Specific features of forming compound words

|some |+ |body |

|any | |thing |

|every | |one |

|no | |where |

On the whole composition is not productive either for adverbs, pronouns or for connectives [8, 66p].

Another means of word formation is called composition. Composition is such word formation when the target word is formed by combining two or more stems. Usually the first component modifies or qualifies the second one. Compound words are hard to distinguish from free word combinations.

Compound words are words created by word composition: ice-cream, bathroom, horse race

The structure of compound words

1. neutral are such compound which are formed without any linking element. They are build by mere juxtaposition (соединение) of two or more words.

ship-window, baby-sitter, marry-go-round

a) simple neutral compound - consists of simple affixless stem

shop-window, bedroom, sunflower, toy-boy, E-free (без консервантов)

b) derived compound - these are compound with affixes in their structure

teenager = teenag-er, [crash-worth]-ness

c) contracted - these are compound words with a shortened stem in their structure

V-day (день победы) , TV-set (обе основы сокращ)

2. morphological compound- these are compound words with 2 stems linked by a vowel or consonant [Angl]o-Saxon, [spoke]s[man]

3. syntactic compound - are formed from segments of speech. They are formed according the grammatical pattern existing in present day language.

marry-go-round, lily-of-the-valley (ландыш майский), good-for-nothing (никуда не годный), sit-at-home (домосед)

The semantics of compound words

1. completely motivated compounds (понятные по значению) - non-ideomatic

Their meaning can be described as a sum of their constituent parts sky-blue (главная часть обычно стоит в конце - небесно голубой) tea-tester - дегустатор чая

2. partially motivated compounds

One of their components had changed its meaning though the meaning remin as transparent (понятный) football (это не мяч, это игра в мяч)

3. non-motivated - idiomatic a ladybird (божья коровка), tallboy (комод), a horse-marine ( человек, который занимает не свое место) a tallboy - compound word, tall boy - словосочетание (word combination)

The criteria for distinguishing between a compound and a word combination (plural - criteria, singular- criterion)

1. graphic criterion

Most of the compound words spelled either solidly (слитно) or with a hyphen (дефис)

I-know-what-you-are-going-to-say = word adjective

2. the semantic criterion

This criterion is especially important for idiomatic compound. In a few word combinations each component has its meaning.

Ex: blackbird - дрозд - I saw a black bird ( я видел черную птицу)

3. the phonetic criterion

The compound words acquire a new stress pattern. a `key a `hole - a `keyhole

4. the morphological and syntactical criteria

a) morphological

in word combination each component is opened to grammar changes

a tall boy -> a taller boy, a tall boys a tallboy -> a tallboys

b) syntactical

New components can be introduced into a word group (word combination)

a tall handsome boy

1.3 The structure of compound verbs

Verbs are of special interest. There is a small group of compound verbs made up of the combination of verbal and adverbial stems that language retains from earlier stages, e. g. to bypass, to inlay, to offset. This type according to some authors, is no longer productive and is rarely found in new compounds [10,82p].

There are many polymorphic verbs that are represented by morphemic sequences of two root-morphemes, like to weekend, to gooseflesh, to spring-clean, but derivationally they are all words of secondary derivation in which the existing compound nouns only serve as bases for derivation. They are often termed pseudo-compound verbs. Such polymorphic verbs are presented by two groups:

1) verbs formed by means of conversion from the stems of compound nouns as in to spotlight from a spotlight, to sidetrack from a side-track, to handcuff from handcuffs, to blacklist from a blacklist, to pinpoint from a pin-point;

2) verbs formed by back-derivation from the stems of compound nouns, e. g. to baby-sit from a baby-sitter, to playact from play-acting, to housekeep from house-keeping, to spring-clean from spring-cleaning.

From the point of view of the means by which the components are joined together, compound words may be classified into:

1) Words formed by merely placing one constituent after another in a definite order which thus is indicative of both the semantic value and the morphological unity of the compound, e. g. rain-driven, house-dog, pot-pie (as opposed to dog-house, pie-pot). This means of linking the components is typical of the majority of Modern English compounds in all parts of speech.

As to the order of components, subordinate compounds are often classified as:

a) a syntactic compounds in which the order of bases runs counter to the order in which the motivating words can be brought together under the rules of syntax of the language. For example, in variable phrases adjectives cannot be modified by preceding adjectives and noun modifiers are not placed before participles or adjectives, yet this kind of asyntactic arrangement is typical of compounds, e. g. red-hot, bluish-black, pale-blue, rain-driven, oil-rich. The asyntactic order is typical of the majority of Modern English compound words; b) syntactic compounds whose components are placed in the order that resembles the order of words in free phrases arranged according to the rules of syntax of Modern English. The order of the components in compounds like blue-bell, mad-doctor, blacklist ( a + n ) reminds one of the order and arrangement of the corresponding words in phrases a blue bell, a mad doctor, a black list ( A + N ), the order of compounds of the type door- handle, day-time, spring-lock ( n + n ) resembles the order of words in nominal phrases with attributive function of the first noun ( N + N ), e. g. spring time, stone steps, peace movement.

