English for Law Students

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БЕЛОРУССКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

Кафедра английского языка гуманитарных факультетов

ENGLISH for Law Students

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

Учебное пособие по

специальности «Правоведение»

Minsk BSU

2006

Авторы-составители:

Васючкова О. И., Крюковская И. В., Долгорукова А. И.,
Хорень Р. В., Шуплецова С. А.

Утверждено на заседании кафедры английского языка гуманитарных факультетов протокол № 1 от 26 сентября 2006 г.

Рецензенты: английский язык студент правовед

Доктор филологических наук, профессор кафедры иностранных языков Института государственного строительства при Президенте Республики Беларусь Л. М. Лещева

Кандидат педагогических наук, доцент Г. П. Савченко

Под общей редакцией кандидата филологических наук О.И. Васючковой

English for Law Students = Английский язык. Учебное пособие по специальности «Правоведение» / Авт.-сост.: Васючкова О. И., Крюковская И. В., Долгорукова А. И., Хорень Р. В., Шуплецова С. А. - Мн.: БГУ, 2006. - 355 с.

Настоящее пособие представляет собой тематически организованный учебно-методический комплекс по проблемам, представляющим интерес для студентов-правоведов: профессия юриста, история государства и права, конституционное право, уголовное право, деятельность правоохранительных органов, судов, уголовный и гражданский процесс, пенитенциарная система. Каждый тематический раздел состоит из аутентичных (ам. и брит.) монологических и диалогических текстов с заданиями для разных видов чтения и аудирования, грамматического блока, текстов для дополнительного чтения. Цель пособия - обучить студентов чтению, реферированию, пониманию на слух текстов по специальности и ведению дискуссии на профессионально значимые темы.

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

Учебное пособие “English for Law Students” предназначено для студентов-правоведов, обучающихся в Белгосуниверситете, и выполнено в русле профессионально ориентированного обучения иностранным языкам в неязыковом вузе. Целью данного пособия является обучение иноязычному общению будущих юристов во всем многообразии форм речевой деятельности, составляющими которой являются чтение, говорение, аудирование, письмо.

Поскольку на современном этапе развития высшей школы владение иностранным языком рассматривается как существенный компонент квалификационной характеристики специалиста, аутентичный материал пособия, предлагаемая система упражнений максимально способствуют формированию умений и навыков общения на иностранном языке в сфере профессиональной коммуникации.

Содержание курса тематически отражает широкий спектр правовых проблем специальных дисциплин, изучаемых на юридических факультетах, служит основой для компаративного анализа систем права стран изучаемого и родного языка.

Пособие состоит из 9 идентично структурированных разделов, организованных по тематическому принципу, каждый из которых представляет собой самостоятельный лингвометодический комплекс. Каждый раздел включает в себя материалы для различных видов чтения монологического и диалогического характера с разработанной системой упражнений к ним, тексты и задания по развитию навыков аудирования, говорения, письма, грамматического блока, построенного на лексике материала раздела, а также комплекта дополнительных текстов, существенно дополняющих и расширяющих информационное поле предлагаемых для изучения основных текстов.

Разработанная в пособии система упражнений носит преимущественно проблемный, творческий характер, задания ранжируются по степени сложности, что позволяет учитывать индивидуальные возможности обучаемых.

Пособие соответствует требованиям «Программы обучения профессионально ориентированному общению на иностранных языках (классические университеты)» и рассчитано на 180 часов аудиторной работы.

UNIT I

Agents of the Law

READING MATERIAL

Text A Legal Profession

Task: read and translate the following text.

England is almost unique in having two different kinds of lawyers, with separate jobs in the legal system. The legal profession is divided into two branches: barristers and solicitors, who are sometimes called the junior branch. Both barristers and solicitors are professions held in high regard because of their development of controlling admission and ensuring high-quality education for admission. This division of the legal profession is of long standing and each branch has its own characteristic functions as well as a separate governing body. The training and career structures for the two types of lawyers are quite separate.

The traditional picture of the English lawyer is that the solicitor is the general practitioner, confined mainly to the office. If a person has a legal problem and needs the assistance of the law, either because he has a dispute, or because he is in trouble, or concerned with a question of inheritance or transfer of property, he will go to a solicitor and seek his advice in a personal interview. There is no end to variety of matters which can appear on a solicitor's desk. They deal with all the day-to-day work of preparing legal documents for buying and selling houses, making wills, writing legal letters, they do the legal work involved in conveyancing, probate, divorce. Solicitors work on court cases for their clients outside the court: in a civil action solicitors have the right to speak in the lowest Courts when the case is one of divorce, recovering some debts, matrimonial matters, petty crimes. If a case, civil or criminal, is more serious or difficult, or has to be heard in a higher court, solicitors engage a barrister to whom they hand over the task of representing the client in the court. They prepare a case for barristers to present in the higher courts and the barrister receives it in the form of a brief from which he plans his advocacy in the particular case.

