Richard Warner: Dr. Howard, thank you very much for your recommendations and advice. I think I'll be self-employed. And the difficulties I'm going to face will be justified by the rewards.

Dr. Howard: I think you'll manage. Good luck!

Notes:

pros and cons - за и против

Ex. 1. How is the following expressed in the dialogue:

1. protected against danger or risk;

2. a state of being a partner, esp. in business;

3. a person who pays a professional person, esp. a lawyer, for help and advice;

4. personal, not shared with others;

5. earning money from one's own business and not as pay from an employer;

6. to meet an unpleasant state of affairs;

7. to make services known to the public;

8. a favourable moment or occasion;

9. a sum of money fixed to be paid for a room or a building;

10. belonging or allowed to no other, unshared.

Ex. 2. Study the dialogue and make a list of expressions the speakers use to:

· ask for suggestions;

· make suggestions;

· express preferences.

Ex. 3. Translate and activate the following sentences in your speech:

1. Каковы «за» и «против» частной практики?

2. Я предпочитаю работать на себя.

3. Возможность отказаться от каких-либо дел и клиентов привлекает меня.

4. Ты чувствуешь себя более защищенным, если сам являешься своим боссом.

5. Риск существует в любой деятельности особенно, если нет опыта.

6. Снять хороший и недорогой офис - большая проблема.

7. Преимущества и недостатки есть как в партнерской деятельности, так и в работе самостоятельно практикующего юриста.

8. Вам следует снять помещение совместно с другой юридической фирмой.

Dialogue 2. Legal Education

Task: study the dialogue between Law students from the USA and from the Belarusian State University, Law Faculty.

