Specific features of forming compound words

According to the type of composition compounds can be:

1. made by mere juxtaposition without connecting elements e.g. toothache, bedroom, heart-break

2. with a linking vowel or consonant (very few) e.g. electromotive, Anglo-Saxon, handicraft

3. with linking elements represented by preposition or conjunction stem e.g. matter-of-fact, forget-me-not.

According to the structure of the immediate constituents compounds are divided into:

1. those consisting of simple stems: film-star;

2. those with at least one of the constituents being a derived stem: chain-smoker;

3. those with at least one of the constituents being a clipped stem: V-day, FBI-agent

4. those with at least one of the constituents being a compound stem: wastepaper-basket.

According to the semantic structure type compounds are classified into non-idiomatic and idiomatic. Non-idiomatic compounds are the words whose compound meaning can be derived directly from the meanings of the constituent stems, e.g. bedroom = bed+room, working-man = working+man. Idiomatic compounds can be of two kinds: 1) those in which one of the components has changed its original meaning in the compound word, e.g. blackboard is not necessarily black and it is not always a board, football is not only a ball, but also a game; 2) those in which it is impossible to deduce the meaning by joining two constituent meanings together. E.g. ladybird is neither a lady nor a bird; tallboy is neither a boy nor a tall thing [36, 153p].

Ginsburg gives another classification in the structural composition of compounds:

1.neutral, which are in tern are subdivided into: simple neutral, without any linking element, by mere juxtaposition e.g. bedroom, shop-window; derived or derivational neutral, with the help of an affix e.g. blue-eyed, film-goer; contracted neutral, which are a combination of full form and a contracted form e.g. TV-set, V-day, FBI-agent.

2.morphological compounds (very few in number and unproductive in present-day English), in which two compounding stems are joined by a linking vowel or consonant e.g. Anglo-Saxon, handicraft, statesman.

3.syntactic compounds (representing specifically English word structure), which are the words formed form whole segments of speech, preserving numerous traces of syntagmatic relations typical of speech, such as articles, prepositions, adverbs, e.g. good-for-nothing, mother-in-law, sit-at-home; lily-of-the-valley; or the curious examples like whodunit (“a detective story”) - who (has) done it, or the more usually-looking like It was a sort of I'll-do-whatever-you-want look.

Conversion

By conversion we understand the process of coining words by mere change of the part of speech category and the distribution characteristic, without any change in the morphological structure of the source word, as the result of which the original word and the derived one become homonyms. There are other terms to describe this process of word-building: zero derivation, affixless derivation, root formation, functional change. The most widely accepted and applied term, however, is conversion.

Although conversion exists in many languages, it is in the English language that it has received the most extensive development, due to which fact conversion is often referred to as an English type of word-building.

There are three factors enabling conversion in English:

1. the analytical structure of the English language;

2. simplicity of English words' paradigms;

3. abundance of one-syllable words, witch are more mobile and flexible as compared to polysyllables.

According to Professor I.V. Arnold, however, the main reason for the widespread development of conversion in present-day English is the absence of exact part-of-speech markers in the English language resulting in the possibility of finding one and the same affix in several different parts of speech. E.g. Maiden (n.), whiten (v.), wooden (adj.), often (adv.).

As shown by the statistical data the words involved in English conversion most frequently are simple monosyllabic root words. Suffixed or prefixed words may also participate in conversion but very rarely. (This is easily accounted for as a word of complete divisibility is already a member of certain correlation, i.e. the divisible word has already been derived from somewhere (usually a verb) and it makes no sense to coin another verb. E.g. arrival comes from arrive)

Although conversion may occur in correlations of different parts of speech (long adj. - long adv., to drive v. - a drive n., down adv. - down adj.) it is predominantly a verb-forming type of word-building, the bulk of which are the verbs converted from nouns (silence n. - silence v.) (round adj. - round v.). What is more, it is through conversion that the overwhelming majority of English verbs are made in Modern English. (Composition is almost nonexistent, prefixation extremely scarce - denominal verbs with the suffixes -ate, - ize, -ify are stylistically limited to learned and technical formations.)

Together with the part of speech category the word that goes through conversion naturally changes its paradigm. Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky believes this change to be the main and the only word-forming means in conversion. I.V. Arnold, however, insists that the alteration of the syntactic pattern (function) in the converted word is no less important. Following from this fact we will consider conversion to be a combined morphological and syntactical way of word-building [37, 102p].

Despite the fact that almost all of the verbs coined by conversion are polysemantic, their meanings are normally closely correlated with the meanings of their source words. The lexical meaning of the converted verb commonly points out the instrument (to finger, to eye, to elbow, to stone, to machine-gun), the agent (to crowd, to herb, also metaphorical verbs: to ape - to imitate in a foolish way, to wolf - to eat quickly and greedily), the place (to bag, to garage, to bottle), the cause, the result (to clean, to blind), and the time of action (to time, to dawn).

The flexibility of the English vocabulary allows the converted verbs to participate in further word-building processes, e.g. affixation: to view - a viewer, viewable, viewing; composition: attr. phrases black list, stone wall - to blacklist, to stonewall.

