluence relatives for better opportunities (Adepelumi, 2015)

Furthermore, the root causes of human trafficking could be best describe from the push and pull factor (Unesco, 2006). Some of which includes

Ш HIV&AIDS Orphans

Ш Peer Pressure

Ш Lack of information

Ш Harmful cultural and social realities (Products of broken homes and Inability of females to inherit properties

Ш Manipulations of Religious retuals (Traditional scholarships, Almajiri, Umra, Hajj) among others (Unesco, 2006).

Russia is a source, transit and destination country for men, women and children who regularly undergo forced labor and sex trafficking (USDOS, 2016). The demise of the soviet union in the 1990s had an advert effect on the socio-economic and political life of the people, as citizens began to scramble for means of survival within and across its traditional boarders, this event orchestrated the new deal of HT (Mukomel, 2013). Furthermore, Official and unofficial statistics claims that there are between five to twelve million foreign workers spread across the Russian territory but Federal Migration Service claims that one and half million of these foreign workers are irregular migrants (USDOS, 2016). Little wonder Mukomel posited that:

“In the second half of the 1990s, trafficking in human beings became widespread. Of particular importance were such factors as: weak law enforcement, criminalisation of the environment, the organization of international channels of slave trade, the lack of appropriate legislation, legal illiteracy of the population, and the increased scale of illegal migration. Russia became a sending country (mainly to the Western European countries and the Middle East) and a receiving and transit country (mainly for citizens of the former USSR). In the meantime, the domestic human trafficking market was formed” (2013, pg 1)



Unfortunately, due to its low commitment and the declining state of tackling the HT issues from 2009 to 2016 Russia has been placed as Tier 3 country in the fight against human trafficking (USDOS, 2016).

In Russia, TIP takes 3 major forms which include the following:

Ш Sex slavery

Ш Cheap labor migrant

Ш Children for adoption or for purpose of begging (Mukomel, 2013).

The emphasis of the paper is on Sex Slavery where Nigeria serves as a major supplier of the sex workers across the Russian Federation.



2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Considering the domestic policy pains against the universal phenomenon of human trafficking, and the pursuance of an accepted strategic anti-trafficking policy has failed because of the inability to recognize the changing occasion of the human trafficking at the domestic level whereas a human security approach is more efficient for anti-trafficking policies domestically (Kreidenweis, A., & Hudson, 2015).

Meanwhile, Brysk ( 2011) in his book, “sex slavery understanding private wrong” points out that the best approach to anti-trafficking policy is figuring the differences between an enforced and free sex job, asserted that sex victims deserves same right enjoyed by other migrants and workforce, anti-trafficking policy must reflect the true meaning of free will, sex and improvements to conclude on private wrong.

Similarly, the continuous debate of an acceptable definition of the nomenclatures victimhood has been a major problem to reach an accurate anti-trafficking policy initiatives and providing rights for victims irrespective of their foreknowledge to participate in the illicit sex slavery (Vijeyarasa, 2011).

Again, to achieve the best strategy that will be universally accepted for the anti-trafficking policy, evaluation of the policy impact through a quantitative method, it is very important to use the operational research and analytic model (Konrad, Tr, Palmbach, & Blom, 2016). Closely related to the later, Cho's `Measuring Anti Trafficking Policy: Integrating Text and Statistical Analysis' (Cho, 2015). This paper also proves that evaluation of Anti-Trafficking policy is achievable using integrated Text and Statistical Analyses which could validate and enrich academic researches and useful for policy makers, IGOs, NGOs and actors working on Anti-Trafficking field.

The protection of resourceful trafficked victims and at the same time the timely prosecution of traffickers will help the state and non state actors to draw an efficient and effective Anti-trafficking policy that will go a long way to mitigate the illicit sex slavery (Lagos, 2008) . The findings of Chuang, (2014) was an opener on how the global state and non state actors of anti-trafficking campaign had been altered from what is deemed necessary for the safe delivery of victims, provisions of welfare and protections to giving too much attentions to exploiters in the chain of the illicit sex slavery. Chuang believes that the prime mover of sex slavery is the differences wealth and social exclusion and unfavorable labor migration law.