Andrew: What does it mean to study law in the USA?	Андрей: Что значит изучать право в США?
Brian: Well, it means that more than 125,000 law students study in one of over 170 law schools that have been approved by the American Bar Association (ABA). And most of law schools are part of a university. The university may be private, without state support, or it may be supported by one of the fifty states. And where can one get legal education in Belarus?	Брайан: Ну…, это значит, что более 125.000 студентов юристов учатся в одной из 170 юридических школ, которые были утверждены Американской Ассоциацией Адвокатов. Большая часть школ входит в состав университета. Университет может быть частным, без поддержки штата, или же может финансироваться одним из пятидесяти штатов. А где можно получить юридическое образование в Беларуси?
Andrew: You see, it's available at state universities as well as at a number of non-state universities.	Андрей: Видишь ли, оно доступно как в государственных, так и в ряде негосударственных университетах.
Brian: And what's the difference between them? I suppose it's the way they are financed.	Брайан: И в чем же различие между ними? Я полагаю, в финансировании.
Andrew: You are right. State universities are financed by the state. But it's wrong to think that education is only free there. They provide both free and paid education. And this type of universities is very popular with the applicants. While at non-state universities students have to pay for their studies. How long does one have to study to get legal education in the USA?	Андрей: Ты прав. Государственные университеты поддерживаются государством. Но не верно думать, что образование в них только бесплатное. Они обеспечивают как бесплатную, так и платную форму обучения. И этот тип университетов очень популярен среди абитуриентов. В то время как в негосударственных университетах все студенты должны платить за обучение. Как долго нужно учиться, чтобы получить юридическое образование в США?
Brian: Education in every law school lasts three years. For example, at Harvard the academic year consists of three trimesters: fall - 3,5 months, winter - 3,4 weeks (brief but very intensive) and spring - 4 months. What about Belarus?	Брайан: Обучение во всех юридических школах длится три года. Например, в Гарвардском университете академический (учебный) год состоит из трех триместров: осень - 3,5 месяца, зима - 3,4 недели (краткий, но очень интенсивный) и весна - 4 месяца. А как в Беларуси?
Andrew: Law students at the Belarusian State University study five years to get a University degree. They study four years for a Bachelor's degree. One can study one year more to receive a Specialist's degree. There is a one-year post-graduate course for those who do a higher degree (Master's degree). After that they can apply to do a second degree working towards a PhD. This course lasts three years.	Андрей: Студенты в Белорусском государственном университете учатся в течение пяти лет, чтобы получить диплом о высшем образовании. Они учатся четыре года, чтобы получить степень бакалавра. Можно учиться еще один год и получить степень специалиста. Существует годичный магистерский курс для тех, кто хочет получить степень магистра и далее они могут поступать в аспирантуру для получения ученой степени кандидата наук. Этот курс длится три года.
Brian: Are students at your faculty free to select the subjects they want to study?	Брайан: Могут ли студенты на вашем факультете выбирать предметы, которые они хотят изучать?
Andrew: Yes, there are some optional courses but first of all they are to take traditional law courses. Is it the students' choice what to study at your university?	Андрей: Да, есть несколько факультативов, но сначала они изучают традиционные курсы права. А в твоем университете это выбор студентов, что изучать?
Brian: It depends on the year of studies. The first year curriculum is entirely prescribed. We study Common Law courses: contracts, property and tort. Instruction is given in civil procedure and criminal law. Some schools offer a general constitutional course. In the second and third years of studies students choose what they want to study.	Брайан: Это зависит от курса. Программа первого курса полностью определена. Мы изучаем курсы общего права: контракты, имущественные отношения и гражданские правонарушения. Даются предписания по гражданскому процессу и уголовному праву. Некоторые курсы предлагают общий курс конституционного права. На втором и третьем курсе студенты выбирают то, что они хотят изучать.
Andrew: I think to make a good lawyer one needs some apprenticeship. It is included into the curriculum. And students can have it in administrative agencies, in the district procurator's offices and in the courts. They are taught how to conduct preliminary investigations, draw up documents, prepare for the case hearing, etc.	Андрей: Я думаю, чтобы стать хорошим юристом, нужна некоторая практика. Она включена в программу. Студенты могут проходить ее в государственных учреждениях, в районных прокуратурах и судах. У них есть возможность присутствовать на судебных процессах, допросах. Они могут наблюдать, как ведутся предварительные расследования, составляются документы, осуществляется подготовка к слушанию дела и т.д.
Brian: No doubt, that's very interesting and useful! At our university a student in his second and third years should choose at least one course. In it a lot of attention is paid to practical work (the work of legal offices, legal aid to poor people, etc.). I wonder where your graduates can apply their knowledge?	Брайан: Несомненно, это очень интересно и полезно. В нашем университете во время второго и третьего года обучения студент должен выбирать, по крайней мере, один курс. В нем большое внимание уделяется практической работе (работа юридических контор, юридическая помощь бедным и т. д.) Любопытно, где ваши выпускники могут найти применение своим знаниям?
Andrew: Oh, there is a great variety of jobs. One can work in a law firm. Actually, any agency, enterprise or company employs a lawyer or has a law department. There is a possibility to get a job as an investigator or procurator or notary. How can your graduates find a good job?	Андрей: О, существует большое разнообразие рабочих мест. Можно найти работу в какой-нибудь юридической фирме. На самом деле, любое агентство, предприятие или компания нанимают юриста или имеют юридический отдел. Есть возможность получить работу следователя, прокурора или нотариуса. А как ваши выпускники находят хорошую работу?
Brian: There is a Career Services office which helps them. Every year this Department publishes a journal, which contains the information about all the students and sends it to the law firms, the government institutions and other organizations. They, in their turn, invite them for individual interviews. This Department also publishes a journal, where there is information about the legal offices, governmental agencies, and international organizations. The journal is distributed among the students, so they really have a wide choice. And I'd like to know who can work as a judge in your country?	Брайан: Существует служба профессиональной занятости, которая помогает им. Этот отдел издает журнал с информацией обо всех студентах и рассылает его в юридические фирмы, государственные учреждения и другие организации. Они, в свою очередь, приглашают их на собеседование. Этот отдел также издает журнал, где имеется информация о юридических конторах, государственных учреждениях и международных организациях. Журнал распространяется среди студентов и у них действительно есть широкий выбор. Мне бы хотелось знать, кто может быть судьей в вашей стране?
Andrew: To be appointed as a judge one should be at least 25 years of age and experience is required.	Андрей: Судья должен быть старше 25 лет и иметь опыт работы.
Brian: Thank you, Andrew, you've been helpful.	Брайан: Спасибо, Андрей, было интересно.
Andrew: Thanks, Brian. I've learnt a lot.	Андрей: Спасибо, Брайан, я многое узнал.

Ex. 1. Speak about legal education in the USA using the following words and word-combinations.

to be approved, to be available, private, state support, to last, academic year, trimester, curriculum, entirely, to be prescribed, Common Law course, civil procedure, Criminal Law, general constitutional course, practical work, legal aid, Career Service office, government institutions, individual interview , to distribute.

Ex. 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate derivatives from the box:

special specialize specialized; quality qualified qualification;

investigate investigation investigator; notary notarize notarial.

1. Did you have to do any ________ action of your own during your practice? 2. _______ industrial courts deal with disputes over contracts on employment matters. 3. The advocate ________ the judge's opinion as erroneous. 4. Your will is not valid unless it is _______. 5. He was disclaimed his _______ because he violated some moral rules. 6. What branch of law do you _______ in? 7. Your case will be tried by a ______ judge. 8. The Law Society ______ complaints against lawyers by their clients. 9. Only __________ lawyers can work in the Procurator's office. 10. A _______ has the authority to witness signing of legal documents. 11. The _________ carefully examined the scene. 12. In the US there are a limited number of ______ offices established by law.

Ex. 3. Sum up the information you have learnt from the dialogue. Compare the process of getting legal education in Belarus and the USA. Focus your attention on:

· types of universities;

· terms of studies;

· curriculum of studies.