2) Compound words whose are joined together with a special linking- element -- the linking vowels [ou] and occasionally [i] and the linking consonant [s/z] -- which is indicative of composition as in, for example, speedometer, tragicomic, statesman. Compounds of this type can be both nouns and adjectives, subordinative and additive but are rather few in number since they are considerably restricted by the nature of their components. The additive compound adjectives linked with the help of the vowel [ou] are limited to the names of nationalities and represent a specific group with a bound root for the first component, e. g. Sino-Japanese, Afro-Asian, Anglo-Saxon [10, 52p].

In subordinative adjectives and nouns the productive linking element is also [ou] and compound words of the type are most productive for scientific terms. The main peculiarity of compounds of the type is that their constituents are nonassimilated bound roots borrowed mainly from classical languages, e. g. electro-dynamic, filmography, technophobia, videophone, sociolinguistics, videodisc.

A small group of compound nouns may also be joined with the help of linking consonant [s/z], as in sportsman, landsman, saleswoman, bridesmaid. This small group of words is restricted by the second component which is, as a rule, one of the three bases man-, woman-, people-. The commonest of them is man-.

Compounds may be also classified according to the nature of the bases and the interconnection with other ways of word-formation into the so-called compounds proper and derivational compounds.

Compounds proper are formed by joining together bases built on the stems or on the word-forms of independently functioning words with or without the help of special linking element such as doorstep, age-long, baby-sitter, looking-glass, street-fighting, handiwork, sportsman. Compounds proper constitute the bulk of English compounds in all parts of speech, they include both subordinative and coordinative classes, productive and non- productive patterns.

Derivational compounds, e. g. long-legged, three-cornered, a break-down, a pickpocket differ from compounds proper in the nature of bases and their second IC. The two ICs of the compound long-legged -- `having long legs' -- are the suffix -ed meaning `having' and the base built on a free word-group long legs whose member words lose their grammatical independence, and are reduced to a single component of the word, a derivational base. Any other segmentation of such words, say into long- and legged- is impossible because firstly, adjectives like legged do not exist in Modern English and secondly, because it would contradict the lexical meaning of these words [6,8].

The derivational adjectival suffix -ed converts this newly formed base into a word. It can be graphically represented as long legs ( [ (long-leg) +

-ed] ( long-legged. The suffix -ed becomes the grammatically and semantically dominant component of the word, its head-member.

1.4 Ways of forming compound words

Compound words in English can be formed not only by means of composition but also by means of :

a) reduplication, e.g. too-too, and also by means of reduplicatin combined with sound interchange , e.g. rope-ripe,

b) conversion from word-groups, e.g. to micky-mouse, can-do, makeup etc.

c) back formation from compound nouns or word-groups, e.g. to bloodtransfuse, to fingerprint etc.

d) analogy, e.g. lie-in ( on the analogy with sit-in) and also phone-in, brawn-drain (on the analogy with brain-drain) etc.

Secondary way of word building.

Sound interchange.

Sound interchange is the way of word-building when some sounds are changed to form a new word. It is non-productive in Modern English, it was productive in Old English and can be met in other Indo-European languages.

The causes of sound interchange can be different. It can be the result of Ancient Ablaut which cannot be explained by the phonetic laws during the period of the language development known to scientists., e.g. to strike - stroke, to sing - song etc. It can be also the result of Ancient Umlaut or vowel mutation which is the result of palatalizing the root vowel because of the front vowel in the syllable coming after the root ( regressive assimilation), e.g. hot - to heat (hotian), blood - to bleed (blodian) etc.

In many cases we have vowel and consonant interchange. In nouns we have voiceless consonants and in verbs we have corresponding voiced consonants because in Old English these consonants in nouns were at the end of the word and in verbs in the intervocalic position, e.g. bath - to bathe, life - to live, breath - to breathe etc [21,86p].

Stress interchange.

Stress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin : nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs on the last syllable, e.g. `accent - to accent. This phenomenon is explained in the following way: French verbs and nouns had different structure when they were borrowed into English, verbs had one syllable more than the corresponding nouns. When these borrowings were assimilated in English the stress in them was shifted to the previous syllable (the second from the end) . Later on the last unstressed syllable in verbs borrowed from French was dropped (the same as in native verbs) and after that the stress in verbs was on the last syllable while in nouns it was on the first syllable. As a result of it we have such pairs in English as : to af`fix -`affix, to conflict- `conflict, to export -`export, to ex`tract - `extract etc. As a result of stress interchange we have also vowel interchange in such words because vowels are pronounced differently in stressed and unstressed positions.

It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by imitating different sounds. There are some semantic groups of words formed by means of sound imitation

a) sounds produced by human beings, such as : to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, to sneeze, to whistle etc.

b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, such as : to hiss, to buzz, to bark, to moo, to twitter etc.

c) sounds produced by nature and objects, such as : to splash, to rustle, to clatter, to bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle etc.

1.5 The meaning of compound words

A compound word is a combination of two or more words that function as a single unit of meaning. There are three types of compounds: Those written as single words, with no hyphenation, are called closed compounds--the word "flowerpot," for example. Hyphenated compounds, such as "merry-go-round" and "well-being," are the second type. Those in the third group, called open compounds, are written as separate words--the nouns "school bus" and "decision making," for example.