Law Society¹ is a governing body of solicitors. Solicitors usually work together in partnerships, or “firms'. To qualify as a solicitor a young man joins a practising solicitor as a “clerk” and works for him whilst studying part time for the Law Society exams. When you have passed all the necessary exams, you may apply to the Law Society to be “admitted”, then you can start business on your own. It is not necessary for you to go to university.

In England, the decision is between becoming a barrister or a solicitor. Although solicitors and barristers work together on cases barristers specialise in representing clients in court. A barrister can only be consulted indirectly, through a solicitor. Thus they are not paid directly by clients, but are employed by solicitors. Most barristers are professional advocates but it is a mistake to regard a barrister entirely as an advocate. A barrister must be capable of prosecuting in a criminal case one day, and defending an accused person the next.

A would-be² barrister must first register as a student member of one of the four Inns of Court³: Gray's Inn, Lincoln's Inn, Inner Temple or Middle Temple and keep twelve terms as a student at his Inn. A student must pass a group of examinations to obtain a Law degree and then proceed to a vocational course, highly practical in nature, the passing of which will result in his being called to the Bar⁴.

Barristers are experts in the interpretation of the Law. They advise on really difficult legal matters (this is known as “taking counsel's opinion”). So barristers spend a lot of time at paper work apart from their actual appearances in court where they wear wigs and gowns in keeping with the extreme formalities of the proceedings.

Judges are usually chosen from the most senior barristers, and once appointed they cannot continue to practise as barristers.

The highest level of barristers have the title Q.C. (Queen's Counsel). The status is bestowed on about 30 counsellors a year by the Queen on the advice of the Lord Chancellor. Before a junior counsel can hope to achieve the status (“to take silk” as this process is called) he must be able to point to at least 10 years successful practice as a barrister. The Q.C. is expected to appear only in the most important cases.

A lot of work in English solicitor's offices is undertaken by managing clerks, now called “legal executives”⁵, who are a third type of lawyers. They have their own professional and examining body “The Institute of Legal Executives”.

Taking the legal profession as a whole, there is one practicing lawyer per 1200 people. This compares with about one lawyer per 600 in the USA. There are about 5,000 barristers and 50,000 solicitors, the number which is rapidly increasing, and they make up by far the largest branch of the legal profession in England and Wales.

Many people believe the distinction between barristers and solicitors should be eliminated in England. The government is considering various proposals, but there are arguments for maintaining, as well as removing, the division.

Notes:

^1. Law Society Общество юристов (профессиональный союз солиситоров)

^2. would-be - стремящийся стать

^3. Inns of Court “Судебные инны” (четыре корпорации барристеров в Лондоне; пользуются исключительным правом приема в адвокатуру; в школах при этих корпорациях готовят барристеров; существуют с XIV в.)

Gray's Inn “Грейз Инн” (самый новый из “судебных иннов”, назван по имени первого владельца здания).

Lincoln's Inn “Инн Линкольна” (готовит преимущественно барристеров Канцлерского овысокого суда правосудия; назван по имени первого владельца здания).

Inner Temple “Внутренний темпл” (самый старый из судебных типов.)

Middle Temple “Средний темпл”

^4. to be called to the Bar быть принятым в коллегию адвокатов

^5. “legal executives” законные исполнители (персонал, нанимаемый солиситорами, клерки)

Word Study

Ex. 1. a) Read the international words and guess their meaning. Mind the stress.

legal	system	profession	characteristic
type	function	solicitor	specialization
form	problem	career	problematic
plan	action	extreme
clerk	practice	specific
office	advocate	practitioner
status	business	traditional
expert	structure	formalities
client	barrister	procedure
document	argument

b) Pronounce correctly the following proper names:

Law Society ['lL sq'saIqtI]	Lincoln's Inn ['lInkqlnz 'In]
Queen's Counsel ['k w i: n z 'kauns(q)l]	Inner Temple ['Inq 't e m p l ]
Inns of Court ['Inz qv 'kLt]	Middle Temple ['mIdl 't e m p l ]
Gray's Inn ['greIz 'In ]

Ex. 2. Complete the list of derivatives. Use a dictionary if necessary.

Verb noun (agent) noun (concept)

to train

to practise

to advocate

to specialize

to convey

to apply

to accuse

to interpret

to prosecute prosecutor prosecution

Ex. 3. Pair the words in column B with the ones from column A.