LISTENING COMPREHENSION

Text A solicitor's work

Pre-listening activities

I. Make sure that you know the following:

to have a certain founding in law = to have some knowledge in law

to be prone to do something = to be likely to do something

to be down the league in terms of income = to be particularly not wealthy as a solicitor

to be self-employed = to do business for oneself

to be worthwhile bearing in mind = it should be remembered

II. Before listening try not to forget the following:

1. In England and Wales, before you can take the professional examinations to become a solicitor, you have to be one of the following:

a non-law graduate with a degree in any other subject

a non-law graduate with practical experience in a law firm

2. The professional examinations are run by the Law Society.

III. Before listening work in groups to discuss the following.

Which of these professions do you think has the lowest pay: solicitors, doctors, surveyors, accountants?

Listening activities

I. As you listen to the tape, make brief notes to help you answer the following questions:

When did the speaker leave University?

Which of the following are true now, was true when the speaker left University, or both?

a) Non- law graduates must have legal training.

b) Big law firms pay for legal training.

c) Local authorities pay for legal training.

d) The examination is called Part One.

e) It is called The Common Professional Examination.

In the speaker's opinion, which of the professions: solicitors, doctors, dentists, accountants has the lowest pay?

Why does the speaker think so?

What did one of his clients do with a letter he received at 4.30 p.m.?

Why is Monday morning particularly busy?

II. Listen to the tape recording once more and fill in the gaps:

1. Well, I graduated from University over ______ and ______ different then.

2. For example the large London firms will actually pay _______ to take what is now called _______ , it was called _______ in my day.

3. Solicitors are some way _______ in terms of income.

4. The clients can only afford to pay _____ will stand

5. And it's not uncommon for the phone _______ on a Monday morning

6. And if fifty people do that all at the same time, life _____

After listening

I. Discuss in pairs.

What evidence is there in the tape that solicitors are overworked and unpaid?

What do you think the clients' view on a solicitor's work is?

II. Writing task.

Use the notes you have made on the interview to write a short paragraph on the work of a solicitor in England.

Dialogue Radio Phone-In

Before you listen

1. Read the letters from a weekly magazine below. Try to understand them in details.

The legal problem page

The Law and You

A The other weekend I bought a jacket for my son in a sale. When I got home he said it was too small and refused to wear it so I went back the next day and asked them to exchange it for a larger size. Unfortunately they didn't have a larger size and when I asked for my money back they refused, saying that no refunds were given on sales goods. Are they within their rights to do this?

refuse [rIfju:z] - отказывать, отказываться

refund [rJfAnd] - зд. возвращение (денег), возмещение расходов.

B Myself and two friends have been renting a house near the college we go to for the last two years. The landlord has now decided he wants us to leave and has more or less said that we have to be out within the next two weeks. We have nowhere else to go and with exams coming up shortly we would rather stay where we are. Friends of ours are saying he can't get us out unless we have signed a contract agreeing to go. Is this right?

to rent a house - снимать квартиру, дом

landlord - владелец дома или квартиры, сдаваемых внаем.

shortly - зд. вскоре

C I have been living in what used to be a very quiet area for about a year now but in the last few months it has changed completely - if I had known this would happen I would never have bought my house. Opposite me there is now a fish and chip shop which fries day and night except for Sunday - the smell is disgusting and so are all the empty paper bags all over the street. It doesn't close until after midnight so every night there are people shouting, radios blaring, car doors slamming - I never seem to get a night's sleep these days and it's beginning to affect my work. Is there anything I can do?

a fish and chip shop - зд. магазин, торгующий рыбой с жареным картофелем

empty paper bags - пустые бумажные пакеты

radios blaring - зд. рев радиоприемников

car doors slamming - хлопанье дверьми автомобилей

to affect smb's work - зд. отрицательно влиять на чью-либо работу

2. Look at the letters above once more. What do you think the answers will be? Discuss your answers in groups.

A. a) They must give you your money back, or a credit note.

b) They are not obliged to do anything.

B. a) He can get you out if he needs the house back for his family.

b) Your friends are right.

C. a) There is nothing you can do except move.

b) If the disturbance happens regularly you can ask a solicitor

to write them.

3. Make sure that you know the followin:

radio phone-in - радиопередача “Ответы специалистов на вопросы радиослушателей по телефону”

a resident solicitor - зд. местный адвокат, юрисконсультант

to give smb the benefit of one's advice - зд. поделиться с кем-либо своими профессиональными знаниями, опытом; посоветовать

caller - зд. тот, кто звонит по телефону

tenant - (временный) владелец, арендатор, квартирант

to pay rent - платить за квартиру

provide - зд. обеспечивать

linen - зд. белье

to keep phoning up - продолжать звонить

to keep on at a person - разговаривать беспрестанно; бранить кого-либо

to get smb down - зд. (разговором) выводить из себя

Well, a couple of things there - И еще пара вопросов есть

to keep pestering - продолжать надоедать, докучать

a court order for possession - судебный приказ о владении имуществом

to sue smb for harassment - возбудить против кого-либо дело за постоянное беспокойство, тревогу

to regain - зд. получить обратно

to assume - зд. предполагать

the whole issue - зд. предмет обсуждения

to be protected by Legal Aid - быть защищенным специальным законом о правах студентов

to be obliged - быть обязанным

sales items - зд. товары, находящиеся в продаже

a receipt - чек

a purchase - покупка

bad customer relations - плохие отношения с покупателем, клиентом

Listening activities

I. Listen to a legal expert, Charles Andrews, talking and match the caller with his or her letter. Put a circle round the appropriate letter below.

