Passive voice
Concept of the concept of voice in languages. Active voice and passive voice syntactically, semantically and pragmatically viewed. Voice and related concept. Passive Voice in English. Passive Constructions in Vietnamese. Dependent and Independent verbs.
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Acknowledgements
I am deeply grateful to Dr. TrÇn Xu©n §iÖp, my supervisor, for his invaluable support throughout the process of writing the thesis.
My sincere gratitude goes to Dr. Lª Hïng TiÕn, Head of the Post-graduate Department, and Assoc. Prof., Dr. TrÇn H÷u M¹nh for their open recommendations on the perspective on the theme.
I would like to take this chance to thank my relative, my husband and my children Minh -Quang who are always besides me, encourage me to finish the thesis.
I also wish at this time to thank all linguists and grammarians whose researches have been quoted in this thesis.
Table of contents
Part one - Introduction
1. Rationale of the study
2. Thesis objective
3. Research questions
4. Scope and Methods of the Study
5. Design of the study
Part Two: Development
Chapter One: Theoretical Background
1.1 Concept of voice in languages
1.2 Active voice and passive voice syntactically, semantically and pragmatically viewed
1.3 Voice and related concept
1.4 English verbs
1.4.1 Classification of English verbs
1.4.2 Tense, aspect and mood of English verbs
1.4.3 Phrases and clauses
Chapter Two: Passive Voice in English
2.1 Passive Voice in English Traditional Grammar
2.2.1. English passive constructions in traditional grammar
2.2.2 The phrase of By and With
2.2.3 Usage of English passive voice
2.3 Passive Voice in Functional grammar
2.3.1 Passive Types
2.3.2 The phrase of by and with
2.3.3 Usage of Passive
2.4. Passive voice in Transformational-Generative grammar
2.4.1 Organization of Transformational- Generative grammar
2.4.2 Passive constructions and Noun phrases
2.4 Sum -up remarks
Chapter Three: Passive Constructions in Vietnamese
3.1 Verbs in Vietnamese
3.1.1 Dependent and Independent verbs
3.1.2 Transitive - Intransitive verbs
3.2 Vietnamese passive expressions in different views
3.2.1 Rejection of Passive voice in Vietnamese
3.2.2 Support for Passive Expressions in Vietnamese
3.2.3 Vietnamese Passive Usage
3.3 Sum-up remarks of Vietnamese passive
Chapter Four: Contrastive Analysis
4.1 Contrast of English and Vietnamese passive constructions syntactically
4.1.1 Structural similarities
4.1.2 Differences
4.2 Contrast of English and Vietnamese passive constructions semantically
4.2.1 Similarities
4.3 Contrast of English and Vietnamese passive structures pragmatically
4.3.1 Similarities and differences
4.3.2. English passive constructions and the equivalents
Part Three: Conclusion
Bibliography
APPENDICES
Part one - Introduction
1. Rationale of the study
According to Asher R.E. (1994:4938), “linguists use the term voice in a number of senses” and “the broadest definition of voice encompassing a wide range of grammatical constructions that are commonly thought to be quite distinct from those related by the active- passive alternation”. In this view, the term voices in general and passive voice in particular do exist in all languages. In Vietnamese, the debates around the passive voice have lasted for several stages. In the early days of Vietnamese research, the concept of passive construction was accepted. The rules applied here, however, were rigidly transformed from European languages. The inappropriate features of these artificial sentences lead to the refusal of passive constructions in the next stage of Vietnamese research. While the concept of voice in general and passive voice in particular is familiar to the English, it is an abstract concept to Vietnamese learners and generations of Vietnamese learners have to deal with the passive constructions. There have been several studies of the passive voice in English and the passive contrast between English and Vietnamese. These researches, however, neither confirm the existence of the passive in Vietnamese nor point out the difference in factors decisive to passive usage in two languages.
In many recent researches, Vietnamese passive constructions are accepted and seen from different views, among which the Functional grammar helps to deal with many argumentative points in the previous stages.
2. Thesis objective
The thesis is to contrast the passive constructions in English and in Vietnamese based on the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic features.
Firstly, in the syntactic features, the thesis will point out the compulsory and optional parts between the typical passive constructions in two languages.
Then in semantic features, the difference is drawn from the distinguishing features of different components in a Vietnamese passive expression namely passive markers, passive subjects.
Finally, the pragmatic features will be presented in two sub-groups: Information structure and the pragmatic effects of the passive constructions. The final part helps to see the relation between the passive constructions and other related constructions in two languages based on the pragmatic effects of agent demotion and non- agent promotion.
3. Research questions
The thesis is to contrast the English passive and the Vietnamese passive constructions based on the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic features. The research is to answer the questions related to the three following features :
Syntactic features
+ What are the typical patterns of the passive sentences and passive noun phrases in English and in Vietnamese?
+ Which parts are the obligatory parts and optional parts in the passive expressions in two languages?
+What are the differences in the obligatory parts and optional parts in the two languages?
Semantic features
+ What are the extra meanings of Vietnamese passive markers? In addition, how do these markers decide the subjectivity and objectivity of passive constructions in Vietnamese?
+ What is the decisive role of Noun type (animate/inanimate subject) and Verb type towards the formation of active/ neutral/ passive expressions?
Pragmatic features
+ What factors in the theory of information structure decide the choice of passive/ active in two languages?
+ Which constructions are in close relations with the passive constructions based on the two major pragmatic effects: agent demotion and patient promotion in two languages? This aim is based on the comparison of each English passive pattern in two pragmatic effects with a number of Vietnamese equivalents.
4. Scope and Methods of the Study
In this thesis, the passive is viewed from different grammatical approaches among which the approach based on the structure will be taken as the basis for the comparison and contrast.