Keep in mind that compounds can function as different parts of speech. In such cases, the type of compound can change, too. "Carry over," for example, is an open compound as a verb but a closed compound ("carryover") as a noun and an adjective:

-The money from that line item will carry over to next year's budget.

[verb form]

-The money we used for the trip was part of the carryover from last year's budget.

[noun form]

-Carryover funds can be used to cover a deficit.

[adjective form]

When you don't know in which category a particular compound belongs, first try looking it up in the dictionary. You will see there that some compounds are hyphenated regardless of their function in a sentence. For example, "on-site" is a hyphenated compound when it functions as an adjective or as an adverb: "The team conducted on-site visits" and "The team conducted its review on-site" [10,11].

The real confusion begins when the compound is not given in the dictionary. That is, it is a compound that is being formed for a very specific situation. In such cases, we have to rely on guidelines provided by the style manual to which we adhere. Our style manual of choice, the Chicago Manual of Style, has a lengthy section devoted to compound words--evidence that the rules are not simple [12, 86p].

Unfortunately, on this issue even the fairly straightforward rules about hyphens leave some room for a writer's own judgment. Here is what the Texas Law Review Manual of Style says about using the hyphen to create a compound word: "When two or more words are combined to form a modifier immediately preceding a noun, join the words by hyphens if doing so will significantly aid the reader in recognizing the compound adjective". The "if" clause in that sentence is the tricky part.

One way to decide if a hyphen is necessary is to see if the phrase might be ambiguous without it. For example, "large-print paper" might be unclear written as "large print paper" because the reader might combine "print" and "paper" as a single idea rather than combining "large" and "print." Another such example is "English-language learners." Without the hyphen, a reader might think we are talking about English people who are learning any language rather than people who are learners of the English language [14, 80p].

On the other hand, no one is going to be confused by the phrase "chocolate chip cookies" or "Saturday morning cartoons." In other words, the open compounds (i.e., no hyphen) "chocolate chip" and "Saturday morning" are so well known that there is no room for ambiguity. The open compound "high school" is so common, for another example, that we would not hyphenate the phrase "high school students." We would, however, hyphenate "high-risk" in the phrase "high-risk students."

The other time we must use hyphenation is to join a word to a past participle to create a single adjective preceding the noun it modifies: "a well-intentioned plan," for example, or "a horseshoe-shaped bar." Be aware, however, that we do not hyphenate these same phrases when they FOLLOW the nouns they modify:

-This is a government-mandated program.

-The program is government mandated.

-She is a well-respected student.

-She is well respected as a teacher.

Another basic rule is that we never hyphenate compounds that are created with "-ly" adverbs, even when they PRECEDE the nouns they modify: "a fully developed plan," for example, or "a nationally certified teacher." Here are more examples:

-We sent in heavily fortified troops.

-The troops were heavily fortified.

-All newly employed nurses must be evaluated regularly.

-All the nurses on the eighth floor are newly employed.

-A beautifully designed room can be both relaxing and invigorating.

-The living room is beautifully designed.

For more information about hyphenating adjectives preceding nouns, see our previous tip in the tip archive or in our book of writing tips [12,69p].

Remember these two important points:

(1) We have three types of compounds: open compounds, closed compounds, and hyphenated compounds.

(2) Many of them are found in the dictionary and are not subject to our interpretation, our judgment, or our whim. Start with your dictionary before applying any other guidelines. (On-line dictionaries are easy to use. We favour Merriam-Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, 10th edition, available. There is also the American HeritagePlan.

Within the class of compound nouns we distinguish endocerrtric and exocentric compounds. In Eurocentric nouns the referent is named by one of the elements and given a further characteristic by the other. In egocentric nouns only the combination of both elements names the referent. A further subdivision takes into account the character of stems [16, 66p].

Type sunbeam

A noun stem is determined by another noun stem. This is a most productive type, the number of examples being practically unlimited.

Type maidservant also consists of noun stems but the relationship between the elements is different. Maidservant is an apposition compound. The second element denotes a wider sphere and the first element restricts the sphere.

Type looking-glass shows a combination of a derived verbal stem with a noun stem.

Type searchlight consisting of a verbal stem and a noun stem is of a comparatively recent origin.

Type blackboard has already been discussed. The first stem here very often is not an adjective but a Participle II: outwork. Sometimes the semantic relationship of the first element to the second is different. For instance, a green-grocer is not a grocer who happens to be green but one who sells vegetables.

There are several groups with a noun stem for the first element and various de-verbal noun stems for the second: housekeeping, sunrise, time-server [12,67p].

In egocentric compounds the referent is not named. The type scarecrow denotes the agent (a person or a thing) who or which performs the action named by the combination of the stems. In the case of scarecrow, it is a person or a thing employed in scaring birds. The type consists of a verbal stem followed by a noun stem. The personal nouns of this type are as a rule imaginative and often contemptuous: cut-throat, dare-devil a reckless person', a murderer', lickspittle 'a toady', a flatterer', pickpocket 'a thief, turncoat 'a renegade'.