First caller: A B C

Second caller: A B C

II. Complete the following summaries, using the words listed below each summary.

a) Shops are not legally ¹_______ to give you your money back or ²________ goods if the items are bought in a ³_________ although most big stores would probably give you a ⁴________ _______ if you had a ⁵________.

receipt sale credit note obliged exchange

b) Stephen has not ¹______________ an agreement but he pays ²____________ monthly. The ³____________ does not live in the house and ⁴______________ no services. He has to write formally asking them to leave - at least a ⁵_______________ in advance. Unless he wants the house for himself or ⁶_______________ _____________ , Stephen is probably a protected ⁷______________ .

month rent provides landlord tenant his family signed

Revision Translation

Task: translate into English.

Стирание граней между барристерами и солиситорами

В английском обществе обоснованность значительных различий между барристерами и солиситорами в последнее время все больше подвергается серьезной критике и сомнениям. В юридических кругах широко обсуждаются аргументы “за” и “против”объединения сообществ' барристеров и солиситоров в единую адвокатуру по примеру стран континентальной Европы и многих других стран мира. Против объединения барристеров и солиситоров приводится в основном два аргумента. 1. Объединение не в интересах общества. В частности, высказывается мнение, что если объединить барристеров и солиситоров, то многие, особенно самые опытные и способные барристеры, перейдут работать в крупные юридические фирмы; и клиенты мелких фирм будут поставлены в неравное положение, так как крупные специалисты окажутся для них недоступными. Это приведет к тому, что мелкие юридические фирмы перестанут существовать. Тем самым сократится количество юридических услуг, предлагаемых населению. 2. Объединение не в интересах суда. В условиях состязательного правосудия судебная система во многом зависит от устного судопроизводства. Судьи нуждаются в ясных и четких аргументах, с помощью которых они могут прийти к верному и обоснованному решению. Такие услуги могут быть оказаны не всеми адвокатами, а только наиболее профессиональными и талантливыми адвокатами-барристерами. В качестве аргументов за объединение барристеров и солиситоров называют следующие: 1. Дублирование функций барристеров и солиситоров. В настоящее время многие солиситоры в магистратских судах и судах графств фактически исполняют функции барристеров. 2. Неэффективность действующей системы. Разделение адвокатов на барристеров и солиситоров приводит к дополнительным затратам, излишнему расходованию сил и средств на решение юридических вопросов. К тому же обоснованность сложившейся практики, когда барристер получает резюме дела от солиситора за день-два до процесса, вызывает серьезные сомнения у клиентов. 3. Стоимость. Как правило, чтобы дело попало в суд, истцу приходится оплачивать “двойной тариф”. В таких случаях часто говорят: “В деле барристер один, а гонорар плати троим”. Следует отметить, что выдвигались различные варианты изменения статуса барристеров и солиситоров. Например, предлагалось, с одной стороны, полное уравнивание солиситоров в праве выступать в любых судах с барристерами, предоставление барристерам права объединяться в товарищества и т. д., с другой стороны, - введение единой процедуры квалификации барристеров и солиситоров. Каждый адвокат должен вести собственную практику для наиболее полного удовлетворения клиентов. В таком случае клиент мог бы сам решать, какого адвоката ему нанимать. Однако вступление в силу Закона о судах и юридических услугах 1990 г. не оставляет практически никаких надежд на скорое объединение двух адвокатских профессий в Англии.	groundings unity experienced unavailable advisory justice clear and distinct well-grounded duplicating inefficiency extra money plaintiff double tariff status

GRAMMAR SECTION

Grammar to be revised: English Tenses (Active Voice)

Ex. 1. Complete the questions put by Mr Brown to his son using the Indefinite Tenses:

- Well, my boy, _______ you (to know) anything about the legal system of Great Britain?

- What _______ (to be) almost unique about the English legal system?

- _______ (to be) there any other countries in the world with a similar legal system?

- Where ____ a person (to go) when he (to have) a legal problem?

- I wonder how many solicitors and barristers there _____ (to be) in Britain.

- What kind of problems _______ a solicitor (to deal with)?

- Who (to advise) you on legal matters of all kinds?

- Who (to be responsible) for all the preparatory pre-court work?

- How _______ you (to qualify) as a solicitor?