The main research methods include three techniques namely (1) description, (2) translation and (3) deduction. The descriptive and deductive approach is applied in the theory revision to come to the nature of passive voice in English and Vietnamese. The translation is used in the contrast of the English passive noun phrase/ the Vietnamese passive noun phrase and the pragmatic effects of the English passive/ Vietnamese equivalents
5. Design of the study
The paper is divided into three main parts: the Introduction, the Development, and the Conclusion. The Introduction briefly introduces the thesis.
The Development has four chapters: Chapter one starts with the concept of voice in general and passive voice in particular. Chapter two deals with the English passive and chapter three is with the Vietnamese passive. The contrastive analysis in chapter four points out the difference in English and Vietnamese passive constructions syntactically semantically and pragmatically. The final part is to find out the factors decisive to the choice between Vietnamese passive constructions and other Vietnamese substitutional structures.
Part three is the conclusion which summarizes the achievement in the thesis.
Part Two: Development
Chapter One: Theoretical Background
1.1 Concept of voice in languages
According to the authors of the Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, the term voice, in a narrow sense, refers to morphological categories. However, in English and Vietnamese, verbs do not have distinct morphological categories for difference voices. Therefore, as Asher R.E believed, in these languages, “voice are defined in terms of syntactic constructions with reference to specific grammatical characteristics” and “voice can be understood as a system of correlation between semantic roles such as agent and patient and between grammatical functions such as subjects and objects ”
1.2 Active voice and passive voice syntactically, semantically and pragmatically viewed
From the syntactic aspect, the opposition between active voice and passive voice can be seen in the movement of constituents in the linear order and correlation between grammatical functions such as subject and object. From the semantic aspect, it is the correlation between semantic roles such as agent and patient. From the pragmatics aspect, the passive voice is in greater interest, which includes the pragmatic function and the pragmatic aspect. The pragmatic function is related to the passive sentence's frequency in different type of texts. The pragmatic aspect is concerned with agent demotion (agent defocusing)/patient promotion and agent promotion which unifies passive construction with other construction such as the plural (in English), the honorific (in French), the indefinite person constructions (in English).
1.3 Voice and related concept
The concept in analysis in this thesis is the Information structure. The information unit is a unit of information. The information unit is a structure made up of two functions, the New and the Given. From the point of view of Information structure at the sentence level, the New Information is the information considered New to the hearer and the Old information is the already existing stock of knowledge in the hearer's mind.
In English, Passive constructions allow the New information at the following part of the sentence as the late news, which follows the universal rule of the Given being followed by the New information.
1.4 English verbs
Under different approaches with different criteria, the system of English verbs is differently classified under different labels. The main part presented here is taken from Quirk R., et al. (1972).
1.4.1 Classification of English verbs
a. Lexical, semi -auxiliary and auxiliary verbs
The first division between auxiliary, semi auxiliary and lexical verbs is based on the grammatical functions in verb phrase. The auxiliary is subdivided into primary and modal auxiliaries.
- Lexical: walk, write, play
- Semi - auxiliary: Have to, be bound to
- Auxiliary:
+ Primary: do, have, be
+ Modal: can, may, shall, will. ought to, used to, need, dare .
The passive forms are often associated with Auxiliary verbs. However, some Auxiliary verbs like do, have, be can be used as lexical verb and have a wide range of forms including present participle and the past participle.
All of three subdivisions of lexical semi -auxiliary and auxiliary verbs do exist in passive constructions. Auxiliary is a compulsory part of English typical passive constructions. With a semi - auxiliary and a lexical verb the passive constructions sometimes differ among themselves and from the original sentence.
b. Transitive and Intransitive verbs
An other way of verb classification is based on the object government capability. According to Quirk, R. et al. (1980), intransitive verbs do not permit any type of object or complement. However, many verbs of this type do accept adjuncts of direction, position or extension.
Transitive verbs do take direct objects. If the transitive verbs permit indirect objects, they will be classified as ditransitive verbs. Some transitive verbs have object complements and these are to be distinguished as complex-transitive. Some verbs like ergative can be classified as either transitive (with object) or intransitive (with the subject).
The concept of voice is always related to the transitive verbs. Some transitive verbs like reflexive verbs do not come in passive forms .
1.4.2 Tense, aspect and mood of English verbs
a. Tense and Aspect
The English Tense, Aspect are often realized in finite verb phrases. Tense refers to the relationship between the form of verbs and the concept of time. In English, these are two tenses: present tense and past tense.
Aspect refers to the manner in which the verb action is regarded or experienced. English has two sets of aspectual contrast perfective/non perfective and progressive/ non-progressive.
The two tenses of present and past are combined with four aspects of simple, perfect, progressive and perfect progressive.
b. Mood
Mood shows speaker`s attitude towards the action. In English, there are 3 moods: indicative, imperative and subjunctive.
English Mood is realized with 3 moods: Indicative, imperative and subjective which are in turns composed of declarative- question, imperative sentences and clause containing recommendation, resolution, surprise…
1.4.3 Phrases and clauses
a. Phrases
According to Richards J.C (1993:53), “A phrase is a group of words which form a grammatical unit. A phrase does not have a subject - predicate structure. Phrases are usually classified according to their central word or head”Quirk, R. et al. classifies English verb phrases into two categories: Finite verb phrase and non-finite verb phrase. The alternative of voice is associated with Finite verb phrases only
b. Clauses
Based on the structure, Quirk, R. classifies clauses into finite, nonfinite and verb less clauses.
The finite clause always contains a subject as well as a predicate, except in the case of commands and subject ellipsis. Nearly all dependent clauses are finite clauses.