A very productive and numerous group are nouns derived from verbs with postpositive, or more rarely with adverbs. ' Cf. blackout 'a period of complete darkness, for example, when all the electric lights go out on the stage of the theatre, or when all lights in a city are covered as a precaution against air raids; also 'a temporary loss of consciousness'; breakdown 'a stoppage through accident', 'a nervous collapse'; hangover 'an unpleasant after-effect', especially after drink; makeup, a polysynaptic compound which may mean, for example, 'the way anything is arranged', 'one's mental qualities', 'cosmetics'; take-off, also polysynaptic: 'can-- canter', 'the beginning of a flight', etc.

This type consists chiefly of impersonal deverbal nouns denoting some action or specific instance as in the following example: could just imagine the brush-off he'd had. Other examples are: comedown, drawback, drop-out, feedback, frame-up, knockout, set-back, splash-down, take-in, teach-in and many more.

A special subgroup is formed by personal nouns with a somewhat derogatory connotation, as in go-between 'an intermediary', start-back 'a deserter'. Sometimes these compounds are keenly ironical: diehard 'an irreconcilable conservative', pin-up i such a girl as might have her photograph pinned up on the wall for admiration, also the photograph itself), pick-up 'a chance acquaintance', a prostitute'. More seldom it be pattern is used for names of objects, mostly disparaging. For instance: "Are these your books?" "Yes. They were a very odd collection of throw-outs from my flat."

The group of bahuvrihi compound nouns is not very numerous. The term "bahuvrihi" is borrowed from the grammarians of ancient India. Its literal meaning is much-riced'. It is used to designate possessive exocentric formations in which a person, animal or thing are metonymically named after some striking feature they possess, chiefly a striking feature in their appearance. This feature is in its turn expressed by the sum of the meanings of the compound's immediate constituents. The formula of the bahuvrihi compound nouns is adjective stem noun stem. The following extract will illustrate the way bahuvrihi compounds may be coined: got

discouraged with sitting all day in the backroom of a police station...... with six

assorted women and a man with a wooden leg. At the end of a week, we all knew each other's life histories, including that of the wooden-leg's uncle, who lived at Selsey and to be careful of his diet [9,11p].

Semantically the bahuvrihi are almost invariably characterized by a depreciative ironical emotional tone. Cf. bigwig a person of importance, black-shirt an Italian fascist (also, by analogy, any fascist), fathead a dull, stupid person', greenhorn an ignoramus, highbrow a person who claims to be superior in intellect and culture, lazy-bones a lazy person.

Compound words are words consisting of at least two stems which occur in the language as free forms. In a compound word the immediate constituents obtain integrity and structural cohesion that make them function in a sentence as a separate lexical unit. The structural cohesion and integritiy of a compound may depend upon unity : f stress, solid or hyphenated spelling, semantic unity, unity of morphological and syntactic functioning or, more often, upon the combined effect of several of these or similar phonetic, graphic semantic, morphological or syntactic factors. The integrity of a compound is manifested in its indivisibility, i.e. the impossibility of inserting another word or word-group between its elements. If, for example, speaking about a sunbeam we can insert some other word between the article and the noun, e.g. a bright sunbeam, a bright and unexpected sunbeam, because the article a is a separate word, no such insertion is possible between the stems sun and beam, for they are not words but morphemes.

In describing the structure of a compound one should examine three types of relations, namely the relations of the members to each other, the relation of the whole to its members, and correlation with equivalent free phrases.

Some compounds are made up of a determining and a determined part, which may be called the determinant and the determinate. The second stem, in our case ream, is the basic part, the determinates. The determinant sun serves to differentiate it from other beams. The determinate is the grammatically most important part which undergoes inflection; of sunbeams, bothers-in-law, passers-by.

There are non-idiomatic compounds with a perfectly clear motivation. Here the meanings of the constituents add up in creating the meaning of the whole and name the referent either directly or figuratively. Thus, when the combination seaman was first used it was not difficult to understand that it meant 'a man professionally connected with the sea. The word differentiated in this way a sailor from the rest of mankind. When aviation came into being the same formula with the same kind of motivation was used to coin the compound airman, and also aircraft and airship to name the machines designed for air-travel, differentiating them from sea-going craft. Spaceman, spacecraft and spaceship built on the model of airman, aircraft and airship, are readily understood even when heard for the first time. The semantic unity of the compounds seaman, airman, spaceman, aircraft, spacecraft, airship and spaceship is based on the fact that, as the conquest of sea, air and outer space advanced, new notions were created, notions possessing enough relevant distinctive features to ensure their separate existence. The logical integrity of the combinations is supported by solid spelling and by the unity of stress. Such transparent compounds can be transformed into free phrases: air-mail mail conveyed by air.