- When _______ a person (to start) a business of his own if he (to want) to work as a solicitor?

- What (to be) barristers experts in?

- What _______ advocacy (to mean)?

- What examinations _______ a person (to take) to qualify as a barrister?

- Have you ever interested in the question how much a barrister (to earn)?

- ______ you (to happen) to know who (to become) judges in Great Britain?

- _______ barristers (to have) public offices in any streets? Where ____ they (to work)?

- Who _______ you usually (to ask) to appear for you and argue your case if the defence (to be) to be heard in a Magistrate Court and in a Higher Court?

- Who (to have) the title of Queen's Counsel and who (to bestow) it?

- _______ there a third type of lawyers in the British legal system.? How _______ we (to call) them?

- What term _______ they (to use) for English barristers in Scotland?

- When _______ the British government (to eliminate) the distinction between barristers and solicitors? Prove your idea.

If you (to give) the correct answers to all these questions, I (to be satisfied) with your studies at the College of Law. I want to be sure that the money our family (to spend) on your brain will not be spent in vain.

Ex. 2. Translate the sentences containing used to + infinitive, would + infinitive into Russian. Take into account their meaning:

1. Mr Bush used to investigate the most serious crimes when he was working as an investigator. 2. Those reading the law used to live in the chosen Inn of Court. 3. Attorneys or advocates used to spend their days milling about the courts. 4. For 600 years ordinary people rather than professional judiciary used to keep the judicial process for keeping the peace. 5. In the middle ages a King and later his Chancellor used to accept petitions for equitable relief. 6. Until the mid-18-th century teaching of law used to be academic rather than professional. 7. People would apply the term “solicitor” to an attorney appearing in Chancery Court. 8. The three Royal Courts would sit at Westminster even in the absence of the king. 9. Although the King's courts did not replace directly old local courts, if overlapping jurisdiction existed, litigants would often prefer common law courts. 10. At one time solicitors were general practitioners who would refer to experts in particular fields of law.

Ex. 3. Combine two simple sentences into a complex one with the subordinate clause of time or condition:

Model: First he'll gain some experience as a house counsel. Then he'll start his own practice (when).

- He'll start his own practice when he gains some experience.

You must prove the guilt of the suspect. You will win the case. (if)

First you must spend two years as an articled clerk. Then you'll become a solicitor. (after)

The attorney will prepare the necessary documents. He'll send the copy to the client. (as soon as)

“Sir, you do not know it to be good or bad. Only the judge can determine it. (till)

Please, don't touch anything. The police will be here in no time. (before)

The counsel will not preserve the client's confidence. He discloses his secrets. (if)

He will succeed, I think. He devotes much time to the development of his own practice. (in case)

He studies well. His legal education will probably last about five years. (providing).

Ex. 4. Use either the Present Continuous or the Present Simple:

1. - I am very busy now. I ______ (to prepare) the documents on a very difficult case.

- ____ (you /to do) it alone?

- No, two managing clerks _____ (to help) me.

2. A solicitor ________ (to deal) with matters outside the court.

3. The Law Society _______ (to regulate) the conduct of solicitors in England.

4. What kind of law (you/to practise)?

5. - What (the attorney/ to do) at present? - He _______ (to study) the particulars of the case.

6. I (not to believe) your evidence! You _______ (to lie)!

7. Legal service costs _______ (to increase) permanently due to inflation.

8. Attorney rarely _______ (to discuss) with their clients the possibility of losing the case.

9. (You/to know) what conveyancing (to mean)? - Conveyancing _______ (to mean) making all the legal arrangements for the buying and selling of land, houses and other buildings.

10. Probate (to be) a type of work a lawyer _______ (to do) that (to deal) with making a will for a client who, when he/she _______ (to die), _______ (to wish) to leave his/her property to certain persons or charities and making sure that his/her wishes are carried out.

11. The lawyer _____ (to serve) effectively as an advocate only if he ____ (to know) all that his client ____ (to know), concerning the facts of the case.

12. (You/ to know) if the number of lawyers _______ (to increase) or _______ (to decrease) in the country nowadays?

Ex. 5. These are Jane's notes for Monday. Say, what her plans are using the Present Continuous:

Model: 9 a.m., Monday. The lecture on criminal law. (attend)

She is attending the lecture on criminal law.

11 a.m.	The pool. (swim)
1 p.m.	Lunch. (to have)
3 p. m.	Preliminary investigation. (to watch)
5 p.m.	Tea with the friends. (to have)
6 p. m.	The seminar on administrative law. (to take part)
8 p. m.	The English language laboratory. (to work)
10 p. m.	Some detective novel. (to read)

Ex. 6. Insert the proper forms to express the future actions:

1. The Government has been in the past and _____ in the future a major consumer of legal talent (to be). 2. This argument _____ the judge (not/to convince). 3. I don't trust this juror. I _____ him (to challenge). 4. He's a practitioner with long experience. I am sure he ______ the case (to win). 5. Jack is in trouble and needs a legal backing. - I know. I ______ his matter tomorrow (to discuss). 6. I've decided to retire from the Federal Agency. - Have you? What _____ you (to do)? 7. Did you send him a summons? - Oh, I'm sorry. I completely forgot. I ____ now (to do). 8. Can I get your opinion on the case today? - No, you _______ it tomorrow (to get). 9. What you ______ (to do) at 11 tomorrow? - We ______ (to have) a seminar on civil law at this time. 10. In the afternoon I _______ (to take part) in some preliminary investigation.