The non -finite, in contrast, is always without the subject although some non-finite clauses can have optional subjects. There are four types of non -finite clauses: Infinitive with to, Infinitive without to, -ing participle, -ed participle.
Chapter Two: Passive Voice in English
2.1 Passive Voice in English Traditional Grammar
The concept of voice is defined in many grammar books and dictionaries. Following is a typical definition:
“Voice is a grammatical category which makes it possible to view the action of sentence in two ways without change in the fact reported”
(Quirk, R.: 801)
2.2.1 English passive constructions in traditional grammar
Among seven sentence patterns, three following ones allow passive transformations: S- V-0 (-A),S-V-O-O (-A), S- V-0-C (-A). In addition passive constructions include Special passive constructions, The causative and Pseudo-passive
Passive constructions from the S - V - O (- A):
In this sentence pattern, the passive comes when the object is a noun phrase, a finite clause.
When the object is a non -finite clause (infinitive and ing- participle), reflexive pronoun there is no passive constructions.
However, for a limited group of verbs like advise, insist, propose, recommend, suggest, agree, arrange, determine, demand, decide, etc, the passive construction is “that ... should +past participle
From the S - V- Oi- Od (-A) structure
a) When both Oi- Od are noun phrases, both can be used as the subject of the passive sentence
b) When Oi is a noun phrase and the Od is a finite clause, there are two ways of passivization by the subject of the passive being either the Oi (more common) or Od in the corresponding active sentences.
c) When Oi is a noun phrase and Od is a non -finite clause (to infinitive), subject of the passive construction is with the Oi only.
d) When Oi is a noun phrase and Od is a prepositional phrase, the passive construction starts with Oi.
e) Idiomatic expression:
When the idiomatic expression has the structure of Verb (V) + Noun phrase (Nphr) + Preposition (Pr) +Noun phrase (Nphn), the passive construction can have the subject of either noun phrase.
From the S - V - O - C (- A) structure
In this sentence pattern, the object of active sentence is always a noun phrase, which usually becomes the subject of the passive constructions. The difference in structures lies with the various complement types (Noun phrase, adjective phrase, to-infinitive clause, bare -infinitive clause, ing participle clause, ed- participle clause)
Exception: With bare -infinitive clauses, causative verbs (have, let, make) take a bare-infinitive in their infinitive clauses but "make" takes to- infinitive.
Special passive constructions
The typical passive constructions in English are BE+ Past Participle. Other constructions with passive meaning includes Get + Past participle, Become + past participle, -Ing form with passive meaning (Need-Want-Deserve-Require + Ving)
The causative
The causative structure `s usage is similar to that of Be - passive. The causative structure consists of two structures “Have + Obj + PII” and “Get +Obj+ PII”. “Get +Obj+ PII” is found more in informal languages. It can be found in all tenses. In the imperative “get' is more natural than “have”.
Pseudo-passive
Pseudo-passive is a sentence active in form but passive in meaning. The subject is the inanimate subject. Pseudo-passive is the typical non - agent passive constructions.
2.2.2 The phrase of By and With
According to Quirk, R and Greenbaum, S. (1976:160) the agentive or instrument can be expressed by a by - phrase. However, only the instrument can be expressed by a with phrase. In the case of get passive, the by -phrase helps to identify whether the sentence is in the middle voice or passive voice The agentive by- phrase also occurs as a post-modifier to signify authorship: a novel by Tolstoy, a picture by Degas,etc.
2.2.3 Usage of English passive voice
Different linguists use different expressions to describe the English passive usage. All these expressions have common points in nature, which are the non- agent emphasis (non-agent promotion) and the agent ignorance (agent demotion). Among these expressions, the one used by Asher, R. (1994) seems to be the most persuasive ones. His suggestions not only cover all other linguists' suggestions but also pave the new way in understanding the passive construction, which suggest the relation between the passive constructions and other construction based on the two pragmatic effects.
Agent demotion
Asher, R. (1994:4941) shortly suggests “…the passive assign it (the agent) a periphery role in syntax even if it is encoded”. This statement is identical with other linguists' expressions like unknown, unimportant, obvious agent or more interest on the action than on the agent.
Asher, R (1994:4941) also suggests that pragmatic effect of Agent demotion unifies the passive with honorific forms (the usage of plural forms for even single agent), indefinite person constructions involving indefinite pronouns corresponding to “they”,“one”and “we”.
Non-agent promotion
This pragmatic effect is not separated from the pragmatic effect of Agent demotion. The two pragmatic effects of Agent demotion and Non-agent promotion are like two sides of the same coin. This pragmatic effect of Non-agent promotion is similar to other linguists' expressions like “the passive is used when we are more interested in the action than the person who does it”
However, Asher, R. fails to give the reasons related to linguistics, the speaker's psychology.
2.3 Passive Voice in Functional grammar
2.3.1 Passive Types
Type of passive clause in transitive analysis is classified in following main types: true passive, beneficiary-passive, range-passive and circumstantial passive, which is further, divided into manner passive and “true” passive.
a,” True” passive: effective, medium/subject, agent: by
|
Mary |
was |
upset |
by the new |
|
|
Medium |
Process: mental |
Agent |
||
|
Subject |
Finite |
Predicator |
Adjunct |
b, Beneficiary-passive: effective, beneficiary/subject, and agent: by..
|
My ant |
was |
given |
this teapot |
by the Duke |
|
|
Beneficiary |
Process |
Medium |
Agent |
||
|
Subject |
Finite |
Predicator |
Complement |
Adjunct |
c, Range-passive: Middle(i.e.: medio -passive),Range/subject, medium: by....
|
Songs the music |
were was |
sung enjoyed |
by the choir by the audience |
|
|
Range |
Process |
Medium |
||
|
Subject |
Finite |
Predicator |
Adjunct |
According to Halliday, M. there are other types of passive constructions when the “indirect” participants act as the potential subjects. Circumstantial passives are those include Location- passive, Manner - passive and others. E.g.