There are a great number of verbal phrases in Modern English that are regarded as cases of partial conversion. They are the combinations of verbs to give, to make, to have, to get, to take, and a few others and nouns that have been converted from verbs. E.g. to have a wash, a chat, a swim; to take a look, a walk, a ride; to give a go, a start, a trey, a jerk; to make a move, a dive. Many prepositional phrases can also be referred to this group: to be in the know, in the long run, out of reach.

The question that still remains disputable in Lexicology is whether substantivation is a variation of conversion or not. Some linguists (E. Kruisinga) believe conversion to take place whenever a word receives a syntactical function which is not its basic one. Other linguists, however, argue with this statement insisting that substantivation is an individual way of word-building because in it words acquire a new syntactical function and changes in meaning as a result of a gradual process of isolation (unlike the spontaneous change that happens in conversion).

2.5 Plurals and possessives of compound words

In English, words, particularly adjectives and nouns, are combined into compound structures in a variety of ways. And once they are formed, they sometimes metamorphose over time. A common pattern is that two words -- fire fly, say -- will be joined by a hyphen for a time -- fire-fly -- and then be joined into one word -- firefly. In this respect, a language like German, in which words are happily and immediately linked one to the other, might seem to have an advantage. There is only one sure way to know how to spell compounds in English: use an authoritative dictionary. How a word modified by an adjective -- "a little school," "the yellow butter" -- is different from a compound word -- " a high school," "the peanut butter" -- is a nice and philosophical question. It clearly has something to do with the degree to which the preceding word changes the essential character of the noun, the degree to which the modifier and the noun are inseparable. If you were diagramming a sentence with a compound word, you would probably keep the words together, on the same horizontal line [41, 78p].

Modifying compounds are often hyphenated to avoid confusion. The New York Public Library's Writer's Guide points out that an old-furniture salesman clearly deals in old furniture, but an old furniture salesman would be an old man. We probably would not have the same ambiguity, however, about a used car dealer. When compounded modifiers precede a noun, they are often hyphenated: part-time teacher, fifty-yard-wide field, fire-resistant curtains, high-speed chase. When those same modifying words come after the noun, however, they are not hyphenated: a field fifty yards wide, curtains that are fire resistant, etc. The second-rate opera company gave a performance that was first rate.

Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are hyphenated when compounded with other modifiers: the highest-priced car, the shorter-term loan. But this is not always the case: the most talented youngster. Adverbs, words ending in -ly, are not hyphenated when compounded with other modifiers: a highly rated bank, a partially refunded ticket, publicly held securities.

Sometimes hyphenated modifiers lose their hyphens when they become compound nouns: A clear decision-making process was evident in their decision making. The bluish grey was slowly disappearing from the bluish-grey sky. This is not always so, however: your high-rise apartment building is also known as a high-rise.

When modifying a person with his or her age, the compounded phrase is hyphenated: my six-year-old son. However, when the age comes after the person, we don't use a hyphen. My son is six years old. He is, however, a six-year-old.

Most dictionaries will give variant spellings of compound plurals. When you have more than one truck filled with sand, do you have several truckfuls or trucksful? The dictionary will give you both, with the first spelling usually preferred. (And the same is true of teaspoonfuls, cupfuls, etc.) The dictionary will help you discover that only one spelling is acceptable for some compounds -- like passersby.

For hyphenated forms, the pluralizing -s is usually attached to the element that is actually being pluralized: daughters-in-law, half-moons, mayors-elect. The Chicago Manual of Style says that "hyphenated and open compounds are regularly made plural by the addition of the plural inflection to the element that is subject to the change in number" and gives as examples "fathers-in-law," "sergeants-in-arms," "doctors of philosophy," "and courts-martial" (196). The NYPL Writer's Guide puts it this way: "the most significant word -- generally the noun -- takes the plural form. The significant word may be at the beginning, middle, or end of the term" (396). And then we get examples such as "attorneys at law," "bills of fare," chiefs of staff," notaries public," assistant attorneys general," "higher-ups," "also-rans," and "go-betweens" [32,133p].

Note: some dictionaries will list "attorney generals" along with "attorneys general" as acceptable plurals of that office. Whether that's a matter of caving in to popular usage or an inability to determine the "significant word" is unknown.

As a general rule, then, the plural form of an element in a hierarchical term belongs to the base element in the term, regardless of the base element's placement:

first sergeants, sergeants major, sergeants first class, colonel generals [Russian], lieutenant generals, lieutenant colonels, apprentice, journeyman, and master, mechanics deputy librarians, deputy assistant secretaries of state

The possessive of a hyphenated compound is created by attaching an apostrophe -s to the end of the compound itself: my daughter-in-law's car, a friend of mine's car. To create the possessive of pluralized and compounded forms, a writer is wise to avoid the apostrophe -s form and use an "of" phrase (the "post genitive") instead: the meeting of the daughters-in-law, the schedule of half-moons. Otherwise, the possessive form becomes downright weird: the daughters-in-law's meeting, friends of mine's cars.