Ex. 7. Make up sentences in the Present Perfect using the given verbs. Mind the words of time indication:

Hello, Ann. I (not to see) you for ages. Where you (to be) all this time? - I just (to come back) from England.

Much (to happen) in the science of law during the past decades.

Both common law and civil law schools (to find) a better balance between theory and practice lately.

Civil law faculties (to recognize) the importance of practical work.

Legal education (to become) less general and more professional in recent years.

In the latest publications there (to be) considerable pressure for change in the legal profession in Britain.

A number of law faculties (to institute) various reforms and experimental changes.

The shape of legal profession greatly (to change) and more and more solicitors specialize in only one or two fields of law.

A barrister is a lawyer who (to reach) a professional standard accepted by the Council of Legal Education.

Once a person (to pass) the law examinations of the Council he becomes a member of one of the four Inns of Court and is called to the Bar.

For centuries the Inns of Court (to be) the training institutions and professional societies for barristers.

Ex. 8. Make up questions with “How long?” and “When?” using the Present Perfect, the Past Indefinite or the Present Perfect Continuous.

Model: He is a judge.

How long has he been working as a judge?

When did he start working as a judge?

1. The University of Law trains lawyers for the country. 2. Common Law system applies the doctrine of precedent. 3. Common Law is the basis of the procedure. 4. I am investigating a computer theft. 5. The barrister is arguing his client's case before the court. 6. Dr Smith gives lectures at the Law Department. 7. He is busy now. He is taking part in questioning.

Ex. 9. Answer the questions using the time indication words suggested in brackets; change the tense forms accordingly:

Model: When did you last speak to your advocate? (for ages)

-- I haven't spoken to him for ages.

When did he last investigate a murder? (for years)

When did the Bar last admit new members? (since June)

When did you last give evidence to the court? (for many years)

When did Steve Williams last violate the Rules of Professional Conduct? (for ages)

When did this attorney last lose a case? (in a long while)

When was this patrolman last on duty? (for the last few days)

When did you last deal with a common law action? (since last year).

Ex. 10. Mr Bruce, a retired policeman, came to see his former colleagues at the police station and found that many things were different. Complete the sentences using the verbs in brackets in the Past Perfect Tense.

Model: Some of his colleagues were no longer there. They (to retire).

They had retired.

1. John Smith was no longer single. He (to marry) the secretary. 2. Their boss captain Johnson didn't work there. He (to get) a promotion. 3. Bob Brown was dead. A criminal (to shoot) him. 4. Sam Jenkins got a promotion. He (to pass) a special exam and (to become) a detective. 5. His friend Bruce was no longer a failure. He (to disclose) several serious crimes. 6. Miss Green gave up working. She (to get married) and (to leave) the country.

Ex. 11. Use to be, there+ be or to have in the correct form:

1. In most countries ____ only one legal profession. 2. This means that all lawyers ____ roughly the same professional education leading to the same legal qualification. 3. In England the system ______ different. 4. Solicitors and barristers ______ both qualified lawyers, but they ______ a different legal training, and once they ______ qualified they usually do different types of legal work. 5. This ______ why it is said that ______ two “branches” of the legal profession. 6. English lawyers ______ either solicitors or barristers. 7. They cannot ______ both at the same time, but it ______ possible for a solicitor to become a barrister and for a barrister to become a solicitor. 8. Legal executives ______ no rights of audience, but can appear in front of a judge on uncontested matters. 9. The legal profession as such ______ never been popular. 10. Indeed, the first thing revolutionaries usually do on seizing power ______ to overthrow the legal system, blaming it for all ills. 11. ______ rules of behaviour, codes of professional conduct, which provide that when lawyers ______ in court they must always ______ courteous to one another. 12. Many people who ______ legal problems ______ worried about going to a solicitor for advice because of legal fees they ______ to pay.

Ex. 12. Use the correct form of the verbs in the Active Voice.

1. Anyone who (to seek) the advice and help of a solicitor or a barrister is known as a client.

2. The lawyers never (to tell) one another the professional secrets of their side of the case and they must always try as hard as they can whether their professional opponents (to be) people they (to like) or (to dislike).

3. Not everybody (to have) anything to do with the law, and a lawyer who (to represent) defendants in criminal cases is often asked, “Why you (to defend) somebody if you (to know) he (to be) guilty”?