The bed has not been slept in (Location- passive)
This pen has never been written with(Manner - passive)
These are medio- passives. But passives with idiomatic phrasal verbs, such as it has been done away with, she is very much looked up to, the prize has never been put in for are often “true” passive in the sense that the prepositional phrase really represents a participant.
d, circumstantial passive
d1.Location passive: middle (medio -passive) Location subject; Medium: by
|
The bed |
has not |
been slept in |
by anyone |
||
|
Location |
Process |
Medium |
|||
|
Subject |
Finite |
Predicator |
Adjunct |
Adjunct |
“True” passive :effective; Medium subject; Agent: by
|
It |
has |
been done |
away |
with |
by the man |
|
|
Location |
Process |
Medium |
||||
|
Finite |
Predicator |
Adjunct |
Adjunct |
Adjunct |
2.3.2 The phrase of by and with
Halliday, M. states that the clauses with features of agency can be put in passive by using an analytic causative or bringing in an Agent of the second order. The examples can be seen in all processes: Material, Mental, and Relational
2.3.3 Usage of Passive
According to M. Halliday (1985:169) the reason for choosing passive in effective clause are:
- To get the Medium as subject, and therefore as marked Theme
- To make the Agent either late news (by putting it last) or implicit (by leaving it out).
The agent - “by-phrase” is mentioned in 20% of passive clause (M. Swan) and about 18% (T. Givãn). Its occurrence depends on the information structure of sentence; the “by-phrase” will occur when it is new information and the agent comes as “new” at the end of the sentence E.g.
“Nice-picture”
“Yes, it was painted by my grandmother”
(passive verb so that the news-the painter-goes at the end).
(Swan, M.:410)
2.4 Passive voice in Transformational-Generative grammar
2.4.1 Organization of Transformational- Generative grammar
Initiated by Chomsky and quoted by Borsley R.D, any structure can be described into two ways: D - Structure and S- Structure. D - Structure (Deep structure) is the identical structural description of lexical strings in accordance with the principle of general linguistics. S - Structure (surface structure) is related to D -structure via the application of movement transformation (substitution or adjunction). S - Structure is the interface between the levels of phonetic form (PF) and logical form (LF). It is the S -structure that shows the contrast between languages.
Passive analysis in the study is based on the interrelation among D - Structure, S - Structure and LP and on sub - theory of Theme role (O - criterion) and Case filter.
2.4.2 Passive constructions and Noun phrases
a. Noun phrase passivization
The idea and examples here are taken from Borsley. R.(1999). There are certain relations among passive constructions and noun phrases. The noun phrases are formed with the possessive markers of and `s
|
1 The active sentence: The Vikings destroyed the monastery 2. The passive sentence : The monastery was destroyed by the Vikings 3.a The monastery `s destruction by the Vikings 4.a The destruction of the monastery by the Vikings 5.a The Vikings' destruction of the monastery |
1.The active sentence: The king betrayed the country. 2. The passive sentence: The country was betrayed by the king 3.b The country `s betrayal by the king 4.b The betrayal of the country by the king 5.b The king `s betrayal of the country |
The example (5a) might have the following D-structure
The (3.a) have the following D-structure
Finally, the (4.a) has the following D- structure:
2.4 Sum -up remarks
In this chapter, the English passive voice has been seen from three grammar approaches namely Traditional grammar, Transformational- Generative grammar and Functional grammar.
In this part, the concept of voice is “ a system of correlation between semantic roles such as agent and patient and between grammatical functions such as subjects and objects”
Syntactically, all the passive constructions consist of the compulsory past participles.
The optional parts of passive construction include such parts as the by- phrase, subject modifier, the adverbs and adjuncts. More over, based on the theory of case filter, passive noun phrases have been proved to originate from passive sentences with the insertion of possessive markers' and of.
Semantically, the passive subjects have different semantic roles namely Goal, Recipient, Arrival, Beneficiary and Place. Based on the meaning of separate parts, some of possessive verbs do not occur in the passive forms.
Finally, in the field of pragmatics, the choice of the passive is associated with the information structure and two pragmatic effects: agent demotion/ patient promotion and agent promotion. Following the information structure, the Given information precedes the New information. In relation to the pragmatic effects, the emphasis of non- agent passive sentences is on the action, which is associated with the pragmatic effects of agent demotion/ non- agent promotion; the emphasis of agent including passive sentences is also on the action but in this group the agent is considered as the late news, which is associated with the pragmatic effect of non- agent promotion only.
Chapter Three: Passive Constructions in Vietnamese
language voice english passive
3.1 Verbs in Vietnamese
In relation to Passive constructions, the following concepts are to be analyzed: Independent - dependent verbs and Transitive - intransitive verbs.
3.1.1 Dependent and Independent verbs
The independent verbs are the verbs having the meaning themselves and can stand independently without the support of other verbs.
The dependent verbs, on the other hand, do not have full lexical meaning and these verbs often accompanied with independent verbs.
3.1.2 Transitive - Intransitive verbs
Intransitive verbs do not govern object. Meanwhile transitive verbs do govern at least one object.
3.2 Vietnamese passive expressions in different views
3.2.1 Rejection of Passive voice in Vietnamese
The reasons often include
+Vietnamese being an isolated analytic and topic prominent language in which the verb does not change in accordance with person tense, mood and voice.