The semantic integrity of a compound is on the other hand very often idiomatic in its character, so that the meaning of the whole is not a mere sum of its elements. A compound is often very different in meaning from a corresponding syntactic group. Thus, a blackboard is very different from a black board. Its essential feature is being a teaching aid: not every board of a black colour is a backboard. A blackboard may be not a board at all but a piece of linoleum or some other suitable material. Its colour is not necessarily black: it may be brown or something else. Thus, blackboard a board which is black. A chatterbox is not a box, is a person who talks a great deal without saying anything important; the combination is used only figuratively. The same metaphorical character is observed a the compound slowcoach. It is also idiomatic as it does not name a vehicle but a person who acts and thinks slowly. A fuss-pot is a person easily excited and pervious about trifles. Thus far the original motivation of the idiomatic compound could aid be easily re-created, The following examples illustrate idiomatic compounds ere it is not so obvious: blackhg 'strikebreaker', blackmail 'getting money, or me other profit from a person by threats', bluestocking 'a woman affecting literary Easters and learning' [14,26].

The analysis of the semantic relationship existing between the constituents of a compound presents many difficulties. Some authors have attempted a purely

theoretical interpretation distinguishing copulative, existential, spatial and other connections. This scheme, however, failed to show the linguistic essence of impounds and was cumbersome and artificial.

A mistake common with many authors is treating semantic connections within compounds in terms of syntactic relations. Marchland, for instance, -when analyzing the type house-keeping, backbiting, housewarming, bookkeeping, sightseeing, etc. Writers: "In most cases the first word is the object, A subject/predicate relation underlies earthquaking, cock - crowing, cock-fighting, sunburning... The first word Is the predicate complement in well-being and short-coming.

N. G. Guterman very convincingly showed that such syntactic treatment should be avoided because syntactic ties are ties between words, whereas in dealing with compounds one studies relations within a word, the relations between the morphemes, its significant constituents. These two series of relations belong to different levels of abstraction and should not be mixed. In the compound spacecraft space- is not an attribute to -craft. It cannot possess syntactic functions, being not a word but a stem. So it is more convenient to consider it a determinant restricting the meaning of the determinates by expressing the purpose for which -craft is designed : the medium in which it will travel. Surely, one could combine these two points of view using a more careful wording, and formulate it as follows: phrases correlated with compounds by means of transformational analysis may show objective, subject/predicative, attributive and adverbial relations. E.g. house-keeping :: to keep house, well-being :: to be well In the majority of cases compounds manifest some restrictive relationship between the constituents; the types of restrictions show great variety [12, 92p].

A killjoy person who throws gloom over social enjoyment' not 'kill¹ and the case is different from the slow-coach above, as in the free phrase 'kill' is a verb in the Imperative Mood and 'joy' is a noun : action of this verb is directed. A phrase of this type cannot be used whereas the predicative function is typical of the compound killjoy art of the determinatum is obviously missing, it is implied and under-: formally expressed. Marchland considers these words as having a zero linatum stem and calls such compounds exocentric, because their ileatum lies outside as opposed to the endocentric: sunbeam, blackboard, wall-flower. Absence of formal determinatum results in the tendency to append the real ending to the element that happens to be final. Thus, brothers-in-law but s-fa e.g. There is this fool convention in English publishing that you don't name ace ou're writing about, in case the unpleasant characters in the story turn out ble the mayor's in-laws.

II. Compound words as a type of word formation

Compounding is one of the oldest ways to enrich the vocabulary of, but rather productive also in modern English.

A number of compound English words preserved in the language since old English period. These are the goldsmith - ювелир; greyhound -охотничья собака; firelight - свет огня; midnight - полночь; quicksilver - ртуть.

Many compound words that existed in old English language, as a result of the close adhesion of its elements have undergone reduction and reduction, so that their base was simplification in the modern language feeling as irreducible. This process is called simplification.

For Example:

woman < + man - женщина - человек

lord < + weard - хлеба хранитель

fortnight < - две недели (14 ночей)

Simplification can contribute to loss of the language of one of the elements as obsolete:

kidnap - ребенок + пар (to nab) хватать; первоначально kidnap значило похищать детей, теперь также - похищать общественных деятелей с целью убрать их в нужный момент с политической арены.

Simplification - the process of living and continuing in modern language. As an example of a relatively new education can bring the word hobo - seasonal nomadic worker (Amer.), Which probably occurred as the reduction of hail, "But! Boy! »

These words, which form the foundations of a modern language is not allocated, called words with simplification basis.

The degree of fusion of the components of a compound word may be different. On the border between compound words and words with the simplification of the foundation are words such as: boatswain - боцман; breakfast - завтрак; cupboard - шкаф; that in respect of sound words have become a basis for simplification, but still kept the letter separateness known elements. In them, even though they are written together, each element retains its original spelling and thus "inner form" of the word is clear:

boatswain боцман, от слов корабль + парень, breakfast -- завтрак, от слов break ломать и fast пост, т. е. первая еда, которую едят натощак.

cupboard -- первоначально не шкаф, а полка для чашек

waistcoat -- жилет, т. е. одежда, облегающая талию.

Along with difficult words, preserved from the Old English period, and have a long history of development in modern English a lot of neologisms formed by compounding, most often by simple juxtaposition of the basics. New words that arise in connection with the development of production and social relations, culture and technology, changes in everyday life, and is often formed by compounding: air-base, aircraft, air-port, bus-stop, cinema-goer, job-hunting, peace-loving, jet plane, radio-location, sky-scraper, sunbathe, tube-station, typescript, week-end.