4. The answer (to be): anyone who is charged with the crime and who (to deny) being involved in it must have a fair trial.

5. If a person (to ask) to defend him, the lawyer (to use) all his knowledge and skill to present his client's case in the best possible light.

6. Lawyers (to be) to represent people, but not to judge them.

7. If a client cannot afford to pay the fees of his lawyer, he (to apply) for legal aid, which (to mean) that if he (to qualify) for it, the state (to pay) either his full legal fees or at least part of them.

8. The profession of a solicitor (to develop) over the past years. They (to act) as legal advisers and recorders of a case as it (to progress).

9. The public (to come) into contact with solicitors more often than with any other people who (to work) in the law.

10. If a person accused of crime (to admit) it to his lawyer, the lawyer (to know) he is guilty, and he must advise him to plead guilty. If a person (to refuse) to do so, the lawyer (to become) what is known “professionally embarrassed”, and must have nothing more to do with the case.

11. The client must be sure that what he (to tell) his lawyer in confidence the latter never (to reveal) without his consent. It's a fundamental condition on which the administration of justice as a whole (to rest).

12. After hundreds of years, times (to change) now and specially qualified solicitor advocates (to appear) in the High Court and in the Crown Court.

13. In simple cases the solicitor usually (to leave) the barrister to get on with the case in court on his own; in more difficult cases, the solicitor (to sit) behind the barrister in court and (to assist) in the presentation of the case.

14. For centuries the Inns of Court (to be) the training institutions and professional societies for barristers.

15. Most people always (to see) the legal profession as a training ground for a career in politics.

16. Changes in the legal profession (to alter) their role substantially. In 1997 the Lord Chancellor (to make) the first appointment of some distinguished solicitors to become Queen's Counsels.

17. In the next few years it is expected that the government (to press) the Bar Council to allow barristers to deal with the public directly.

18. - What you (to be busy) with at the moment?

- I (to draw up) documents for the case hearing.

19. - How long you (to prepare) for the case hearing?

- I (to begin) this work some days ago, and I hope that I (to do) everything by tomorrow.

20. -What's your father's job?

– He (not to work) now. He (to be) a pensioner since last year. But he (to work) as an investigator for thirty years before he (to retire).

Ex. 13. Translate into Russian paying attention to the emphatic constructions:

1. It was not until I sued on the breach of contract that my neighbour agreed to repay damage.

2. We have discussed the variant when parties don't sign any contract. Let's now consider what happens when they do sign a contract.

3. It is usually family members who are concerned with registering the death, paying the dead person's debts and tax liabilities and acquiring the property.

4. It is the writing with your signature on it which will be binding, not the oral promise made before the signing.

5. It is not unlikely that the reason for company winding up is its bankruptcy.

Ex. 14. Respond to the following by using emphatic constructions according to the models.

Model 1: Use “do, does, did”

I think this contract creates no legal obligations.

Any contract ...

Any contract does create legal obligations.

1. You have the right to enjoy good reputation if you deserve it.

But I ...

2. I was not going to accept this offer.

But you ...

3. He was not obligated to support Mrs. Brown's children.

But did ...

4. He claims that Allison has no right under the contract.

Actually Allison ...

5. It was very doubtful that the court would declare the contract void.

The court ...

6. I think he may enter the contract of insurance.

He really ...

7. As far as I know the owner of the goods didn't promise to pay Smith a commission.

Actually he ...

Model 2: Use “It is … that”

English law has directly influenced the law of former British colonies.

It is English law that has directly influenced the law of former British colonies.

1. Usually the creator of the work owns a copyright.

2. In deciding what is reasonable an English court will refer to similar previous cases.

3. The welfare of children is the biggest concern of family law.

4. Mr. Jackson was ordered by the court to make financial provisions for his ex-wife and for their children.

5. Such mistakes could cost a buyer of land a lot of money.

6. The principles of tort and contract are particularly relevant to consumer matters.

7. Consumer laws imply certain terms into consumer agreements.

8. The children's trustees will be the legal owners of their money and will have the right to invest it.

Model 3: Use “It was not until … that”

When did married women get equal property rights with men? - In 1935.

It was not until 1935 that married women get equal property rights with men.

1. When could the police take some actions? - When a trespasser committed a crime.

2. When was he allowed to make some copies? - When he paid.

3. When did the court issue a decree dissolving the marriage? - When the husband proved that his wife's mental illness was incurable.

4. When was the law on election passed? - It was only in the nineteenth century.

Ex. 15. Translate the sentences into English.