One of the most difficult decisions to make about possessives and plurals of compound words occurs when you can't decide whether the first noun in a compound structure is acting as a noun that ought to be showing possession or as what is called an attributive noun, essentially an adjective. In other words, do we write that I am going to a writers conference or to a writers' conference? The Chicago Style Manual suggests that if singular nouns can act as attributive nouns -- city government, tax relief -- then plural nouns should be able to act as attributive nouns: consumers group, teachers union. This principle is not universally endorsed, however, and writers must remember to be consistent within a document.

This section does not speak to the matter of compounded nouns such as "Professor Villa's and Professor Darling's classes have been filled." See the section on Possessives for additional help[34,103p].

Word-composition (compounding)

Compounding or word-composition is one of the productive means of word-formation in Modern English. Compounds are words that are made up of two immediate constituents which are both derivative bases.

Derivative bases in compounds can have different degrees of complexity:

1. both bases are simple (weekend, girlfriend).

2. one base is simple, the other is derivative (a shoemaker).

3. one base is compound and the other is either simple or derivative (fancy-dress - fancydress-ball, маскарад; fancydress-maker).

Classification of compounds.

1) According to the type of word-formation:

a. compounds proper - are words made up of two derivative bases (red-current, girlfriend)

b. derivational compounds - are words formed by affixation or conversion from a compound derivational base (blue-eyed, a breakdown)

c. pseudo-compounds - The constituent members of compound words of this subgroup are in most cases unique, carry very vague or no lexical meaning of their own, are not found as stems of independently

functioning words. They are motivated mainly through the rhythmic doubling of fanciful sound-clusters. (loudmouth).

2) Semantic

a. subordinate (подчинительные) - words where one of the derivative bases is the grammatical and semantical center of the word, as a rule - the 2 one - a head member. It expresses the general meaning of the word, and the first one specifies it (girlfriend)

b. coordinate (сочинительные) - words where both components are equally important:

- reduplicated - formed by repeating the base (fifty-fifty)

- rhyming (walkie-talkie, willy-nilly)

- additive - denote an object or a person that is two things at a time (Anglo-Saxon, an actor-manager)

Meaning in compounds.

The lexical meaning of compounds is determined by the lexical meanings of its bases and the structural meaning of its distributional pattern.

The distributional pattern shows the order and arrangement of the bases. Two compounds that have the same bases but different distributional patterns will have different meanings (a finger-ring, a ring-finger). As a rule a second base determines the part of speech meaning of the compound [43, 112p].

The lexical meaning of a compound doesn't coincide with the combined meanings of its bases. There is always some additional semantic element that reflects among objects and phenomena in the outer world. Semantic relations between the compounds can be described as certain types:

- spacial (пространственный) - a garden-party, a finger-ring, a nose-ring

- functional - a key-hole, a dollhouse / a babysitter, a bodyguard

- resemblance (сходство) - snow-white

- producing a similar effect or acting in a typical way - a rattle-snake (гремучая змея).

If the meaning of the compound and the semantic relations between the bases are clear then the compound is motivated (red-current - красная смородина).

If the meaning of the compound and the semantic relations between the bases are not clear then the compound is non-motivated (redneck - рабочий) [29, 66p].

Criteria of distinguishing between compounds and free-word combinations.

Compounds are inseparable lexical units that are presented in dictionaries in special entries and sub-entries. Compounds are reproduced and used in speech as lexical units, they are not formed in speech like free-word combinations. They are only pronounced as lexical units (a red rose, a redskin).

Inseparability of compounds has graphical (one word or a hyphen), phonetic (stress), morphological (only 2 base shows grammatical category) and semantic (grammatical formes differ from the forms of the motivating words (richer - more oil-richer) criteria. Compound words in English can be formed not only by means of composition but also by means of : a) reduplication, e.g. too-too, and also by means of reduplicatin combined with sound interchange , e.g. rope-ripe, b) conversion from word-groups, e.g. to micky-mouse, can-do, makeup etc, c) back formation from compound nouns or word-groups, e.g. to bloodtransfuse, to fingerprint etc , d) analogy, e.g. lie-in ( on the analogy with sit-in) and also phone-in, brawn-drain (on the analogy with brain-drain) etc. [45, 98p].

Classifications of English compounds

1. According to the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into:

a) nouns, such as : baby-moon, globe-trotter,

b) adjectives, such as : free-for-all, power-happy,

c) verbs, such as : to honey-moon, to baby-sit, to henpeck,

d) adverbs, such as: downdeep, headfirst,

e) prepositions, such as: into, within,

f) numerals, such as : fifty-five.

2. According to the way components are joined together compounds are divided into: a) neutral, which are formed by joining together two stems without any joining morpheme, e.g. ball-point, to windowshop, b) morphological where components are joined by a linking element : vowels "o" or "i" or the consonant "s", e.g. {"astrospace", "handicraft", "sportsman"), c) syntactical where the components are joined by means of form-word stems, e.g. here-and-now, free-for-all., do-or-die .