Many complex words in its development approach to not just words, but to derivatives. This happens in cases where a word because of its semantic properties often and is easily combined with other words, and it is the basis of the second member of a large group of similar complex words. Then, when other favorable historical and linguistic terms, for example, if a serving in many cases the 2nd element slo¬vo quite brief, and, especially, if circulated slo¬varnom composition are synonyms, it can turn into a suffix. This is the story of native English suffix: -dom, -hood, -ship, -ful, -ly, and so on [12, 120p].

If the second element of a compound word has dropped out of the language as a separate word, but got a very generalized value and occurs in several surviving compound words with the same structure, it is perceived as an affix. For example: - wright<wyrhta работник, (playwright драматург; shipwright кораблестроитель; wheelwright колесник) и -monger < mango (лат.) торговец (ironmonger торговец скобяными товарами; fishmonger торговец рыбой; и в переносном значении: warmonger поджигатель войны; panicmonger паникер; scandalmonger сплетник)

These elements are called semi-affixes.

By semi-affixes are also include a second element belonging to a large group of similar words, even if they are kept in the languages as separate words.

For example, element -man, approaching the suffix meaning person in the words: airman - летчик; chairman - председатель; fireman - кочегар, пожарный; gentleman - джентльмен; milkman - торговец молоком; policeman -полицейский; postman - почтальон; salesman - продавец; seaman - моряк.

We should consider the second element of the words: airman, chairman, gentleman, and so on. suffix or semi-affixes, complex words or derivatives, a moot point. On the one hand, man has here a very broad generalization of the value it brings him closer to the suffix that identifies the person (-er), does not have to imagine the stress and reduced phonetically, but on the other hand, it exists in the language separately and is often used as an independent the word. By semi-affixes may also include an element of proof in the words: bombproof - бомбостойкий; waterproof - водонепроницаемый; foolproof - очень простой (доступный даже дураку); и т. д.

2.1 Classification of Compounds

Compound word is the union of two or, at least, the three pillars of functioning as a whole and isolated part of the proposal as a special lexical unit due to its non-separability.

Non- separability of a compound word (structural cohesion), t. E. The cohesion of its parts may depend on the semantic, graphic, morphological and phonetic factors, or both.

Semantic integrity of a compound word based on the fact that the value of a compound word is often not a simple sum of its parts. The word means blackboard классная доска, and not every black board; it may not even be the board, and a piece of linoleum and do not necessarily black. Quite possibly offer: The blackboard is brown. Meaning of blackleg - штрейкбрехер - completely displayed in the modern language of the values ??of its components (literally: black leg). Sunday Sunday, the day named after the sun god, in the literal meaning of the components - the sun day, but in modern English the phrase A rainy Sunday nobody can seem contradictory. Sunday school - Sunday parochial school, not at all school classes in which there on Sundays. Man-of-war means a warship, not a man of war, or military, as one might think. Accordingly merchantman means trade ship. Chatterbox ratchet is used only in a figurative sense: болтливая женщина.

.It is possible, however, and complex words, the total value of which is simply the sum of the values of their components; так day-time дневное время, sunlight солнечный свет, tradesman торговец, letterbox почтовый ящик, starlit освещенный звездами (о небе) preserve the value of its parts, but they are closely united, expressing the same concept.

Non- separability their expressed graphically or conjoint writing or hyphenated. Almost all of them are characterized by non- separability and phonetic thanks unifying accent. In the case of the adjective starlit holds morphological non- separability, starlit not be the phrase, as the phrase would be constructed quite differently. Noun in the English language can not stand as a definition before communion, and in the syntactic group it is here to have a record of the plural. Moreover, the form of the sacrament is lit obsolete. Therefore, the phrase with the same meaning would be: lighted by stars.

Phonetic and graphic non- separability there and all the words of the first group, and in the case Sunday it is complemented by a reduction of the second vowel. In one case: Sunday school there is only semantic cohesion and on the outside of this education is no different from a stable syntactic phrases, from which it arose. Separate spelling difficult words is usually occurs when the formation of a new word has not yet ended. Therefore, belonging to the Sunday school compound words is disputed [13, 69p].

Extremely common in English compound nouns formed by simple juxtaposition of the two bases of nouns: eyebrow, flower-bed, homeland, housewife, sunshine. They differ from these formations similar type stone wall that 1) there is a ready to use speech as a unit, and played back, and are formed therein; 2) have a certain semantic integrity, passing one concept rather than dissected name objects; 3) phonetically and graphically non- separability. However, between the extremes typical cases of difficult words on the one hand and on the other phrases is a large number of intermediate cases, like Sunday school and kitchen garden, where in spite of the graphic and phonetic separately designe has more semantic cohesion. The problem of differentiation of complex words and phrases is thus considerable difficulties.

Compound words may be classified according to different principles. Furthermore, each type of compound words to be described in terms of its efficiency in modern English. The purpose of such a description - the identification and establishment of a system of ordered structural and semantic rules of formation of complex words that are constantly being created in the language.

L. Bloomfield and G. Marchand distinguish synthetic compound words, while Marchand contrasts them difficult words as such (compounds versus synthetic compounds). Under the synthetic compound words L. Bloomfield means those in which the components of a compound word is characterized by a word-formation feature that distinguishes it from self-expression. As examples of synthetic compound words G. Marchand quoted type gate-crasher, housekeeping, the second component which usually have no independent use.