Meanwhile, Chuang ( 2009) explains how the contemporary global struggle against Anti-trafficking has metamorphosed from empowering the Anti-trafficking movement to the Anti-Prostitute campaign which was as a result of the US prostitution reform and the inclusion in the global policy. Closely related to Chuang findings, (Bucken-knapp & Schaffer, 2012) cannot agree more with Chuang that the legal acceptance of individual country does not only determines the domestic Anti-Trafficking policy rather it has a strong effect on the global Anti-Trafficking policy.

Permit me to say, that evaluating an existing Anti-Trafficking policy with facts gathered domestically and internationally are very useful, the problem with this model is the implementation of the Anti-Trafficking policy because of the differences in national laws and enforcement agencies, there is need for a coordinated effort of civil society, government, business, media and NGO to fight this menace (Shelley, 2010) . Finally, reflecting on new institutionalism the global Anti-Trafficking legal framework had in some cases immensely influenced domestic Anti-trafficking policy, path dependency and the international institutions (Karlsson, 2013).

2.1 Research Problem

Sex slavery is a transnational problem that has defeated all efforts by state and non state actors directed to put an end to or mitigate the illicit trade in human as sex slaves. This is not different from the case of the growing sex slavery and the gaps anti-trafficking policies Nigeria and Russia, the contentious frustrated efforts of the NGO's and security operatives combating the human trafficking circle between Nigeria and Russia is to be understood. There are certain gaps created intentionally by the traffickers in the circle and unintentionally by the relevant governmental and non-govermental bodies. One cannot agree more that Nigeria is an ideal sending country while Russia is the potential receiver country under review. Some of the problems facing the anti-trafficking policies in combating sex slavery in Nigeria and Russia includes a common definition of prostitutes among the family, friends and relatives of the victims of sex slavery and the government, poor family background, inaccurate data for efficient anti-trafficking legislations, lack of cooperation of victims to report sex slavery related cases, inactive respond of the security agencies to respond to cases, porous statistics collection method and poor analysis by policy makers (Lagos, 2008).

Furthermore, Nigeria has a rising population of (2.8%), consecutive rise of unemployment to 9.9% in the third quarter of 2015, 49.6% of the unemployed and the underemployed falls between the active ages of 15-34 (Whelan, 2016). Nigeria has one of the lowest mean year schooling of less than 6 years of education of adults, taking the 152 position in the HDI. Meanwhile Russia's population has a very low grow rate of 0.2% with 5.1% unemployment rate, Russia has an appraisable mean year of adult schooling of 12 years and takes the 50th position in the HDI. The net migration rate of Nigeria stands at -0.4 whereas the Russia's counterpart has a standing migration rate of 1.6. Whelan (2016) In other words, people tend to move out of Nigeria for some reasons highlighted in the beginning of this paper, with more settlement in Russia because of the gaps that has been created intentionally favorable to the traffickers and exploiters becasue both Nigeria and Russia are sources, transit and destinations for victims (USDOS, 2016). There is an urgent need to evaluate the impact of the anti trafficking policy on the works and activities of states and non state actors in the human trafficking field with emphasis on the NGOs working on the sex trafficking issues in Nigeria and Russia.

Emphasizing on these points, a better Anti-trafficking policy will lead to an effective and efficient method of investigating, tracking, and bringing the perpetrators and custodians of this illicit trade to book with the aims of beating the contemporary challenges, researching on the anti-trafficking policy in Nigeria and Russia with the case of sex slavery will contribute to the existing research in the field, it will also revolutionized the trans boundary cooperation where similar case is experienced.

This research work is therefore aimed at examining the effect of Anti-trafficking policy in Nigeria and Russia and how the relevant bodies have combated the case of sex slavery.