3. According to their structure compounds are subdivided into: a) compound words proper which consist of two stems, e.g. to job-hunt, train-sick, go-go, tip-top , b) derivational compounds, where besidesthe stems we have affixes, e.g. ear-minded, hydro-skimmer, c) compound words consisting of three or more stems, e.g. cornflower-blue, eggshell-thin, singer-songwriter, d) compound-shortened words, e.g. boatel, tourmobile, VJ-day, motocross, intervision, Eurodollar, Camford. 4. According to the relations between the components compound words are subdivided into :

a) subordinative compounds where one of the components is the semantic and the structural centre and the second component is subordinate; these subordinative relations can be different: with comparative relations, e.g. honey-sweet, eggshell-thin, with limiting relations, e.g. breast-high, knee-deep, with emphatic relations, e.g. dog-cheap, with objective relations, e.g. gold-rich, with cause relations, e.g. love-sick, with space relations, e.g. top-heavy, with time relations, e.g. spring-fresh, with subjective relations, e.g. foot-sore etc

b) coordinative compounds where both components are semantically independent. Here belong such compounds when one person (object) has two functions, e.g. secretary-stenographer, woman-doctor, Oxbridge etc. Such compounds are called additive. This group includes also compounds formed by means of reduplication, e.g. fifty-fifty, no-no, and also compounds formed with the help of rhythmic stems (reduplication combined with sound interchange) e.g. criss-cross, walkie-talkie. 5. According to the order of the components compounds are divided into compounds with direct order, e.g. kill-joy, and compounds with indirect order, e.g. nuclear-free, rope-ripe .

Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are hyphenated when compounded with other modifiers: the highest-priced car, the shorter-term loan. But this is not always the case: the most talented youngster. Adverbs, words ending in -ly, are not hyphenated when compounded with other modifiers: a highly rated bank, a partially refunded ticket, publicly held securities [ 46, 104p].

Sometimes hyphenated modifiers lose their hyphens when they become compound nouns: A clear decision-making process was evident in their decision making. The bluish grey was slowly disappearing from the bluish-grey sky. This is not always so, however: your high-rise apartment building is also known as a

high-rise. Compound words like wind-driven, sky-blue, foot-step, foot-pump, door-handle, and bottle-opener may serve as examples of completely transparent or motivated compound words. Motivation in compound words may be partial, but again the degree will vary. Compound words like hand-bag, flowerbed, handcuff are all only partially motivated, but still the degree of transparency of their meanings is different: hand-bag, e.g., is essentially 'a bag designed to be carried in the hand', whereas handcuffs retain only a resemblance to cuffs and in fact are 'metal rings placed round the wrists of 3 prisoner'; a f lower-bed is not 'a mattress or piece of furniture' as the lexical meaning of the second component suggests; but 'a piece1 of ground where flowers grow'.

Many scholars have claimed that acompound is determined by the underlying concept, others have advocated stress,and some even seek the solution of the problem in spelling. H. Koziol holds thatthe criterion of a compound is a psychological unity of combination, adding thatthere “seems to be” a difference of intonation between a compound and a syntacticgroup which it is, however, difficult to describe. Stress also has been advocated as a criterion. “Wherever we hear lesser or least stress upon a word which would always show high stress in a phrase, wedescribe it as a compound member ice - cream is a compound, but ice cream is a phrase, although there is no denotative difference of meaning. For a combination to be a compound there is one condition to be fulfilled:the compound must be morphologically isolated from a parallel syntactic group.Blackbird has the morpho - phonemic stress pattern of a compound, black marketmoney by a post - office.

III. Methods of forming compound words

Compound word - a word consisting of two or more bases ( an earthquake, a breakwater, a steelworker, foreign-made, red-haired, air-sick, to daydream). Compound words should be distinguished from phrases that are also complex structures. Components of the phrases are the words, the components of compound words - base (morpheme). In the Russian language thanks to external differences basics and words in most cases, you can make a clear distinction between the difficult words and phrases. For example, the basics of water -, ground - and wave - apparently different from the word "water", "earth", "wave", and therefore, it is clear that the complex formation ("diver", "digger", "breakwater") are compound words, not phrases. For example, the word foreign, red, black looks no different from the basics of foreign-, red-, black- words in complex foreign-made, red-haired, to blacklist [47, 89p].

Compound words in modern English:

1) compression 2) stem-compousing

Compression is the formation of complex words or phrases on the basis of proposals by reducing the level of the components of the original phrase or sentence.

By the compression result:

a) syntactic displacement phrases or sentences (without changing or with changing of their component composition);

b) violation of the same order as a result of the connection to phrases or sentences word-formation and (or) form changing of the affixes.

a) syntactic displacement - a violation of the order of the rules and communication of words in a sentence. Syntactic displacement leads to the destruction of the syntactic relations between the components of the phrase, the violation of syntactic relations between the sentence and loss of components of phrases and sentences syntactic independence.

As a result of syntactic displacement compression exposed:

1. Subordinate phrases in the function of subject and object: the phrase types to take off (a take off, a drawback, a round up, a comeback, a send off, a tie up, a runaway, a showdown, a black out, a hold back); to hold all (a hold all, a know all, a cure all, a do nothing, a spend all); to stick in the mud (a stick-in-the-mud; a stay-at-home).

2. Subordinate phrases in the function of the predicate: the phrase types a flight test (to flight-test, to road test, to headline, to handcuff, to sidetrack, to safety check); a black list (to blacklist, to sweet-talk, to cold storage, to blackball, to whitewash, to blackwash).