A.	senior	B.	barrister
	vocational		degree
	law		course
	extreme		documents
	accused		exam
	professional		advocate
	necessary		matters
	civil		advice
	day-to-day		structure
	variety (of)		action
	personal		person
	general		interview
	career		formalities
	legal		practitioner

Ex. 4. Decide which verbs you would use with the noun phrases you have identified in Ex. 3.

to seek, to separate, to be, to have, to deal with, to prepare, to plan, to pass, to appoint, to defend, to obtain, to proceed, to keep, to prosecute.

Ex. 5. Add nouns to the following adjectives to form noun phrases.

legal, general, criminal, civil, matrimonial, petty, junior, vocational, senior, successful, important, managing, examining, professional, governing, personal.

Ex. 6. How are the following ideas expressed in the text?

1. a lawyer who has the right of speaking and arguing in the higher courts of law;

2. a kind of lawyer who gives advice, appears in lower courts;

3. to be allowed or made by law;

4. a room or building in which law cases can be heard and judged;

5. questions to be decided in a court of law;

6. a rule that is supported by the power of government and that governs the behaviour of members of a society;

7. a person whose business is to advise people about laws and to represent them in court;

8. a person who speaks in defence of or in favour of another person;

9. a lawyer who prepares an official paper by which the right to ownership of one's property is given by one person to another;

10. a person who pays a professional person for help and advice;

11. a public official who has the power to decide questions brought before a court of law.

Ex. 7. Match English and Russian equivalents.

matrimonial matters;	a) быть профессиональным адвокатом;
petty crimes;	b) защищать обвиняемого;
recovery of debts;	c) незначительные преступления;
to make a will;	d) составлять завещание;
to deal with conveyancing;	e) искать юридического совета;
to seek legal advice;	f) толкование закона;
to apply to the court;	g) иметь дело с составлением нотариальных актов о передаче имущества
a civil action;	h) возврат долгов;
a general practitioner;	i) брачные (супружеские) вопросы;
the interpretation of the law;	j) вести уголовное дело;
to defend the accused person;	k) обращаться в суд;
to be a professional advocate;	l) получить диплом юриста;
to obtain a law degree;	m) гражданское дело;
to prosecute in a criminal case;	n) юрист широкого профиля;
to eliminate the distinction;	o) поддержать предложение
to maintain the proposal;	p) награждать титулом
to bestow the title;	q) составлять самую большую отрасль
to make up the largest branch;	r) профессиональный адвокат
professional advocate;	s) устранить деление
to achieve the status	t) достичь статуса

Ex. 8. Choose the best alternative to complete the following sentences.

1. England is almost unique / ordinary in having two / three different kinds of lawyers, with separate/the same jobs in the legal system.

2. Solicitors/managing clerks prepare a case for a barrister / a judge.

3. In a civil/criminal action solicitors have the right to speak in the lowest / highest courts.

4. Law Society/the Bar is a governing body of solicitors.

5. It is a mistake to regard/to point a barrister entirely as an advocate/prosecutor.

6. Barristers are experts in the interpretation/examining of the Law.

7. Judges are usually chosen/appointed from the most senior/junior barristers.

8. The Queen's Counsel / the Lord Chancellor is expected to appear only in the most important / trial cases.

9. A number of lawyers is rapidly increasing/cutting down in England and Wales.

10. A lot of work in solicitors'/barristers' offices is undertaken by legal executives / students.

11. Each branch of legal profession has its own/common characteristic functions as well as a separate/one governing body.

12. If a person has a legal problem he will go to a barrister/solicitor and seek his advice in a personal interview/by post.

13. In court barristers wear plain clothes/wigs and gowns.

14. To qualify as a barrister you must register as a student member of one of the four Inns of Court /of one of British universities.

Ex. 9. Complete the following sentences by adding the phrases given in part B.

Part A

1. England is almost unique .....

2. Each branch of legal profession has .....

3. A general practitioner, confined mainly to the office ...

4. The solicitors deal with preparing .....

5. The solicitor has the right to speak in the Lowest Courts when ....

6. The barrister plans his advocacy .....

7. A young man joins a practicing solicitor as a clerk .....

8. When you have passed all the necessary exams and you are admitted to the Law Society .....

9. Barristers specialize .....

10. A barrister must be capable .....

11. Barristers are .....

12. Judges are chosen .....

13. When the student obtains a law degree and passes highly practical in nature vocational course .....

14. Clerks who undertake a lot of work in English solicitor's offices .....

15. Solicitors make up …..

16. Many people believe ….

17. The government is considering various arguments for ….

Part B

a) the rapidly increasing branch of the legal profession in England and Wales.

b) the distinction between barristers and solicitors should be eliminated.

c) for maintaining as well as removing the division.

d) the case is one of divorce, recovery some debts, petty crimes.

e) to qualify as a solicitor.

f) its own characteristic functions and a separate governing body.

g) in the form of a brief prepared by a solicitor.

h) is the solicitor.

i) in having two different kinds of lawyers.

j) legal documents for the clients.

k) you can start business on your own.

l) in representing clients in court.

m) of prosecuting in a criminal case one day and defending an accused person the next.

n) experts in the interpretation of the Law.

o) from the most senior barristers.

p) he may be called to the Bar.

q) are a third type of lawyers called “legal executives”.