Research Question:

A balanced research aimed at examining the effect of Anti-trafficking policy in Nigeria and Russia with the case of sex slavery will be appreciated when logical answers are given to logical questions. This research attempts to answer the question:

· What are the gaps manipulated by the Human traffickers in Nigeria and Russia?

· How do the states policies affect the effective combat of Human Trafficking?

· How do the state and non state actors beat the anti-trafficking policies?

2.2 Theoretical Framework: Marxist Feminism

This theory follows that of Karl Marx which best simplify the society as a place of anarchy where power, labor, profit is revolving to capitalism separating the employer and employee, the employee continues to work hard hoping to be able to get free and satisfied someday whereas the employer continues to maintain the statuesque of continuous exploitation. This same scenario best explain sex slavery where the women are not allowed to own properties because of societal believe that men are superior thereby drawing some limit to what a woman can gain in the home or society. This makes the women more vulnerable as they become victims in the hands of their exploiters, loss self esteem and dignity all in the pursuit of self sufficiency (Brooks, 2011). Furthermore, the Marxist feminist theory describes perfectly how the Edo states trafficked girls are seen as a private property to the Recruiters, Trolleys and the Madam literarily they are family relatives, friends and neighbors who had sold the victim out to a new hand, acting upon the right of ownership for a period where the victims could pay off from the debt bondage



3. RESEARCH METHOLOGY

The data collected in a qualitative study includes more than words because other observations are also involved.

All data for this research was collected qualitatively; According to Crawell, (2013), in qualitative research, “the intent is to explore the general, complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon and present the broad varied perspective or meaning that participants hold.”

Therefore, my data will be processed in the same format with the use of different qualitative tools and techniques such as the use of a structured questionnaire for interview, secondary and primary sources. The secondary data are information that already exists in the form of publications, electronic media, which is collected by researchers (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012). In analyzing the data, I will be using descriptive analysis and sample tools techniques.

A sample tool is a set of the people, selected from the population, for instance the number of the participants that I have decided to use will constitute the parameter, with me describing clearly in a narrative essay format During the conduct of this work, I relied majorly on the qualitative method and my sampling selection of a purposeful selected respondent representing the victims of sex slavery, governmental agencies, IGOs, NGOs and other relevant persons or bodies with direct or indirect activities in human trafficking both in Nigeria and Russia. The ongoing sampling is conducted using structured interview, physically, via telephone or Skype.

The survey instrument is to examine the impact of Anti-trafficking policy in Nigeria and Russia with the case of sex slavery. I also presented my findings in a qualitative method because the importance of presentation of findings with qualitative method in academic research in recent years cannot overemphasize (Konrad et al., 2016). The qualitative research method is appropriate to examine the impact of Anti-trafficking policy in Nigeria and Russia because of the absence of data for statistic explanation. It will afford me to dig deeply in other to convince the readers about the analysis and findings made and the findings will be made in a qualitative method (Cho, 2015).

3.1 Data Collection

To conduct this work, I will rely majorly on the qualitative method and my sampling selection would be on purposeful selected respondents.

I collected data and have in-depth interviews with thirty female ST victims from Nigeria;

· Nigerian Embassy official in Moscow;

· A Nigerian Prison Officer

· An Immigration officer in Nigeria

· A member of the Peace and Justice Group Nigeria

· Safe House Moscow

· A round table discussion between students, researchers and Experts on Migration and Human-Trafficking from Moscow to Russia

· Evon Idahosa, the founder of Pathfinders Justice Initiative, an NGO specializing in ST prevention and victim rehabilitation

· Kenny Kehinde, founder of Help Services for Nigerians in Russia, an NGO specializing in the rescue and rehabilitation of victims

· Two members of the Moscow Protestant Chaplaincy

o programme coordinator

o healthcare professional

· 40 Rescued Victims.