+ “b?” and “ðý?c” consided as true notional transitive verbs in Vietnamese, not formal words in forming Passive sentences.
Among the non - advocates of Passive construction such names as Thomson (1965), ?nh, (2000), H?o (2002) are the most prominent
3.2.2 Support for Passive Expressions in Vietnamese
a Non - “ bÞ ®îc” passive constructions
In this part, the structures in interest are non-“ bÞ ®îc” constructions which consist of two subgroups: Non -“ bÞ ®îc” constructions with no function words “ “bÞ, ®îc” and Non-“ bÞ, ®îc” constructions with other function words
* Non “ bÞ ®îc” constructions with no functional words
This type of sentence has the structure O - V. The decisive factors in this type of sentence are lexical meaning of subject:
+ Animate/inanimate
+ Physical condition, age
1.Human beings a. persons who serve others a'. adult
b.person who are served b'. children
2. Animals a. big or strong animal
b. small or weak animal
3. Inanimate a. instrument
b. natural phenomenon.
* Predicate with “chÞu, m¾c, ph¶i”
The passive ones include: ðý?c (ð?ng), ch?u (b?, m?c, ph?i) with the meaning as follows:
- “Ðý?c” or “ð?ng” refer to good things or lucky things to the receiver.
- “Ch?u”, “b?”, “m?c”, “ph?i” refer to bad things, unexpected things.
b Passive Constructions with “bÞ, ®îc”
Ban (2004) classifies grammatical the function of “bÞ” ®îc” into three sub groups: Lexical verb. Modal verb and Passive function words.
As lexical verbs, “bÞ” ®îc” have two constructions : “BÞ” ®îc” +Noun(noun phrase) and “BÞ” ®îc” + Embedded sentence.
As modal verbs, “bÞ” ®îc” can combine with: Verb (effective or ineffective), Adjective and Preposition.
As passive formal words, “bÞ” ®îc” have distinctive usage in the structure of passive constructions in Vietnamese
A general syntactic structure of a passive sentence in Vietnamese is as follows:
|
Subject1 (passive voice) |
Passive functional words |
Subject2 (active) |
Predicator2 (transitive verb) |
Complement (and Object) |
|
|
Passive Functional words “bÞ”, “®îc” |
Predicator (embedded sentence) |
Following Halliday, M. the passive subjects in Ban, DiÖp Quang pattern have the following semantic roles: Objective / Goal , Recipient, Goal (Arrival), Beneficiary, Maleficiary, Locative / Place
c The agent
+ Agent less passive sentence.
+ Agent - including passive sentence with no connectors and connectors b?i”, “do”, “(là) c?a”
3.2.3 Vietnamese Passive Usage
In Vietnamese, the choice between active and passive construction depends on both extra -linguistic factors and linguistic factors.
a. Extra- linguistic factors
According to different linguists, the passive structures in Vietnamese to :
+ Follow Information structure: the new information in the rheme and the given information in the theme
+ Impress the reader
+ Avoid changing the sentence subject
+ Allow the choice between marked and unmarked theme
b. Linguistics factors
Linguistics factors decide the type of sentence in Vietnamese consist of:
+ The lexical meaning of Subject: animate/ inanimate noun, served/serving person, instrumental/non- instrumental object
+ Subject complement or sentence adjunct showing aspect, mood or circumstances.
+ The two different ways of understanding the relation between direct object + indirect object (E.g. :Ch¶i + tãc + bÐ) as possessive( Ch¶i + tãc + cña + bÐ) and beneficiary( Ch¶i + tãc + cho + bÐ). While the first have one passive structure, the other can have two passive structures.
3.3 Sum-up remarks of Vietnamese passive
In this part, the author attempts to clarify the complex and controversy of Vietnamese passive mentioned in the previous part. This part is to answer the following questions:
+ Is there passive voice in Vietnamese?
+ If there is, what is typical pattern of Vietnamese passive?
+Does it include passive functional words? Moreover, if it does what are the compulsory passive functional words?
+What are the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic features of the Vietnamese passive pattern?
Voice in Vietnamese
This term, as Asher suggests, can be defined in term of “syntactic constructions with reference to specific grammatical characteristics”. This implies that voice exists in all languages but with different surface structure. The concept of voice in English and Vietnamese shares the common feature of the semantic roles of the sentence subjects. The difference is in the fact that English voice is related to verb forms while the Vietnamese voice is related lexical and grammatical means.
Pattern of Vietnamese passive
The second questions have different answer among linguists. Different structures suggested by linguists include:
- N + bÞ/®îc + V + bëi + N
- N + V + bëi + N
- N + do/cña + N + V
- N + lµ (cña) + N + V
and some others
Among these different views, the view of Ban, DiÖp Quang (2004) sounds the most persuasive. In his latest version 2004, Ban, DiÖp Quang considers sentences containing b?ng,do, b?i and c?a to be sentences with dependent predicator là. One common thing among these types of sentences is that the formal word là can be inserted in the middle of the sentence, in front of b?ng, do, b?i and c?a.
According to Ban, DiÖp Quang (2004), a general syntactic structure of a passive sentence in Vietnamese is as follows:
|
Subject1 (passive) |
Passive Functional words “bÞ”, “®îc” |
Predicator (embedded sentence) |
|||
|
Passive functional words |
Subject2 (active) |
Predicator2 (transitive verb) |
Complement object |
The way of classification based on the function of the words bÞ ,®îc deals with the many different structures relating to bÞ ,®îc suggested by other linguists. Ban, DiÖp Quang (2004) points out the different function of bÞ ,®îc as lexical verbs, modal verbs and passive functional verbs
He also follows Halliday, M. in analyzing the passive subjects in different semantic roles. This helps to explain the passive constructions with the subject's semantic roles of arrival, place that are difficult to explain in other linguists' theory.