Ex. 10. Can you explain what we mean by saying:

apprenticeship with the solicitor; conversion course; to be admitted to the roll; the academic stage; “pupillage”; workshadowing;	marshalling judge; mock trial; court appearance; tenancy; Queen's Counsel (QC).

Ex. 11. Complete the following text with the words and phrases from the box. Answer the questions given below.

lay client, trial, professional association, legal advisor, paperwork, a written document, Law Society, marriage contract, litigants, instruct

The Long History of the Solicitor

The solicitors' profession has a long history, going back to the 12^lh century, when the language of the court was Norman French. All_______ therefore needed a representative to act on their behalf and that person was known as an `attorney' from the mediaeval French word `atourner' (meaning `to direct to'). In the courts of equity a___________ needed a 'solicitor' to act on his behalf. This word derived from the Latin `sollicitare' (to harass). Attorneys and solicitors were the forerunners of today's solicitors.

Today solicitors generally ________ barristers as specialist pleaders of cases in Court, prepare the cases, attend to all the __________ and collect the evidence. The solicitor provides the instructions to the barrister in _________ called “a brief” - hence the expression “briefcase”.

The attorney or solicitor was the general________. He would deal with legal matters on behalf of his client such as the drawing up of wills, trust instruments, ________ _______, and conveyances of land. It was generally only when a matter proceeded to court that the client had need of both a solicitor and a barrister: the solicitor to enter an appearance in the Court and deal with the preliminary stages and the barrister to plead the case and appear at the eventual _______of it.

The profession of a solicitor was largely unregulated until the beginning of the 19^th century when the Law Society was founded. It was granted a Royal Charter in 1845 which empowered it to enforce national standards of conduct and education. About the same time the term attorney was dropped in favour of the title “solicitor”. The duties of the ____ ____ have been extended by various Acts of Parliament since then. It serves the public by working to improve access to the law. It provides services and support for solicitors and sets the standards that independent professional advisers. The Law Society acts both as the professional body regulating solicitors and also as their____ ____.

1. What is the origin of the solicitor's role?

2. Why did litigants in medieval times need a representative in court?

3. What is the role of solicitors nowadays?

4. What are the main functions of the Law Society?

Discussion

Ex. 1. Choose the best way to complete the sentences.

1. England has two different kinds of lawyers: .....

a) solicitors and barristers

b) barristers and legal executives

c) solicitors and judges

2. Solicitors work on court cases of clients .....

a) in the court

b) outside the court

c) at home

3. ..... is a governing body of solicitors.

a) the Bar

b) the Highest Court

c) Law Society

4. The highest level of barristers have the title of .....

a) Queen's Counsel

b) Queen's Advocate

c) Senior Barrister

5. The status to the barrister is bestowed by the Queen on the advice of .....

a) the Lord Chancellor

b) Prime Minister

c) the Attorney-General

6. A would be barrister must first be registered .....

a) as a member of Law Society

b) as a student member of one of the four Inns of Court

c) as a member of the Bar

7. Many people believe the distinction between barristers and solicitors .....

a) should be adopted

b) should be eliminated

c) should be kept

8. Judges are chosen from ….

a) a junior counsel

b) the most senior barristers

c) managing clerks

9. Solicitors have the right to speak in the lowest Courts when the case is one of …

a) murder

b) petty crimes

c) terrorism

10. Barristers are experts …

a) in representing clients in court

b) in interpretation of the law

c) in writing legal letters

Ex. 2. Mark the statements which are true.

1. The division of the legal profession is of long standing and each branch has its own characteristic functions.

2. The training and career structures for the two types of lawyers are quite the same.

3. Solicitors specialize in representing clients in courts.

4. A barrister can only be consulted indirectly through a solicitor.

5. Barristers are paid directly by the clients.

6. A barrister is regarded to be an advocate.

7. In court, barristers wear wigs and gowns in keeping with the extreme formalities of the proceedings.

8. Judges are chosen from the most senior barristers and they can continue to practise as barristers.

9. Before a junior counsel can achieve the status of QC he must be able to point to at least 10 years successful practice as a barrister.

10. The government doesn't consider it necessary to eliminate the distinction between barristers and solicitors.

Ex. 3. Analyse the stages of legal education and career in Britain.