· Fatimah Ehikhebolo, Cooperativa Sociale Dedalus

· Kerenova Olga, Research Expert, NEU and Volunteer Moscow Service 247

· Ilya Savelyev, Founder, Moscow Service 247

· 2 Reformed pimps

· 3 victims that never practiced

· 3 Returned victims

· 2 NAPTIP officials

· WOCON Lagos State Website

· GPI Edo State Website

· WOTCLEF Website

· God Sent Foundation

3.2 Data Analysis

A qualitative study of the sex trafficked victims and governmental agencies, NGOs and IGOs working in the Anti-Trafficking field in Nigeria and Russia, using a structured interview as the primary research approach which began the process in February 2016 to April 2017. I conducted a deep interview with 40 rescued victims at various locations; Most of the victims were interviewed in the shelter while others were interviewed at the MPCSS center.

I also had the privilege to interview diplomats who has been assisting the victims with requisite documentation to relocate back to Nigeria in May 2017, it was also important to interview 2 experts working on the same project in Nigeria and Russia, Mr Kenny Banwo was interviewed on several occasion as he stands to be the link that liaise with the Russian immigration service and the Nigerian embassy to ensure that the victims return home safely, he's the founder of an NGO named Helps for Nigerians in Russia and a recipient of the 2016 Hero Award for combating human trafficking, It was an opportunity to contact Evon Idahosa in May 2017, the founder of Pathfinders Justice Initiative, as her organization has contributed immensely to combating human trafficking In Edo state and Nigeria at large. I interviewed a Nigerian Prison officer and another police office with experience in the human trafficking issues.

I had to do a follow-up on 3 of the victims that was assisted to return back to Nigeria on Skype and Face book in December 2016. Furthermore 3 trafficked victims that never engaged in sex slavery were approached in Moscow in 2017. Also, I had consecutive interviews with 2 members of Moscow Service 247 in February, 2017, this NGO helps sex slaves trafficked from the former Soviet Union countries to return back to their country of origin, similarly, the assists trafficked Russians to return back to the Russian federation. The MPCSS members were interviewed in the month of February 2017 at the center, the NGO has major have their clients to be refugees seekers, asylum seekers and migrants individuals fraudulently trafficked and abandoned in Russia, the MPSCC has also handled several cases related to the sex workers who are predominantly from Nigeria, by paying for their flight tickets and caring for their medical predicaments.

NGO specializing in ST prevention and victim rehabilitation, 2 reformed pimps specializing in arranging ladies at the clubs were lightly accosted in Moscow in 2016.

In May 2017, I had an hour Skype interview with Fatimah Ehikhebolo, of Cooperativa Sociale Dedalus in Italy. She was trafficked as a sex over 20n years ago, She has been freed and has 17 years work experience with IMO, NGO's and Research Groups.

Finally, I also engaged the service of a post graduate student and a researcher from the University of Lagos in Nigerian who helped me to conduct the interview with the 2 NAPTIP officials in Nigeria on the 27^th of April, an Immigration officer and a member of the Justice Group was interviewed by him. Apart from the fact that he is also a researcher, I have trained him and made him know the rudiment of how a quality interview should be conducted and the importance of a quality interview. This was necessary because I am currently in Russia, so reaching them was almost impossible so I had to rely on help from colleagues back in Nigeria to locate these stakeholders.

A tape recorder was used to interview my respondents in most cases not longer than 30 minutes.



4. LEGAL BACKGROUND TO ANTI-HUMAN TRAFFICKING EFFORTS IN NIGERIA AND RUSSIA

4.1 Nigeria's Combat Efforts

In Nigeria, the National Migration Policy (NMP) is patterned by a number of ideologies, which includes but not limited to the national, sub-regional, regional and international standards and conventions which emphasizes the need to protect the rights of all migrants workers and their family members, the Palermo protocol which intensifies effort to protect migrants right against labor exploitation and human trafficking and related issues. In short, policy priority is placed on the need for people to move freely as housed by the 1999 constitution, section 15(3) Chapter 2, points that the State:

“provide adequate facilities for and encourage free mobility of people, goods and services throughout the Federation”

(2015).

NAPTIP:

To curb the illicit trade NAPTIP was established in 2003 and gave more responsibility with 2005 amendment to meet with the international standard of preventing, suppressing and punishing trafficking persons.