The neutral sentence is the central concept in solving the questions above. The neutral sentence in his idea is the passive construction (O-V) in other linguists. The neutral sentence is related to the thematic sentence with the presence of the added subject. This helps to answer the question whether the Vietnamese includes the thematic sentences or passive sentences .
However if Ban, DiÖp Quang (2004) ideas are followed, one point should be accepted here is that there do not always exist any group of thematic - neutral -passive constructions.
Semantic features of Vietnamese passive
Under the modern view based on Functional grammar, Ban suggests the following semantic roles of subjects in passive constructions: Goal, Recipient, Arrival, Beneficiary, Maleficiary and Place. This is the updated way in analyzing passive constructions in Vietnamese, which helps to tackle with structures difficult to analyze in the traditional criteria of Subject and Predicate.
Semantic features of Vietnamese passive are derived from the lexical meaning of the passive functional words bÞ” ,“®îc” and the passive subjects and the transitive verbs.
Semantically “bÞ” is associated with negative attitude of the speakers while “®îc” is associated with the positive attitude of the speakers.
The type of nouns and their accompanied features in the passive subjects partly decide the naturalness of passive sentences. The criteria here are based on the scale of animate/ inanimate nouns, instrumental/ non-instrumental noun, adult/ children, serving person/ served person.
There is a group of verbs in Vietnamese rarely found in passive forms. These verbs often are spiritual effective verbs like dç, dç dµnh (comfort/soothe), an ñi (console/comfort),and some others.
The next distinguishing feature of Vietnamese passive is derived from the way of ellipsis in Vietnamese. From one structure
C« gi¸o/ ch¶i/ tãc/ bÐ
The teacher/ comb/hair/ the girl's
There are two ways of understanding: possessive relation ch¶i tãc cña bÐ and beneficiary relation ch¶i tãc cho bÐ. While the first accept one corresponding passive , the latter does accept two corresponding passive constructions
Usage of Vietnamese passive
The choice between active and passive construction depends on both extra -linguistic factors and linguistic factors.
Extra-linguistic/ pragmatic factors are related to Information structure
Linguistic factors include lexical meaning of subject, the companion of adjunct, and lexical meaning of verbs.
In short, based on their meaning, not on structure, Passive constructions can be said to exist in Vietnamese. In the view of passive voice commonly found in inflectional languages, Vietnamese has no passive voice but constructions with passive meaning. In the broader view of passive voice suggested by Asher R.E. in The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, the passive voice does exist in Vietnamese. The passive voice in Vietnamese, is semantically not characterized by the inflection in verbs but by lexical terms, word order and syntactic structures.
Hence, the passive definition of Ban, DiÖp Quang (2004) will be the basis for Vietnamese passive constructions in the part of contrastive analysis between English passive constructions and the Vietnamese ones.
Chapter Four: Contrastive Analysis
4.1 Contrast of English and Vietnamese passive constructions syntactically
4.1.1 Structural similarities
a) The Passive construction in both languages shares one common characteristic namely grammatical function between the subject and the object in which the object in active sentence turns into the grammatical subject in the passive sentence.
b) The agent is the optional part in both languages.
4.1.2 Differences
The differences focus on the obligatory and compulsory parts in the passive constructions in two languages, the grammatical properties of passive constructions' subjects and the noun phrase passivization.
* The obligatory and compulsory parts in Passive constructions.
The typical passive constructions in two languages are:
|
In English |
In Vietnamese |
|
|
Be + PII |
BÞ,®îc +embedded sentence (transitive verb) |
|
|
Become/get + PII |
In English, all passive constructions are related to PII and one verb among fixed verbs like be, get, have while the Vietnamese passive construction include the agent, the adjunct showing causes, reasons or circumstances even the subject modifiers. E.g.
a. ThuyÒn bÞ ( hä) ®Èy
b. ThuyÒn ®· bÞ (hä) ®Èy
c. ThuyÒn bÞ (hä) ®Èy råi
Among the Vietnamese passive sentences, the sentence a.( ThuyÒn bÞ ( hä) ®Èy) sounds unnatural. When this sentence is added with adverbs like ®·, råi it turns out to be natural in use. It can be said that the optional parts in English make the passive sentences natural in Vietnamese .
* Noun phrase passivization
The formation of passive noun phrase in English is based on the movement of the by - phrase plus the insertion of possessive markers of and s'.
Meanwhile, as the comparison partly points out, the related passive noun phrases in Vietnamese do need such subordinators as viÖc, sù …E.g.
|
The monastery `s destruction by the Vikings |
ViÖc tu viÖn bÞ ph¸ huû do ngêi Viking g©y ra |
|
|
The country `s betrayal by the king |
ViÖc tæ quèc bÞ quèc v¬ng ph¶n béi |
4.2 Contrast of English and Vietnamese passive constructions semantically
4.2.1 Similarities
The common feature between passive sentences in English and Vietnamese lies in the fact that the grammatical subjects of passive constructions have the same semantic roles namely: goal, beneficiary, recipient...
4.2.2 Differences.
The differences between English passive structures and Vietnamese ones are analyzed in three areas: the Vietnamese passive functional words (bÞ, ®îc), the passive subject and the verb.
The first difference is related to “bÞ” “®îc” as passive functional words. The difference is the subjectivity in Vietnamese passive sentences. “BÞ”, “®îc” expressions partly shows speakers' attitude towards the event meanwhile the passive expressions in English focus on the event.
How ever, in scientific document, the way of utilizing “®îc” does not always show speaker's attitude.