3. Ssubordinate phrases in prepositional function: types of phrase end of term (end of term examinations, English by radio lessons, a work-to-rule method, a dog in the manger attitude); heart-to-heart (a heart-to-heart talk, a person-to-person call, an air-to-air missile; on a day-to-day basis); off the record (an off the record speech, an after dinner cigar, off the road tires, an on the spot investigation); to knock out (a knock out game, a breakaway country, a calendar with tear off leaves, a drive in movie); easy to follow (easy-to-follow instructions, easy-to-assemble houses, ready-to-serve food).

1. coordinative function predicate phrases: phrases like a hook and eye (to hook and eye).

2. coordinative functions prepositional phrases in the definition: phrases like hole and corner (a hole and corner conspiracy, a cat and dog life, a life and death struggle).

Compound words may also be formed on the basis of compression of other types of phrases. For example: smb know how (from the phrase to know how), a go between (from the phrase to go between), and others [39, 132p].

Syntactic displacement can lead to compression of whole sentences: a money-or-your-life demand; an I-thought-it-would-be-so shake of the head; a great double-your-money competition; a pay-as-you-go bar; a save-as-you-earn system; a what-do-I-do-next look; a help wanted column (in the newspaper).

If subjected to compression of the phrase (or offer) is used as a function of morphologically variable parts of speech, syntactic displacement is accompanied by a violation of the same order-level.

Compound words are formed by compression of phrases and sentences as a result of syntactic displacement without changing the component composition, can be called for brevity compressive.

Compressive - a characteristic feature of modern English. Externally compressive like phrases, they can be issued in writing as multiple graphics units, but from a formal point of view compressive are words. The existence of homonymous phrases and sentences makes compressive semantically duality: they are seen not in isolation but against the background of the original phrases and sentences.

Functioning compressive limited. Most of them are individual entities and copyrights used to give a speech and imagery of novelty. For Example: She spoke little, treating us to a far-away wrapped-up-in-higher-things mood. She looked at him in the 'What-a-brave-hero-you-are' manner (A. Christie). [16, 58]

Life not always comes up trumps and gives one a happily-ever-after ending (J. Jones) [6,124].

Leading to compression of syntactic displacement may be accompanied by a change in the component composition of the original phrase. (If the compression of the proposed change of the component composition does not usually occur.

This change is clipping derivational suffix, which is part of the second component. Modifying the structure observed in the formation of complex verbs of substantive phrases.

b) compression can also cause a violation of the same order-level, ie, joining the phrases or sentences units lower level - morpheme. Join the phrases or sentences can both derivational and inflectional affixes.

Derivational affixes, causing compression, are in most cases suffixes. When compression occurring as a result of violations of the same order-level, formed mostly adjectives and nouns. In its structure, they are slozhnoproizvodnymi words.

In contrast to complex words formed as a result of compression of syntactic displacement, words formed as a result of violations of the same order-level, homonymous original phrases or sentences are not linear throughout the length and partly (or suffix to the prefix). The use of complex words formed by adjoining derivational affixes, often stylistically limited. However, many words are formed in such a manner as stylistically neutral. In particular, there are stylistic limitations and are widely used in speech as equivalents of free phrases of compound adjectives such as dark-haired, rubber-soled, one-sided.

Joining the phrases or sentences form changing suffix include them in the paradigm of the relevant part of the speech as a whole:

1. complex noun gets a plural suffix (stay-at homes, hand-me-downs, has been, have not),

2. verb - tense forms and shapes the person and number (The car was roadtested. The paper frontpages the news. You are sidetracking me.).

Violation of the same order-level caused by the addition form changing suffix is ??an optional feature of the formal compound word in the case of syntactic displacement (stay-at-homes, stick-in-the-muds, take-offs, drive-ins), and the only formal indication of the word if the syntactic displacement does not occur (whisky and sodas, gin and tonics) [48, 216p].

Stem- foundation the formation of compound words compound or structure and the words (in the latter case acquiring rank and morpheme is also considered as a basis). Species are stem-addition based on complete and truncated, same and different. Adding full image-based compound words, adding sophisticated image-based truncated abbreviations (compound truncated word). Adding the total bases in modern English form primarily adjectives, and the second component in most cases, is the basis of an adjective or participle. The main types of compound adjectives formed stem:

world-famous (week-long, air-sick, knee-deep, stone-cold),N + Adj. radio-transmitted (tailor-made, worm-eaten, nuclear-powered, Oxford-educated), N + V

three-page (a three page letter, a five man mission, a three course dinner, a five seat plane), Num. + N (если второй компонент был бы не основой, а словом, он имел бы форму множественного числа, семантически необходимую в данном случае

electro-magnetic (Afro-Asian, politico-military, Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Catholic, socio-economic), N + N (основы могут быть связаны соединительными гласными или согласными).

Words derived stem-do not have the homonymous phrases and sentences. The potential for the existence of such phrases is excluded, as the joint use of components in the proposal would be contrary to normal syntactic or would violate tiered same order.