Section 8 of the Law creates four specialized operational units to implement the mandate of the Agency: Investigation; Prosecution; Counseling & Rehabilitation; and Public Enlightenment. The new governmental body NAPTIP was also empowered to apprehend, hunt and prosecute offenders.

The Law grants NAPTIP powers of arrest search and abduct any suspicious persons of human trafficking with the assistance of other relevant security agencies in Nigeria (Lagos, 2008).

Some of the responsibilities of NAPTIP include the following:

Ш The implementation and the supervision of the enshrined act

Ш The harmonization and implementing the anti-trafficking law

Ш Approval of proceeding to amplify the efficacy to abolish human trafficking

Ш The support for an apprehended victims volunteering to give more information to mitigate human trafficking

Ш Synergizing with relevant security agencies to eradicate human trafficking

Ш Coordination free flow of information that will be relevant for policy makers, researches, security agencies working towards eradicating trafficking persons either by sea, air and land.

Ш Actively contribution to proceedings that will be implemented either reach on two-sided or multi-sided agreement

Ш Carrying out such actions independently or working with other relevant bodies committed to abolishing the preventing the push and pull factor of traffic in persons

Ш Empowering and enforcing legislative action realizing the mutual accord to criminalize human trafficking on the global level

Ш Empowering and mediating on human trafficking matters between the state judiciary head and the law enforcement agencies

Ш Complete participation in administering victims' rehabilitation programs and other events of human trafficking

Ш NAPTIP has the legal power to go after any suspected person involved in trafficking in person (Section 5)

To achieve the elimination of human trafficking, the law of establishment empowers through section 8 and 9 to create special duty units.

The Units includes the following:

Ш Investigation Unit

Ш Legal Unit

Ш Counseling and Rehabilitation Unit

Ш Public Enlightenment Unit

Ш Other relevant unit, committees and task forces.

4.2 NAPTIP: Anti-human trafficking units

The birth of NAPTIP began with the parliamentary nod in the year 2003 and its final establishment in the following year as a legal and operational entity responsible for the coordination of the anti-human trafficking in the country Referencing the United State Department of State, specialized departments for the NPF Anti-Trafficking Task Force was inaugurated during the year 2005, this was done to tackle the illicit trade in human that has becoming an institutions in making if not controlled with all seriousness, twenty two of such outlet was made operational with staff and located in the prone states throughout the federation. Unfortunately, the poor financial powers needed to carry out accurate enquiry has bedeviled the activities of these unit (Lagos, 2008). Moreover, it is noteworthy that NAPTIP has taken an earlier stride in 2004 to achieve the same goal by calling for collaborative efforts at the state level to form a strong force of anti-trafficking committees which will consist of the civil society organizations, law enforcement agencies, Nigerian Immigration Services and the concerned federal ministries in the twenty two most vulnerable states (Lagos, 2008). Furthermore, because of the high involvement of children as victims of trafficking and to control the continuous flow of infant into the slave market the NAPTIP decided to set up an anti-child trafficking committees at most of the state level of the federation (Lagos, 2008).

Some notable NGOs have also taken giant steps to help curtail the illicit movement of people that has included not only the female child but their male counterpart finding themselves being exploited within and outside the country bedeviling the image of the country as a source of human trafficking, NGOs such as WOCON had partnered with relevant anti-human trafficking bodies, security forces of the NIS and NPF to achieve to meet this ends. The legal governmental body of NAPTIP has its own instituted body presiding over any investigative and prosecution cases. More so, for accuracy and competency reasons the anti-human trafficking unit of NPF and NIS are under obligation to report all matters as related human trafficking to the constituted NAPTIP's National Investigation Task Force unit who in turn does a thorough investigative and prosecute all those found in these barbaric act. To cover places out of the reach of NAPTIP 6 regional offices, provisions have been made on how to contact the nearest anti-human trafficking unit nearest to the state (Lagos, 2008).