Solicitors' Training

A levels of equivalent		A levels of equivalent		4 GCSEs
Law degree		Degree (non-law)		ILEX yr 1 and 2
Legal practice course (1 year)		Common professional exam		2 years' experience in law firm
Training contract (2 years)		Legal practice course (1 year)		Fellow ILEX over 25 years old
Solicitor		Training contract (2 years)		Work experience in law firm
						or
			Solicitor		Legal practice course
					2 years' training period pass final exams
					Solicitor

Note:

ILEX - Institute of Legal Executives.

GCSEs - General Certificate for Secondary Education

Barristers' Training

Law degree		Non-law degree		Law graduate mature student
		Common professional exam (one year)		Common professional exam (two years)
Membership of an Inn of Court		Membership of an Inn of Court		Membership of an Inn of Court
Vocational Course (one year)				Bar Examination course (one year)
		Called to the Bar Pupillage Practice as a barrister

Ex. 4. Choose someone to act as a guide and answer the visitors' questions.

What is (are) What do you mean by Explain to me Can you tell me about (who, what)	having two different kinds of lawyers variety of matters on solicitors' desks work on court cases of clients outside the court the right to speak in the Lowest Courts Law Society when one can start legal business who interprets the law the status of Queen's Counsel the distinction between barristers and solicitors training and career structures for the two types of lawyers

Ex. 5. Render the following texts into English using the topical vocabulary of the present unit:

a) Судебные Инны

Барристер допускается к практике только в том случае, если он «был призван» (to be admitted) в профессию «Судебным Инном». Судебные Инны - это школы-гильдии (guilds). Их четыре: Греевская школа-гильдия, Линкольская школа-гильдия, Внутренний Темпл и Средний Темпл. Судебные школы-гильдии - очень старая английская традиция. Своими корнями (to date back to) она уходит в XIV век. По существу судебные школы-гильдии - профессиональные организации барристеров, в которые издавна объединялись английские адвокаты. С недавних пор в школы-гильдии принимаются для обучения и практики только обладатели университетских дипломов (the University degree owner).

Чтобы стать барристером, необходимо провести определенное время в школе-гильдии, это время измеряется необычной единицей - «обеденными сессиями» (dinners). Как правило, ежегодно проводится четыре сессии. В течение одной сессии необходимо отобедать (to dine) в столовой своей школы-гильдии по крайней мере три раза. Но чтобы быть принятым в барристеры, требуется посетить (to attend) не менее семи сессий. В давние времена совместные застолья были призваны облегчить установление контактов (to facilitate) между барристерами и теми, кто хочет быть посвященным в это «сословие».

b) Барристеры

В английской традиции барристеры - это и есть адвокаты в полном смысле этого слова. Как и любая элита, барристеры составляют меньшинство в числе людей адвокатской профессии. Королевскими адвокатами могут быть только барристеры, получившие мантию (to gain the gown/to become certified advocates), а с ней и право выступать в суде (the right to appear in court).

Работа барристера состоит в основном в ведении адвокатуры в судах (to conduct the advocacy) и в подготовке письменных заключений в той области права, в которой они специализируются. До Закона о судах и юридических услугах 1990г. барристеры могли работать только в контакте с солиситорами. Однако новый закон предусмотрел право барристеров заключать прямые договоры с клиентами (to make direct contacts with clients), нуждающимися в их услугах, и получать плату от них. Кроме того, барристера не возбраняется оказывать услуги юридического характера другим лицам, т. е. тем, кто не является потенциальным или реальным участником судебного процесса (the litigators), но желает получить компетентное мнение эксперта по вопросам права и судопроизводства (to take counsel opinion on legal matters and the proceedings).

Адвокаты-барристеры имеют право выступать в любом суде, однако им запрещается образовывать товарищества, и этим они отличаются от солиситоров. Поэтому барристеры работают индивидуально (to work independently) или в составе Палат.

Королевские адвокаты - элита барристеров. Из их числа отбираются судьи Высокого суда и судов графств (High Court judges and County court judges). При исполнении своих обязанностей они должны облачаться в специальную шелковую мантию.

c) Солиситоры

Солиситоры - самая многочисленная группа английских адвокатов. Солиситор - самостоятельный адвокат. Он лично или в сотрудничестве с другими солиситорами консультирует своих клиентов по юридическим вопросам (to advise people on legal matters). В обязанности солиситоров обычно входит ведение дел о земельной недвижимости, составление договоров и завещаний, управление наследственным имуществом (to deal with land property, conclude agreements, conveyancing). Они дают рекомендации по юридическим вопросам налогообложения, страхования, конкуренции и предпринимательства (taxation, insurance, competition, entrepreneurship).