1. Много изменений произошло в профессии юриста за последнее десятилетие. 2. В настоящее время в Великобритании разделение обязанностей солиситора и барристера стало не таким строгим. 3. Солиситоры часто выступают не только в судах низшей инстанции, но и в высших судах. 4. Согласно последним данным в Англии и Уэльсе работают 9 698 барристеров, из них 7 288 мужчин и 2410 женщин. 5. В стране 1006 королевских адвокатов, из которых 974 мужчины и 72 женщины. 6. Английские солиситоры добились значительного успеха в расширении своих прав, и поэтому существует надежда, что в будущем англичане отменят старую систему. 7. Сейчас нет необходимости для барристеров работать только в конторах адвокатов. 8. Барристер может заниматься практикой самостоятельно, работая не в офисе, а дома. 9. С 1990 года барристеры имеют право делать объявления о своих услугах в газетах. 10. Профессия юриста чрезвычайно популярна в современном обществе. 11. Если человек решил стать юристом, ему нужно быть терпеливым и трудолюбивым. 12. Вам нужно сдать множество профессиональных экзаменов и обрести опыт. 13. Важно решить, в какой области права вы хотите специализироваться. 14. Адвокатская практика дает возможность представлять интересы клиентов в суде. 15. У него было право получить возмещение убытков, и он его в самом деле получил. 16. Едва только его выпустили из тюрьмы, как он совершил новое преступление. 17. Только после того, как она обратилась в суд, ее бывший муж стал платить алименты. 18. В этом случае именно суд должен решить, кто будет опекуном ребенка. 19. При разводе именно вопрос благосостояния детей и раздела имущества является самым важным и часто самым трудноразрешимым.

ADDITIONAL READING

Text 1 Organization of the Legal Profession

The Bar has developed from the work of advocates since medieval times being based, primarily, in the fours Inns of Court which still exist today. Solicitors have developed a line of work in meeting the needs of clients unable to process litigation for themselves. The Bar has been left largely unregulated by government, but has run itself initially through the Inns of Court, which have been dominated by the benchers, and also through the judicial control of practice in the courts. The solicitors' profession has been regulated by government in one way or another since a statute of 1605 subjected solicitors to a measure of control to prevent overcharging and to cut their numbers; only “skilfull” and “honest” men were allowed to practise. In 1831 the Society of Attorneys Solicitors and Proctors and others not being barristers practising in the Courts of Law and Equity in the United Kingdom received a Royal Charter, and changed its name, in 1833, to the Incorporated Law Society of the United Kingdom.

Thе powers and duties of the Law Society are now derived from the Solicitors Act 1974. Membership of the Society is not compulsory, although it is the governing body for the profession as a whole. The Society also issues the “practising certificate” which each solicitor wishing to practise must obtain. Many of its statutory functions relate to the maintenance of standards for the protection of the public. However, it is also the main professional association for solicitors. The inconsistency in these roles has led to concern that neither is performed satisfactorily. The Society was able to point to its success in defending solicitors' interests during the deliberations of the Royal Commission. There have, however, been a number of matters on which the Society has fallen out with sections of the rank-and-file and its success in defending the solicitors - “conveyancing monopoly” proved short lived. The composition of the Council of the Law Society has long been criticised as unrepresentative, with very few members under 35, very few women, few from outside private practice and a disproportionate number from large firms.

The General Council of the Bar and the Law Society are no longer entirely free to arrange their own affairs. Of course, they have always had to work with various government departments, such as the Lord Chancellor's Department on legal aid, but there are now two external bodies which may have a significant impact on their work. The first is the Lord Chancellor's Advisory Committee on Legal Education and Conduct which was established to exercise “a general duty of assisting in the maintenance and development of standards in the education, training and conduct of those offering legal services”. It has specific functions in relation to those matters, including giving advice to the General Council of the Bar, the Law Society and other authorised bodies on all aspects of their qualification regulations and rules of conduct, and on specialisation schemes. In pursuing these functions it is, for example, engaged in a major review of legal education. It also has a statutory role in regulating the right to conduct litigation and the right of audience in the higher courts. A.C.L.E.C, as it is known, comprises a chairman and 16 other members appointed by the Lord Chancellor. The first two chairmen have been Lords of Appeal, but may be a judge of the Supreme Court; of the members, one must be a judge who is or has been a Circuit judge, two practising barristers appointed after consultation with the General Council of the Bar, two practising solicitors appointed after consultation with the Law Society, two law teachers appointed after consultation with such institutions concerned with the teaching of law and such persons representing law teachers as the Lord Chancellor considers appropriate, and nine lay members. There is, therefore, a lay majority, which ensures that interests of the user are foremost in the Committee's deliberations. The independence of A.C.L.E.C. from government is guaranteed by government commitment, the approach of the Committee, funding by grant-in-aid and freedom of staff appointments. Whether these are sufficient is a moot point and awaits a careful assessment of the work of A.C.L.E.C.

The other external body which may be involved in the work of the Bar or the Law Society is the Director General of Fair Trading. Any alteration to qualification, regulations or rules of conduct must, as part of the process of approval through A.C.L.E.C, the designated judges and the Lord Chancellor, also be referred to the Director General to consider whether the amendments “would have, or would be likely to have, the effect of restricting, distorting or preventing competition to any significant effect” and provide advice to the Lord Chancellor.

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