Interestingly and unarguably that human traffickers have their own strategies of networking, information gathering and secrecy and in most cases ready to go extra miles to bring down anti-human trafficking team, one would agree more that the Anti-human Trafficking policies officers are not on official dresses in other to have access to information gathering from the public, this unit has exonerated themselves from all forms of corrupt practices because the play a major role in apprehension of human traffickers (Lagos, 2008).



4.3 Russia's Combat Effort

Human Trafficking found its feet on the demise of the soviet union in the early 1990s, as the illicit trade in human thrived within and across borders there became a need track-down this menace became worrisome to the general public (Mukomel, 2013). Unfortunately, little or no efforts was garnered towards combating the growing human trafficking trade not until the 2001 when the international community and the NGOs began to step in to monitor and strategies on how to mitigate the illicit trade in human. Notable interest in curbing human trafficking was seen only after to the Federation of Russia's signatory to the Palermo Protocol (Mukomel, 2013). Laws were subsequently promulgated to fight human trafficking in Russia. The reason behind this is not far from the agreement of the Russian government in different international treaties for the passage of the fundamental human rights and the international pressures through cases studies from western countries (Mukomel, 2013). It should be noted that the mechanism for the vibrant for this was the inter-departmental Working Group of the state Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation for Civil, Criminal, Arbitration and Procedural law leading to the drafting of anti-human trafficking federal law, under the leadership of Elena Mizulina (Mukomel, 2013).

4.4 Anti-Trafficking Policy and Anti-Corruption Policy in Nigeria and Russia

Corruption has been described differently by different scholars based on the parameters of discussion in questions, in actual fact it has been said to be part of the human nature, whereas the idea of human trafficking has in recent times began to take serious global attention has it has not remained only within the spheres of the nation states but has its arms across the national boundaries creating an international network.

In Nigeria and Russia, it will be a self deceit to discuss the issues of human trafficking without an intense discussion about corruption.

Corruption like said earlier could range from petty to systemic corruption; as regards this paper more emphasis will be placed on the political/ bureaucratic corruption in most cases referred to as systemic corruption.

The discuss on that of the political corruptions spans from the misuse or abuse of power by the ruling elite, governance for personal gains and benefits concentrated to loyalists. This is a major problem with the Nigerian society since a well orchestrated would be power would influences negatively or positively any decision or policies that would be made irrespective of how sensitive the case might be (Osita, 2003).

The systemic or the entrenched corruption on the other hand has its platform on bribery as a norm or traditions by the populace. This type of corruption are mostly witnessed in situations where a documents, pass, authorizations, permit or services is expected to be collected from the government. To worsen the case, because this type of corruption is stabilized by some cabals, people are forced to obey to this illegal path and recalcitrant are treated with disdain. For the avoidance of such delay and hardship, people accept to go by the corrupt practices because the system is so porous to even get such abuses corrected (Osita, 2003). Corrupt practices have been thriving on an easy scale in Nigeria because of the Nigeria's political economy, feeble institutions of governance, failing legal system, imprudent spending, unholy expectations, ethnic loyalties and ethnic suspicions (Osita, 2003).

The economic hardship experienced in Nigeria in 1986 and the decisive obnoxious policies of accepting the IMF policy recommendation for the Structural Adjustment Programme SAP worsened the situation of Nigerians already caused by the corrupt-polluted system, this situation made Nigerian began to seek for an alternative country of survival. In 2003, the Federal Government of Nigeria in a bid to curb the corrupt practices established a strong institution which will pursue public office holder and holding accountable for mismanagement of the country ICPC Independent Corrupt Practices and other related offenses Commission. This body was weakened by the legislative arms of government and stripped from its investigative powers. Interestingly, in the same 2003, the law to establish NAPTIP was established, perhaps to curtail the emerging trafficking in human business.

It is important to say at this point that human trafficking came as a result of corruption, embezzlement, tyrannical government, and economic mismanagements, it will be unfair to refute that past government has not identified corruption as a catalyst to national development for examples there are had been past attempts to curb corruption.