В отличие от барристеров, солиситоры больше времени посвящают практической стороне тех дел, которые им приходится вести. Так, именно солиситоры обеспечивают подготовительную стадию судебных тяжб (to provide preliminary stage of court litigations) и правомочны принимать необходимые меры для начала судебного процесса. Они опрашивают свидетелей, готовят тексты заявлений (to interrogate the witnesses, prepare the claims) и другие документы и что, пожалуй, самое главное, в отличие от барристеров работают в непосредственном контакте со своими клиентами.

Было бы преувеличением утверждать, что солиситоры все свое время проводят в офисах, трудясь над юридическими документами, а барристеры только тем и заняты, что выступают в судах. На самом деле большая часть солиситоров половину своего рабочего времени проводит в судах, а барристерам львиную долю своего времени приходится посвящать работе над документами.

Большая часть уголовных дел начинается и заканчивается в магистратском суде с участием солиситора. Дела по обвинению в тяжких преступлениях (grave felony cases) рассматриваются в Суде Короны. Однако и в этой области барристеры не так давно утратили свою адвокатскую монополию. В 1994 г. впервые в истории несколько солиситоров получили лицензии (to be licensed) на право выступать в судебных заседаниях по делам, которые рассматриваются в Суде Короны.

Свои адвокатские обязанности солиситоры могут исполнять в магистратских судах, в судах графств и в ряде трибуналов (Magistrates' and County courts and in a number of Tribunals). Некоторые солиситоры получили право выступать в Суде Короны, но эта практика пока не получила достаточно широкого распространения. К тому же там они по-прежнему не могут выступать в качестве защитников по тем делам, которые рассматриваются в первой инстанции. Кроме того, солиситоры могут выступать в заседаниях Высокого суда по делам о банкротстве (bankruptcy). В заседаниях Европейского Суда Справедливости (the European Court of Justice) солиситоры участвуют на равных правах с барристерами.

Ex. 6. Speak on the legal profession in Great Britain.

1. General characteristics: two kinds of lawyers; separate jobs; governing body; training structure; number of practicing lawyers; to compare with the USA; to increase rapidly; to make up.

2. Solicitor: to seek legal advice; variety of matters; to deal with legal documents; to buy and sell houses; to make a will; to write legal letters; conveyancing; probate; divorce; to work on court cases; to prepare a case for a barrister; to speak in the lowest courts; to recover some debts; matrimonial matters; petty crimes.

3. Barrister: an expert in the interpretation of the law; to specialize in representing clients in court; to be consulted indirectly through a solicitor; to be employed by a solicitor; to be a professional advocate; to advise on really difficult legal matters; to spend a lot of time at paper work; to wear wigs and gowns; to have the title of Queen's Counsel.

4. “Legal executives”: solicitor's offices; to undertake; managing clerks; to be a third type of lawyers; to have a professional and examining body.

Text B Judges

Task: read the text and get ready to discuss its main points.

The judge is the presiding officer of the court. The statutory basis for the appointment of judges dates from the Act of Settlement 1700¹. Under the original arrangements the districts were grouped into 60 county court circuits, each with its own judge appointed by the Lord Chancellor from barristers of at least seven years' standing. On the re-organisation of the criminal courts under the Courts Act 1971 the existing county court judges became Circuit judges. Every Circuit judge is by virtue of his or her office capable of sitting as a judge for any county court district and at least one is assigned to each district by the Lord Chancellor. A full-time District judge is barred from legal practice. District judges were formerly called registrars; the change of title reflected the fact that their functions are now judicial. They are responsible for procedural steps in court proceedings. Their administrative functions have now been transferred to substantial staffs of clerks and bailiffs.

Judges themselves are not a separate profession: they are barristers who have demonstrated competence in litigation and have been elevated to the bench², itself a name derived from the part of the Court where they sit. A barrister always enters the judiciary at the lower trial level. He is thereafter promoted, if he proves successful in the initial judicial post.

The traditional function of judges is to apply existing rules of law to the case before them. The judge decides the interpretation of the law. After all the evidence has been given the judge summarizes the case, both law and facts, for the jury. This is called his summing up.

Judges are capable of “making law” both through the interpretation of statutes and the doctrine of precedent. When an Act of Parliament makes no provision for the case in question and there is no existing precedent, the judge must, if necessity, create a new law.

Judges are not under the control of Parliament, or the Civil Service. The independence of the judiciary is a fundamental principle of constitutional law. Closely related to judicial independence is the doctrine of judicial immunity.

The professional judges, “High Court Judges”, deal with the most serious crimes. They are paid salaries by the state. Alongside with the professional judges there are unpaid judges. They are called “Magistrates” or “Justices of the Peace” (JPs)³. They are ordinary citizens who are selected not because they have any legal training but because they have “sound common sense”⁴ and understanding of their fellow human beings.

Magistrates are selected by special committees in every town and district. Nobody, even the Magistrates themselves, knows who is on the special committee in their area. The committee tries to draw Magistrates from different professions and social classes.