The second difference in terms of meaning is the decisive role of lexical meaning of the subject in Vietnamese. With the same surface structure, the lexical meaning of subject will decide whether the sentence is active, neutral, or passive. Whether the subject is serving or served person, adult or children, instrumental object or non- instrumental object decide the type of the sentence.
|
Vietnamese |
English |
||
|
Active Vietnamese /Active English |
a.ThÇy Phong cha chÊm bµi |
The prof. Phong hasn't marked the exam paper yet. |
|
Neutral Vietnamese/Passive English |
b.Bµi cña em Phong cha chÊm |
Phong's exam paper has not been marked yet. |
|
Thematic Vietnamese/Active English |
c.Bµi cña em Phong thÇy cha chÊm |
About Phong's exam paper , the prof. has not marked it yet |
|
|
Passive Vietnamese /Passive English |
d.Bµi cña em Phong cha ®îc chÊm |
Phong's exam paper has not been marked yet. |
|
|
ActiveVietnamese /Active English |
e.ThÇy Phong cha ®îc chÊm bµi |
The prof. Phong hasn't been allowed to mark the exam paper yet. |
One English passive sentence is the equivalent to both of the Vietnamese passive sentence and the Vietnamese neutral sentence. The Vietnamese neutral sentence stands in middle between the active sentence and the thematic ones in terms of structure. However, the Vietnamese neutral is similar to the passive sentence in the same way that the grammatical subject is affected by the agent. Therefore, the Vietnamese active and thematic ones are translated into the active ones while both the Vietnamese neutral and passive equal with the English passive constructions. All these sentences are somehow related to the others. Whether the sentences have the passive meaning or not depends on the lexical meaning of the subjects.
The third difference among Vietnamese and English passive constructions is the decisive role of verbs' lexical meaning to the type of sentence: passive constructions or active ones. There are two ways of understanding from the same structure:
Verb + direct object + indirect object
b¾t +tay + nã
röa + tay + nã.
One understanding is the possession :
Verb + (direct object + indirect object)
b¾t + tay ( + cña) + nã
The other way of understanding is based on the semantic role of the beneficiary:
Verb + direct object + indirect object
röa + tay (+cho) + nã.
In most English cases of two objects, there are two passive constructions with the grammatical subjects being the direct and indirect object in the active sentence. In Vietnamese, the two corresponding passive constructions are accepted in the case the indirect object is considered as the beneficiary. If the indirect object is understood as it possesses the direct object, there is only one passive construction with the indirect object as the grammatical subject.
The forth difference is in the verb constraints. In the group of transitive verb suggested by Quirk, R. (1972), some English transitive verbs like have, lack, hold, become, fit, suit, resemble do not occur in passive. In Vietnamese, suggested by QuÝ, NguyÔn ThÞ (2003), some transitive verbs rarely occur in passive. These verbs often are spiritual verbs like dç, dç dµnh (comfort/soothe), an ñi (console/comfort), khuyÕn khÝch, khÝch lÖ (encourage) and others. These verbs usually occur in neutral sentences only.
4.3 Contrast of English and Vietnamese passive structures pragmatically
This part is aimed at finding out the factors decisive to the choice of: Active/passive, agent /non-agent including passive expressions, Vietnamese passive expressions and substitutional structures.
4.3.1 Similarities and differences
The similarity between English passive constructions and the Vietnamese equivalents can be in some areas as follows:
1. Information structure: Given Information precedes New Information.
2. The sentence focus:
+The Focus is on the action/ the agent is in peripheral role (in the non - agent passive expression)
+The Focus is on the action/ the agent is the late news (in the agent -including passive expression).
The next similarity is the sentence focus which is on the action-not on the doer (in case of non-agent sentence) or on the doer/agent (in case of agent- including sentence).
4.3.2 English passive constructions and the equivalents
As it is mentioned in the theory, the pragmatic effects of the passive voice in English are related to two aspects namely agent demotion (agent defocusing) and patient promotion (patient focusing). These aspects themselves unify passive structure with other structures in a different way in different languages.
In English, the two passive structures (agent including and non- agent structures ) have distinctive focus. While the non- agent structures focus on the action rather on the doer, agent - including structures emphasize the doer. That means in English the passive voice has two different emphasis:
S + BE+ PAST PARTICIPLE : agent demotion and patient promotion
S + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE+BY PHRASE: patient promotion and agent being the late news
The author intends to firstly point out the difference in terms of structure in the two groups of Vietnamese equivalents. Then the frequencies of these structures are listed. Finally, some factors decisive to the usage of these structures are to be pointed out. The investigation is the passive sentence -based only.
Among 600 collected English passive sentences, the Vietnamese translated versions are found with the frequency as follows:
The types of constructions equivalent to the English passive consist of Active sentence, Neutral sentences, Passive sentences, Impersonal structures with “Ngêi ta,Ta”, Impersonal structures with verbs, modal verbs, Special structures with existential, original and possessive markers “cã” “cña” and Idiomatic, cultural expressions, proper name.
The frequency is in the following table:
|
Active sentences |
156 |
26% |
|
|
Neutral sentences |
85 |
14% |
|
|
Passive sentences (non agent sentences agent -including sentences) |
207 135 82 |
34.5% 22.5% 12.% |
|
|
Impersonal structures with “Ngêi ta,Ta” |
24 |
4% |
|
|
Impersonal structures with verbs, modal verbs |
83 |
13% |
|
|
Special structures with existential, original and possessive markers “cã” “cña”: |
13 |
2% |
|
|
Idiomatic, cultural expressions, proper name |
24 |
4% |
|
|
Other structures |
8 |
1.5% |
Table: Vietnamese equivalents of English passive constructions
Following are some examples:
Neutral sentences
This finding is based on a year of study of successes and failures involving services in different countries
Ph¸t hiÖn nµy dùa trªn cuéc nghiªn cøu vÒ nh÷ng thµnh c«ng vµ thÊt b¹i liªn quan ®Õn c¸c dÞch vô trong vßng mét n¨m ë nhiÒu níc kh¸c nhau
( Special English no 53- Development report:17 )
Passive sentences
Tom whistled twice more , these signals were answered in the same way.