Some types of words derived stem-may superficially resemble words formed compression. This applies to words such as radio-transmitted and dark-haired. Compound adjectives such as dark-haired indicate ownership, affiliation (dark-haired = having dark hair; low-ceilinged = with a low ceiling). The first component of the complex root adjectives such as radio-transmitted represents a tool or figure (radio-transmitted = transmitted by radio; helicopter-rescued = rescued by a helicopter), а также место действия (Oxford-educated = educated at Oxford). The second component of compound adjectives is derived from the name, the second component of the complex root adjectives - the verb.

Phrases containing compound adjectives such as radio-transmitted, should be distinguished from the proposals with the predicate expressed by regular verbs in the past tense (the same form as the participle II). This kind of phrases and sentences at first glance may seem to be identical.

Compare: the flood affected coastal areas - the coastal areas affected by floods (phrase) and The flood affected the coastal areas - the flood-affected coastal areas (proposal); the helicopter rescued tourists - tourists who were rescued by helicopter (phrase) and The helicopter rescued the tourists - helicopter rescued tourists (proposal). Differentiating feature can serve the article: If the phrase article can not follow the verbal component. Homonymy roots (lexical homonyms) and homonymy of derivational affixes and form changing not always possible to establish a method of forming a compound word. For example, if there are language homonymous verb and a noun, a method of forming some compound adjectives with the suffix -ed can be viewed as compression (resulting in the formation compound word), and stem-like (leading to the formation of a complex root of the word). Thus, the hand-controlled adjective can be considered as compound word adjective similar dark-haired (hand + controls + -ed = having hand controls), a method for its formation as compression, and as a complex root word similar adjective radio-transmitted (hand + controlled = controlled by hand), a method for its formation as compression, and as a complex root word similar adjective radio-transmitted and the method of its formation as a stem-. Similar examples: tree-bordered (avenue), blood-stained (hands), knife-scarred (oil cloth), glass-topped (table). In all these cases, the basis of the second component can be perceived and how, and how the verb [50, 321p].

When compression is sometimes impossible to ascertain whether the initial structure of the phrase or sentence. For example, with the same reason it is possible to assume that complex words such as drive in (drive-in, movie- theatre) are formed by a combination of compression infinitive (to drive in) and compression imperative proposals .

I Two nouns used together as a name form a compound noun unless:

(a) The first is used in a descriptive or attributive sense, that is, is really an adjective, or

(b) The two are in apposition.

Various uses of the noun as an adjective, that is, in some qualifying or attributive sense are when the noun conveys the sense of:

1. “Made of;” leather belt, steel furniture.

2. “Having the shape, character, or quality of;” diamond pane, iron ration, bull calf.

3. “Pertaining to, suitable for, representing;” office desk, labor union.

4. “Characterized by;” motor drive.

5. “Situated in, and the like;” ocean current, city life.

6. “Supporting or advocating;” union man, Bryan voter.

7. “Existing in or coming from;” Yellowstone geyser, California lemon.

8. “Originated or made by, named for;” Gordon Press, Harvard College.

Placing the two nouns in apposition is much the same as using the first as an adjective.

Such compounds are generally written as two words without the hyphen, but see specific rules for use of hyphens.

II Every name apparently composed of a plain noun and a noun of agent or verbal noun, but really conveying[Pg 7] the sense of a phrase with suffix er, or, or ing, should be treated as a compound; roller distribution.

III Possessive phrases used as specific names (generally plants) are treated as compounds.

They are hyphenated unless very common, in which case they are closed up; crane's-bill, rats bane.

IV Any phrase used as a specific name in an arbitrary application not strictly figurative is written as a compound; blueberry, red-coat, forget-me-not.

V Any pair of words used as one name of which the second is a noun but the first not really an adjective should be written as a compound; foster-brother, down-town, after-consideration.

As elsewhere the use of the hyphen depends largely in the familiarity of the phrase; spoilsport, pickpocket.

VI Any two words other than nouns should be treated as a compound, generally solid, when arbitrarily associated as a name; standpoint, outlook.

VII A name or an adjective made by adding a suffix to a proper name compounded of two words should be treated as a compound with a hyphen; East-Indian, New-Yorker. If the name is not inflected this rule does not apply; East India Company, New York man.

VIII Any pair or series of words arbitrarily associated in a joint sense different from their sense when used separately, should be compounded; workman-like, warlike.

Compounds having the force of nouns may be made up in several ways [52, 94p].

1. Two nouns used in other than their natural signification; claw-hammer.

2. A noun and an adjective used in other than their natural signification; great-uncle, dry-goods.

3. A noun and an adverb; touch-down, holder-forth.

4. A noun and an adverb; down-draft, flare-back.

5. A noun and a verb; know-nothing, draw-bar.

6. A noun and a preposition; between-decks.

7. Two adjectives; high-low, wide-awake.

8. Two verbs; make-believe.

9. A verb and an adverb; cut-off, break-up.

10. A verb and a preposition; to-do, go-between.

Compounds having the force of adjectives may be made up in several ways.

1. A group of words compacted into one idea; never-to-be-forgotten.

2. Two adjectives; white-hot, ashy-blue.

3. An adjective and a participle or noun and suffix simulating a participle; odd-looking, foreign-born, bow-legged.

4. An adjective and a noun; fire-new, type-high.

5. A noun and a participle (or noun and suffix simulating a participle); hand-printed, peace-making.

6. An adverb and an adjective used together before a noun; well-bred, long-extended.

7. Two nouns used adjectively before another noun; cotton-seed oil, shoe-sewing machine, Sunday-school teacher.

8. An adjective and a noun used together before a noun; civil-service examination, free-trade literature, fresh-water sailor.