The work of the Magistrates' Courts⁵ throughout the country depends on the unpaid services of JPs.

Notes:

¹ Act of Settlement акт о престолонаследии

² be elevated to the bench возвысить до положения судьи

³ Magistrate, Justice of the Peace (JP) судья, мировой судья

⁴ “sound common sense” (зд.) чувство здравого смысла

⁵ Magistrates' Court суд магистратов, мировой суд (рассматривает дела о мелких преступлениях)

Ex. 1. Say if these statements are true or false.

1. The judge is the presiding officer of the court.

2. Every Circuit judge is capable of sitting as a judge for one county court area.

3. A part-time district judge is barred from legal practice.

4. Here was the change of judges titles but their functions remained the same.

5. Judges themselves are a separate profession.

6. A barrister always enters the judiciary at the highest level.

7. The judge decides the interpretation of the law.

8. Judges are capable of “making law” through the doctrine of precedent.

9. Judges are under the control of Parliament.

10. Judicial independence is a fundamental principle of constitutional law.

11. Professional judges are paid salaries by the state.

12. Magistrates are also professional judges but they deal with less serious crimes.

13. Magistrates are selected by special committees in every town and district.

Ex. 2. Here are the answers to some questions on the text. What are the questions?

1. The Act of Settlement 1700.

2. The existing country court judges became Circuit judges.

3. A full-time district judge is barred from legal practice.К

4. Registrars are responsible for procedural steps in court proceedings.

5. They are barristers who have demonstrated competence in litigation.

6. If he proves successful in the initial judicial post.

7. The judge summarizes the case for the jury.

8. The judge must, if necessity, create a new law.

9. The doctrine of judicial immunity.

10. The professional judges.

11. Justices of the Peace.

12. The committee tries to draw Magistrates from different professions and social classes.

13. The unpaid services of JPs.

Ex. 3. Give microcontexts from the text to the following groups of derivatives:

a) judge, judicial, judiciary;

b) summarize, summing up;

c) immune, immunity;

d) jury, jurisdiction.

Ex. 4. Complete the following sentences:

1. The judge is ...

2. On the reorganization of the criminal courts …

3. The Lord Chancellor assigned …

4. Registrars are responsible for …

5. The statutory basis for the appointment of judges dates from ...

6. Judges are barristers who ...

7. The traditional function of judges is ...

8. Judge's summing up is ...

9. Judges “make law” through ...

10. The fundamental principle of constitutional law is ...

11. Judicial immunity means ...

12. The professional judges deal with ...

13. Magistrates or Justices of the Peace are ...

14. JPs are selected by ...

Ex. 5. Explain and expand on the following:

1. The judge is a presiding officer of the court.

2. There was the re-organization of criminal courts under the Courts Act of 1971.

3. Judges themselves are not a separate profession.

4. A barrister enters the judiciary at the lower trial level.

5. The judge decides the interpretation of the law.

6. Judges are capable of making laws.

7. Judges are not under the control of Parliament.

8. Alongside with the professional judges there are unpaid judges.

9. Magistrates are selected by special Committees.

Ex. 6. Points for discussion:

1. Long period of standing.

2. Entering the judiciary.

3. Functions of judges.

4. Judicial independence and immunity.

5. The appointment of Magistrates and their work.

6. Professional judges.

Text C Judges in the US

Task: read the text, get ready to compare judges in Great Britain and in the US.

In the United States judges are, of course, at the core of any court system. They are the decisions makers, the key officials around whom all else is arranged.

Because American judges sit on courts of widely varying types and come from a variety of backgrounds and experiences, it is difficult to generalize about them. Two generalizations, however, are possible. First, judges in the United States initially come to the bench from other lines of legal work and after a substantial number of years of professional experience. Second, once on the bench they do not, in the main, follow a promotional pattern through the ranks of the judiciary: a person can enter the judicial system at any level, he or she can initially become a judge on the highest court, the lowest court, or any court in between.

All American judges have studied law and have been licensed to practise law. Many judges have been litigators, some have been office lawyers or counsels to organizations. Numerous judges have been lawyers in government service as prosecuting attorneys or counsel government agencies. Some judges are former law professors.

Lawyers become judges in the United States through four methods: (1) by nomination of the chief executive with confirmation by a legislative body, (2) by appointment of the chief executive from a short list of persons certified by an independent commission to be qualified for the position, (3) by popular election, and (4) by election in the legislature.

Terms of office range from four or six years to the term “for life”. All federal judges hold office during good behaviour and can be removed only through impeachment by Congress.

A federal magistrate judge is a full-time judicial office, although in some courts it is filled on a part-time basis. Unlike federal judges, they are appointed by the court, and they hold office for eight years, with the possibility of reappointment.