Whereas the idea of human trafficking has in recent times began to take serious global attention has it has not remained only within the spheres of the nation states but has its arms across the national boundaries creating an international network. The age long history of slavery has not left the shores of origin. Slavery in the past was thriving as a result of war captives, punishment for criminal and partly as a lucrative trade to evade poverty (Osita, 2003).

The purpose of the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade is yet to be achieved as in contemporary times, Africans of different ages embarked on the journey to escape poverty even though in some cases the victims were deceived about the real purpose of jobs available. One major driver for human trafficking in recent times is globalization and economic inequalities across the globe (Osita, 2003). Due to the sophisticated crimes attached with human trafficking such as drug, weapons , money laundering and human organs, the issues of trafficking becomes a more form of organized crime, unlike the drugs and weapons, middlemen might be invisible in the trade in human, women and children are commercialized as sex workers, child labor and foot soldiers (Osita, 2003). The was a necessity for the UN Convention Against Organized Crime in the beginning of the new millennium calling human trafficking contemporary slavery.

In Nigeria context, describing or analyzing the development state and rate of poverty in Nigeria, one must draw more emphasis on corruption and mismanagement as the major impediments; it will be a self deceit to discuss the issues of human trafficking without an intense discussion about corruption. Human Trafficking thrives on the back of corruption and the traffickers are operating on a well organized system with local and international contacts. This has invariably made the fight against human trafficking almost unwinnable (Osita, 2003).

Going further, it becomes interwoven and complex to solve this global illicit trade in humans. One would have expected that there will be a turn of the tides after the Palermo Protocol as Nigerian government became very apprehensive and aggressive on the issues of human trafficking decided to promulgate a laws in 2003 prohibiting human trafficking but it was formalized in 2005 with the establishment of NAPTIP with full legal capacity to investigate, apprehend and persecute whosoever is found to contradict the tenancies set by the organization. Unfortunately, the law enforcement agency that ought to be the custodians and mitigate human trafficking has been alleged to have played a major role in the human trafficking circle. In the Russia context, one cannot doubt the impact of corruption in the human trafficking syndrome that has characterized the country from not only being a supply, transit and destination country, the country in an effort to curb the growing human trafficking as adjusted her human trafficking law a bit through advancement of wordings (Mukomel, 2013). The newly introduced articles of 127.1 of human trafficking and 127.2 of slave labor were introduced with strict punishment for offenders. One would have assumed that these two newly articles with the perquisite legal tools would to an extent put a check to the heinous trade in human that has bedeviled the country. Unfortunately, the law enforcement agencies were lacking basic amenities that would have enhance their investigative prowess such as protective shelters for victims and a temporary permit that would cover the space of investigation (Mazur, 2010).

It is worthy of note that human trafficking in the Russian context is a show of bastardized criminal justice system. The law enforcement agent specifically the Russian Police has an existing dichotomy between the investigative and prosecution task with such as pattern it is almost impossible for an individual to complete a particular case (McCarthy, 2010).

To worsen this situation, the police get elevated on the back of a number of successful cases made. This therefore makes the police officers to distance themselves from cases of human trafficking since they have little knowledge and skills about the human trafficking trade. Ordinarily, one would agree that for the sake of promotions or avoiding a fruitless efforts must have been one of the drives or factors that has made the law enforcement agencies to pay little attention since they lack the knowledge of engaging in such a crime

The security agents especially the police have been accused to be very corrupt with little or no trust by both the citizens and the victims. Most of the victims I interviewed when assaulted by their client for instance a victim that was thrown from the third floor nakedly for refusing to allow other three guys to have sex with her told me that she was given a shirt by a man who saw her nakedly and he called in the police, but the clients who had thrown her from the room came downstairs to threaten the man, while the police came she had to run away because of the fear that the police would either depart her for engaging in prostitution or collect demand her to pay some amount of money. At arrival at the station she was allowed to go home when the madam reached out to the police officer but the case was no longer investigated.

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