9. A verb and a noun; John Lack-land.

Four compounds occur with the force of verbs.

1. Two verbs; balance-reef.

2. A verb and a noun; silver-plate, house-break.

3. A verb and an adjective; cold-press, fine-still.

4. A verb and an adverb; cross-examine.

Several combinations are used with the force of adverbs.

1. Two adverbs; upright, henceforth.

2. A noun and an adverb; brain-sickly.

[Pg 9]3. An adjective and an adverb (or compound adjective with suffix, simulating an adverb); stout-heartedly, ill-naturedly.

4. An adjective and a verb; broadcast.

5. Two nouns; piecemeal, half-mast.

6. A noun and an adjective; cost-free, pointblank.

7. A noun and a preposition; down-stairs, above-board, offhand.

3.1 Structural Meaning of the Pattern

The lexical meanings of the components alone, important as they are, do not make the meaning of the compound word. The meaning of the compound is derived not only from the combined lexical meanings of its components, but also from the meaning signaled by the pattern of the order and arrangement of the stems.

A mere change in the order of stems with the same lexical meanings brings about a radical change in the lexical meaning of the compound word. For illustration let us compare lifeboat-- 'a boat of special construction for saving lives front wrecks or along the coast' with boat-fife--'life on board the ship', a fruit-market -- 'market where fruit is sold' with market-fruit--'fruit designed for selling', etc. Thus the structural pattern or the distributional formula in compound words carries a certain meaning which is independent of the actual lexical meanings of their components. In other words the lexical meaning of a compound is derived from the combined lexical meanings of its components and the structural meaning of the distributional formula.

The structural meaning of the distributional formulas of compounds may be abstracted and described through the interrelation of their components. In analyzing compound adjectives, e.g. duty-bound, wind-driven, tear-stained, we observe that the distributional formula they are built after, i.e. n+ved, conveys the generalized meaning of instrumental or agentive relations between the components which can be interpreted as 'done by' or 'with the help of something'; the denotational meanings of the stems supply the action itself and the actual doer of the action or objects with the help of which the action is done. Thus, duty-bound may be interpreted as 'bound by duty', wind-driven as 'driven by wind', smoke-filled as 'filled with smoke'. In this case the distributional formula is monosemantic, hence compound adjectives of this type would also be monosemantic and their lexical meanings would be derived from the structural meaning of the distributional formula and the combined meanings of the stems [25,26p].

The distributional formula in compounds, however, is not always monosemantic; if we take compound adjectives like, e.g., age-long, world-wide, oil-rich, pleasure-tired, etc. built after n+a formula, we shall see that the generalized meaning of the structure itself may be interpreted in two ways: (a) through relations of comparison between the components as in world-wide--'wide as the world', snow-white, knee-high, etc. and (b) through various relations of adverbial type as in oil-rich that can be interpreted as 'rich in oil', pleasure-tired--'tired of pleasure', colour-blind--'blind to colors', etc. Compound nouns, consisting of two simple noun-stems (n+n) are most polysemantic in structure. The polisemy of the structure often leads to a certain freedom of interpretation of the semantic relations between the components. For example, it is equally correct to interpret the compound noun toy-man as 'a toy in the shape of a man' or 'a man who makes toys, a toy-maker'. The compound noun clock-tower may likewise be understood as 'a tower with a clock fitted in' or 'a tower that serves as a clock'. Other examples to illustrate the polisemy of the distributional formula and the variety of semantic relations that can be read into the same structure1 are pontoon-bridge which may be interpreted as 'a bridge supported by pontoons, a bridge made of pontoons, pontoons in the form of a bridge, bridge for pontoons'. Witch doctor may mean 'a doctor who is a witch', 'a person whose business it is to detect or smell out witches, a doctor who witches'. The illustrations may be easily multiplied, but the given examples are sufficient proof that the polisemy of compound words is the result of the polisemy of the structure and not the polysemantic character of individual components.

3.2 The Criteria of Compounds

What is the criterion of a compound? Many scholars have claimed that a compound is determined by the underlying concept, others have advocated stress, and some even seek the solution of the problem in spelling. H. Koziol holds that the criterion of a compound is a psychological unity of combination, adding that there “seems to be” a difference of intonation between a compound and a syntactic group which it is, however, difficult to describe.

Stress also has been advocated as a criterion. “Wherever we hear lesser or least stress upon a word which would always show high stress in a phrase, we describe it as a compound member ice - cream `ajs - krijm is a compound, but ice cream is a phrase, although there is no denotative difference of meaning. In German “hellgrun” is a compound which means “light - green”, but “hell grun” is a phrase with the meaning “light green”[27,66p].