(Mark Twain :139)
Tom l¹i huýt s¸o hai tiÕng n÷a, nh÷ng tÝn hiÖu ®ã l¹i ®îc ®¸p l¹i nh hai lÇn tríc.
(Nguþ Méng HuyÒn, Hoµng Ph¬ng:157 )
Impersonal structures with verbs, modal verbs
“ First the base is removed from the bottle, Then the bottle is turned upside down and the neck is attached to the base”
“Tríc hÕt c¾t ®¸y chai ra. Sau ®ã ®Ó óp ngîc c¸i chai xuèng ®Ó cho cæ chai g¾n víi ®¸y chai..”
(Sunflower ,Feb. 2005:37)
Idiomatic, cultural expressions, proper name
“T«i t nhñ tr¸nh giÕt ng¬× b»ng dao ..nhng mµ quen tay mÊt råi”
(B¶o Ninh:25)
“…to avoid stabbing with bayonets but I have got used to it”
(Frank Palmos:17)
Impersonal structures with “Ngêi ta,Ta”
“They felt like heroes in an instant. Here was a gorgeous triumph ; they were missed, they were mourned; hearts were breaking on their account; tears were being shed; ...”
(Mark Twain:152)
“ThÕ lµ lËp tøc chóng c¶, thÊy m×nh trë thµnh nh©n vËt anh hïng. ThËt lµ mét chiÕn th¾ng rùc rì; chóng ®îc ngêi ta nhí tiÕc; chóng ®îc ngêi ta khãc th¬ng; cã nh÷ng tr¸i tim ®ang thæn thøc v× chóng; ngêi ta ®ang nhá bao nhiªu lµ níc m¾t”
(Nguþ Méng HuyÒn & Hoµng Ph¬ng:137).
Special structures with existential, original and possessive markers “cã” “do”,“bëi” “cña”:
“These markers are found in the following extracts: “.. that it was conjectured at first”--“ lóc ®Çu ë nhµ ®o¸n”; “then the small raft had been missed” -“sau cã ngêi mÊt chiÕc bÌ;”
(Nguþ Méng HuyÒn & Hoµng Ph¬ng: 152).
“The bottle goes through seven machines, all designed and built by the company”
“C¸c chai nµy ®îc ®a qua b¶y c¸i m¸y, tÊt c¶ c¸c m¸y nµy ®Òu chÝnh do c«ng ty nµy thiÕt kÕ vµ x©y dùng”
(Sunflower ,Feb. 2005:37)
Pierr de Coubertin got the idea for this phrase from a speech given by Bishop EtheletTablot at a service for Olympic champions during the 1908 Olympic Games. Pierr de Coubertin ®· nghÜ ra c©u nãi nµy tõ mét bµi diÔn thuyÕt cña Gi¸m môc EtheletTablot t¹i buæi th¸nh lÔ dµnh cho c¸c gi¶i v« ®Þch
(Special English, August.2004)
Among the 207 passive constructions, the non -agent sentences are 135. The neutral sentences, which are the passive constructions if added with bÞ and ®îc , stands at the second rank.
The English non - agent passive sentences S + BE+ PAST PARTICIPLE have the following equivalents:
- Active sentence
-Neutral sentences
- Passive sentences (non -agent sentences)
- Impersonal structures with “Ngêi ta,Ta”
- Impersonal structures with verbs, modal verbs, prepositions
Special structures with existential, original and possessive markers “cã ngêi”
In the case of the English agent -including passive construction S + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE+BY PHRASE, the features of patient promotion and agent being the late news are expressed in Vietnamese with the following structures:
- Active sentence
-Passive sentences (agent -including sentence): “do” “bëi” “cña”.
The emphasis is expressed with some causative structures with do, b»ng ,bëi with the emphasis markers chÝnh do, chÝnh bëi.
The explanation for this can be:
+ Several transitive verbs in English have the Vietnamese intransitive equivalents like drown -chÕt ®uèi, demob - gi¶i ngò.
+ Several verbs in English can be used as both transitive verbs and intransitive one. These verbs in the translated version can be used in non- passive structures. The transitive verbs in English flood are translated as intransitive verb lôt in Vietnamese.
+ In Vietnamese, the sentence with clauses of different hidden subjects (in the parenthese) can be accepted, which is not accepted in English . This allows the non agent passive in Vietnamese turns into the agent -including in English
E.g.“...§i s¬ t¸n hÕt c¶ råi-People have been evacuated..”
+Due to cultural or historical factors, there is a big group of synonyms, which has a limited equivalents in the target language. Bá m×nh, hi sinh, n»m l¹i ,n¸n l¹i ,kh«ng trë vÒ are the Vietnamese words with the same equivalence of be killed in English.
+An other reason can be the specific translation of idiomatic expression or proper name such as quen tay mÊt råi versus I have got used to it.
Part Three: Conclusion
The thesis has confirmed the existence of voice in both two languages in which voice can be understood as a system of correlation between semantic roles such as agent and patient and between grammatical functions such as subjects and objects”. The difference is in the linguistic means to express the passive voice: In English, the linguistic means are the verb forms meanwhile in Vietnamese they are related to the presence of passive markers bÞ and ®îc with distinguishing features.
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