L. Bloomfield divides all the words in syntactic and asyntactic. The first group he includes those words in which the order of the components is the order of words in syntactic phrases (a blackbird), to the second - the words in which the components are combinations impossible in terms of the syntax of the language (man-made). IV Arnold offers the following classification principles of compound words: the type of addition and coupling element, on the part of the speech, semantic features (motivated and unmotivated compound words). Depending on the structure of immediate constituents , I.V. Arnold distinguishes these types of complicated words: compound words consisting of just the basics (film-star); compound words, in which at least one component is a derivative basis (chain-smoker); compound words in which one of the components is a reduction (math-mistress); compound words in which one component is a compound word (wastepaper-basket) [14, 27p].

R. Ginsburg suggests considering the difficult words from the point of view: the relationship and the degree of independence of the semantic components; parts of speech, which includes compound words; compounding methods used to connect two of the National Assembly; such as the National Assembly, which form a compound word; correlative relationship with the system of free expressions.

From the viewpoint of the ways in which components are joined, compound words may be classified into:

1. The words formed by simple juxtaposition of the components in a specific order, which is a measure of the importance of semantic and morphological unity of a compound word, for example: rain-driven, house-dog, pot-pie (Comp .: dog-house, pie-pot). This way of connecting components typical of most difficult words of modern English language in all parts of speech.

2. Compound words, NA are connected connecting element - binding vowels (-O-) or (-i-) and communication system according to (-S-), is a sign of compounding, for example: speedometer, tragicomic, statesman. Compound words of this type can be nouns and adjectives, subordinative and additive. Their number is negligible, since the nature of the components may prevent the formation of compound words of this type.

Additive compound words connected by a vowel -o-, limited to names and nationalities are a special group with an associated root as the first component: Sino-Japanese, Afro-Asian, Anglo-Saxon.

In subordinating adjectives and nouns productive binding element -o-. Compound words of this type are most productive for the formation of scientific terms. The main feature of such complex words is that their components are unassimilated related roots, borrowed mainly from classical languages, such as: electro-dynamic, filmography, technophobia, videophone, sociolinguistics, videodiscs.

A small group of compound nouns is communication according -s-: sportsman, landsman, saleswoman, bridesmaid. The second component is usually one of the three pillars: -man, -woman, -people, the most common of which -man. In recent years, began to be used and the basis -person, for example: spokesperson (a person who speaks for another or others; a spokesman or a spokeswoman), statesperson (statesman or stateswoman).

Compound nouns noun + noun

This is the most numerous subgroup of compound words, within which stand out various semantic relations. This model is characterized by high productivity in modern English, as evidenced by a significant amount neologisms, for example:airplay -- the broadcasting of a phonograph record; moonchild -- a person born under the sign of Cancer, June 21 -- July 21; cocktail belt -- green suburbs where the rich live;

In nouns such as noun + noun, the first component specifies specifies the value of the second component, performing the function of an adjective : raindrop -- one drop of rain; hairbrush -- brush for the hair; tabletalk -- talk during a meal [16, 94p].

Structurally this type of compound nouns may be complicated by a combination of three, four or more bases, said first and second word components of the complex may be a complex base, for example: beanbag chair -- "a chair filled with pellets that takes the shape of a person sitting on it"; dustbinman -- "a garbage collector".

Compound nouns formed on the model of noun 2 + noun1 can be divided into the following groups depending on the type they express syntactic relations:

1) the relationship goals (based on nouns such phrases are N1 for N2):

pencil case -- case for keeping pencils;

cycleway -- a road or lane reserved for cyclists;

skatepark -- a smooth paved area constructed for skateboarding,

workwear -- clothes made for workers;

2) partitive relations (N₁ of N₂₎

bottle-neck - the neck of a bottle

doorhandle -- the handle of the door;

bodyshell -- the outer shell or frame of a motor vehicle;

3) spatial and temporal relations (N₁ in/from/ at/on/with N₂):

country-club -- a club in the country;

wheel-chair -- a chair on wheels;

toe sock -- a sock with a separate space for each toe or for the big toe;

4) appositive attitude (N₁ is N₂)

trapdoor -- a door (flat) is a trap;

worker-director -- an employee selected to serve on the board of directors of the company for which he works; woman-doctor -- the doctor is a woman;

5) similarity relations (N₁ like N₂)

sword-fish - a fish like a sword

bowler-hat -- a hat like a bowler;

shirt-jacket -- a lightweight, shirtlike jacket;

Compound nouns verb + noun

In this model, there are two types of compound nouns allocated by function:

a) compound nouns, which corresponds to the phrase, where the noun is the direct object of the verb. Compound nouns of this type exocentric and often used to refer to people, such as: cut-throat, kill-joy, pickpocket, spoil-sport;

b) compound nouns, which corresponds to the phrase, where the noun is not the direct object of the verb. Such compound nouns and endocentric, unlike the first type is quite productive:

dangle-dolly -- кукла-талисман (висящая на ветровом стекле автомобиля);

crashpad -- ночлежка; goggle-box -- телевизор;

hovercraft -- транспортное средство на воздушной подушке;

jump jet -- реактивный самолет с вертикальным взлетом и вертикальной посадкой;

play pit -- место для игр, песочница;