For a combination to be a compound there is one condition to be fulfilled: the compound must be morphologically isolated from a parallel syntactic group. Blackbird has the morpho - phonemic stress pattern of a compound, black market money by a post - office. These two stress patterns are the commonest among compound words and in many cases they acquire a contrasting force distinguishing compound words from word groups, especially when the arrangement and order of stems parallel the word - order and the distributional formula of the phrase, thus a `green - house' - "a glass - house for cultivating tender plants" is contrasted to a 'green 'house - "a house that is painted green", 'dancing - girl - "a dancer" to 'dancing 'girl - "a girl who is dancing", 'missing - lists - "lists of men and officers who are missing after a battle" to 'missing 'lists - "lists that are missing", 'mad - doctor - "a psychiatrist" to 'mad 'doctor - "a doctor who is mad".

It is not in frequent, however, for both components to have level stress as in, e.g. 'arm - 'chair, 'icy - 'cold, 'grass - 'green.

All substantial compounds show this pattern, with the exception of those first element is the pronouns all or self. such compounds have double stress (e.g. 'all 'soul, 'all - 'creator, 'self - 'respect, 'self - 'seeker) of adjectival compounds only two types have the stable stress pattern heave stress / middle stress: the type color - blind and heart - breaking.

All other adjectival types are basically double - stressed

Differentiation of complex words and phrases. presents certain difficulties due to the fact that language units as a compound of two or more words that also function as a whole, are easily distinguished in sentences as separate lexical unit and are not meaningfully simple sum of its components, e.g. : to pull somebody's leg is not to pull someone's leg, and fooling, at sixes and sevens, then not at sixes and sevens, and in disarray; a pretty kettle of fish - not a pretty with fish and fix [54, 116p].

The problem of separating a compound word from sustainable, idiomatic, and sometimes even free combinations of words not yet received their common final decision. In some cases, such conduct is not border; weak development of inflection also greatly complicates the matter. Opinions foreign Anglicist on criterion of difficult words and phrases diverge. Some (R. Morris) was isolated as a criterion of a compound word graphic non- separability and unity of stress; other (Bergsten) - integrity semantics, others (J. Rapp K) only graphical non- separability, the fourth (Sweet, Cray-Zinga) consider it necessary to have any sense or formal isolation. Detailed consideration of the proposed criteria: writing, stress, sense of isolation and formal shows that none of them can be considered that all speech there are many intermediate elements between words and phrases.

Graphic criterion.

Spelling difficult words in modern English is not stable. The same word by different authors and in different dictionaries are spelled differently. For example: - loud speaker- громкоговоритель , loud-speaker, loudspeaker; stage coach, stage-coach- почтовая карета, air-line, airline, air line - авиалиния . There is no stability in writing similar words. For example: textbook - a textbook written in one word, story-book - a book of short stories - written with a hyphen, a reference book guide - written separately. Meanwhile, the components of these words are in the same correlation. Semantic relationship in all three cases is similar, and yet the spelling of their non- separability is quite different.

Phonetic criterion

For many complex words can serve as a criterion of unity unity stress. Compare, слова 'blackboard - классная доска; 'blackbird - дрозд; 'strong-box - сейф и словосочетания 'black'board - черная доска; 'black'bird - черная птица; 'strong'box - прочный ящик.

Most compound nouns is stressed only on the first element, for example: : 'copy-book, 'football, 'holiday, 'ink-pot, 'rain-coat, 'tea-cup, 'time-table, 'trolleybus.

However, the placement of accents in compound words related to the possibility for the elements of a compound word combined with other words and contrasted them. So in the case of: 'dining table -' writing table, 'inkpot -'teapot,' class-room - 'bathroom opposed to the first element and therefore the emphasis should fall on them. Word of mankind can have two options accent. If combining the stress falls on the first syllable, the word means - men and is the antonym to the word womankind. If the emphasis is placed on the second element, man'kind means человечество

May be also occasions when both components compound words retain their accent: 'gas-'stove,' half-'pay, Complex and compound adjectives usually have two stresses of equal strength, eg: 'good-'looking,' home- 'made,' kind-'hearted, 'short-'sighted,' world-'wide, 'red -'hot.

Sometimes the stress is used to delimit the values within a compound word: 'overwork - overtime or extra work; 'over'work - fatigue; 'bookcase - bookcase; 'book'case - jacket

Thus stress and can not serve as the sole criterion.

Semantic criteria.

Semantic criterion helps to separate the complex from the free word combinations, but it does not distinguish between a stable or phrase logical combinations. Semantic cohesion or idiomaticity is that the value of a compound word is often derived from the sum of its components, such as: toothpick - not hoe to the teeth, and a toothpick; schoolroom - not a room in the school and study room, not only in school, but also in a private home.

Revealing the presence of a portable plan - many compound words constructed by the type of metaphors. E. Contain a hidden comparison, for example: arms race - гонка вооружений; housewarming - новоселье; snowdrop - подснежник; school miss - застеничвый человек; war cry - лозунг.

Structural criterion

In some cases, the exponential in the delimitation of a compound word from the phrase may be the structural integrity of the word. Elements of a compound word, especially if it is different idiomatic can not be interchanged or connected in some other way and keep the same meaning. For free, and sometimes sustained phrases is quite possible. For example: free combination of a black dress allows such options: This is a black dress and This dress is black. In the first case, the link attribute in the second - predicative, but these proposals are synonymous [56, 90p].

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