Federal magistrate judges perform two kinds of functions. First, they hold hearings on a variety of motions, such as motions seeking to control lawyers' conduct of discovery in civil cases. Second, they are authorized to conduct trials in civil cases and in criminal misdemeanor cases if the parties consent. In other words, the parties can choose to go to trial before a magistrate judge instead of a district judge. If so, the magistrate judge is empowered to decide the case and enter final judgement in the name of the district court.

The concept of judicial independence means that in deciding cases judges are free from control by the executive and legislative branches of government as well as from control by the popular will of the moment.

Ex. 1. Comparing the information of Texts B and C:

1. Name the differences in: a) entering the judiciary; b) nomination of judges; c) magistrates' work.

2. Name the common features of British and American judges.

3. Give the advantages and disadvantages of the US and British judicial systems.

4. Compare judges' functions in Great Britain, USA and your country.

Text D Fusion of the Legal Profession

Task: read the text and trace possible steps to fusion of the legal profession.

The division of the legal profession into two branches has been a topic of much discussion in recent years. Over the years, there have been many advocates of fusion of the two branches. The profession was not always divided. The Royal Commission was established in 1976 to investigate every aspect of legal services. It was argued in submissions to the Royal Commission that the necessity of employing a solicitor as well as a barrister, where the latter's services are required, causes inefficiency (failures in communication, delay and the return of briefs by barristers who are doubled-booked), harms the confidence of clients (barristers being regarded by some clients as too remote or insufficiently prepared) and is more expensive for clients obliged to pay for two lawyers rather than one. Most of the professional bodies who gave evidence, including the Senate and the Law Society, opposed fusion. Eventually the Commission concluded (as generally expected) in favour of maintaining the status quo. It was not surprising that the Commission unanimously recommended against fusion, notwithstanding the speculative nature of some of the arguments. They saw that the existing system had its advantages; fusion might lead to some saving (cutting out one tier of lawyers could lead to cheaper law, it has been argued), but only in small cases and in larger cases the expense might be greater; employing two lawyers did not necessarily mean that work was duplicated; some of the adverse criticisms of the present system could be met by other changes.

A number of reforms have been suggested, for example solicitors could be given a full right of audience in all courts, all barristers could be permitted to form partnerships with solicitors. Alternatively, all lawyers could have a common training and qualify in the same way and then practise as they please. One class of lawyers would exist, some would be specialists and others general practitioners. Those who want to specialize in advocacy the branch of the profession in which barristers have traditionally been preeminent would have to pass specialist examinations before becoming barristers. Each lawyer could adjust his own practice to the needs of his clients, and his own preferences. The decisions as to which lawyers to use, and in what combinations could then be taken by the client in his own best interests.

Since the passing of the COURTS AND LEGAL SERVICES ACT¹ 1990 it is clear that no unification of the profession is likely to take place in the foreseeable future. Only radical reform of the legal profession can bring crucial changes.

Notes:

^1. Courts and Legal Services Act Акт о судах и предоставлении законных услуг

Discussion

1. Prove that hardly any changes in the legal profession are likely to take place in the foreseeable future.

2. Is the division of the legal profession in Britain justifiable?

3. Suggest the most appropriate model of the legal profession in Britain.

4. Give your arguments for and against the fusion of the legal profession (use additional information if necessary from p. 46)

Text E US Attorneys

Task: fill in suitable adjectives from the box.

federal judicial powerful faithful political considerable

The Justice Department is responsible for _________ execution of the laws under the president's authority. The main administrators of ________ law enforcement are the ninety four US attorneys, appointed by the president on the advice and consent of the Senate. Unlike federal judges, they are _________ appointees who serve at the pleasure of the president and are expected to relinquish their positions with the government changes.

There is a US attorney in each federal __________ district. US attorneys have __________ discretion, which makes them ___________ political figures in the community. Their decision to prosecute or not affects the wealth, freedom, right, and reputation of individuals and organizations in the district.

Dialogue 1. Lawyers who want to start their own practice

Task: read the dialogue and reproduce it a) abridged b) in the form of a monologue.

This is the conversation between an experienced lawyer Dr. Howard and a graduate of law school Richard Warner.

Richard Warner: Dr. Harward, I've just graduated from law school and I'm at a loss, I don't know whether to start my own practice or to work for a firm. What do you think the pros and cons of private practice are?

Dr. Howard: You see, there are many reasons why I prefer to be self-employed. First of all freedom is very important. The opportunity to turn down cases and clients when you disagree morally with the legal principles expoused by the clients.

Richard Warner: Is legal practice secure enough?

Dr. Howard: No, there is no such thing as job security in legal practice. But still you feel much more secure when you are your own boss and don't depend on the success or failure of the firm you work for.

Richard Warner: Dr. Howard, did you face any d...