Compound nouns adverb + noun

This is an asyntactic model, for example:

downtown, afterheat (остаточное тепловыделение), incrowd (элита; узкий, избранный круг знатоков), overkill (перегиб), off-hour (часовой перерыв), off-islander;

Here are the two sub-models: the basics - quantitative and ordinal numbers as the first component. The first sub-models are compound nouns Bahuvrihi denoting plants, for example: five-finger, five-leaf, one-berry, nine-bark. In some cases, nouns are used only in the plural, in particular in the title game - nine-holes, nine-pins.

In the second sub-models as the first component acts as an ordinal number first, eg: first-aid -- первая помощь, first cousin --двоюродный брат (сестра), first foot --первый гость в новом году, first night -- премьера.

Compound adjectives

The most common are adjectival names compound adjectives that can be divided into four sub-groups, three of which include the proper compound adjectives, and one - complex derivatives. All four sub-productive and typically semantically motivated. The main restrictions on compatibility are the lexical-semantic types of the key components of the lexical and valence of the main element in the appropriate phrase.

Adjective registered compound adjectives have the following models:

1. Poly-semantic model noun + adjective, which causes two types of adjectives:

a) compound adjectives based on similarity relations in which adjectival base represents the most common color, size, shape and other features of the second component. This type corresponds to the comparative adjective phrases as Adj + as + N: snow-white (as white as snow), skin-deep, age-long, capital-intensive, sky-high, world-wide, ankle-deep, life-long, stone-deaf, iron-hard, silk-soft, knee-high, cream-yellow и др.;

b) compound adjectives, which are based on a variety of adverbial relations. This type of adjectives is related to one of the most productive adjectival phrases Adj + prp + N and, therefore, different semantic diversity, since it corresponds to the different models of phrases that are different grammatical and semantic relations between the constituent words are expressed using prepositions. Compound adjectives of this type may correspond to the following models phrases Adj + of + N: pleasure-tired (tired of pleasure); Adj + in + n: oil-rich (rich in oil); Adj + from + N: care-free (free from care), leadfree; Adj + for + N: po¬wer-greedy (greedy for power); Adj + against + N: child-proof.

2. Mono-semantic model n + v_ed,, based mainly on instrumental / agentive, spatial or temporal relationship between the National Assembly, which are due to lexical meaning and valence of the verb: snow-covered (covered with snow), state owned, home-made, ink-written, mud-stained, water-filled

3. Mono-semantic model num + n, on the basis of which is formed by a group of adjectives consumed only attributive: (a) two-day (beard), (a) seven-day (week), (a) four-channel (record). This type of adjectives correlates with attributive phrases with numbers as the first component (two days, four channels). Sub model, which includes ordinal number, represented by the following adjectives: first-year (student), second-hand (shop), first-rate (quality), second-class (hotel).

4. Highly productive model monosemantichnaya hard derivative adjectives based on the semantic relations of possession expressed by a suffix -ed. The basic version of the model is [(adj + n) + ed]: long-legged, low-ceilinged, red-lipped, black-bearded. The model has two options: [(num + n) + ed], [(n -f-+ n) -f- ed]: three-roomed, bell-shaped, doll-faced.

5. Model adj / adv + ven forms adjectives, such as clean-shaven, deep-cut, far-gone, far-fetched, wide-spread. Apart from the above four types, can also be called compound adjectives formed on the model of adj + adj, within which there are two semantic groups:

a) appositive compound adjectives with high productivity: bitter-sweet, deaf-mute, pro-am, phonetic-syntactic; Many adjectives of this type have connections vowel -o-, the main stress falls on the second component, such as: socio-economic, psycholinguistic;

b) endocentric compound adjectives: double-helical.

Significant group consists of compound adjectives formed from various types of phrases. The basis of this type of adjectives are different in their structure and meaning of the words most often phrase logical, or become adjectives used as adjectives in a certain context. The most common types of phrases, the underlying compound adjectives are:

a) nouns connected by a preposition or conjunction:

a steak-and-eggs breakfast -- a breakfast consisting of steak and eggs;

a father-to-son talk -- a talk between father and son;

run-of-the-house (animals) -- ordinary, commonplace;

б) adjective and a noun:

long-distance (runner), solid-state (physics), red-blick (university), grey-collar (worker), first-class (car), last-minute (preparations), old-age (pension), long-term (plan).

Complex adverbs

Complex adverbs in modern English is relatively unproductive. They are a small group of words, limited in use. In its structure, complex adverbs fall into the actual compound words: crosslegs (to sit crosslegs) -- нога на ногу, sidelong -- в сторону, косо, боком, double-quick --беглым шагом, очень быстро, off-hand -- без подготовки, экспромтом, тотчас, over-night -- накануне вечером, всю ночь и сложнопроизводные (с суффиксом -ly): open-heartedly -- чистосердечно, old-fashionedly -- старомодно, near-sightedly -- близоруко.

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