Translation of stylistic devices

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The Republic of Kazakhstan Ministry of Education and Science

Suleyman Demirel University

COURSE PAPER

Topic: “Translation of stylistic devices”

Specialty: B5020700 - “Translation Studies”

Done by: S. Sultanov

Advisor L.Y. Chernikova

Senior Instructor

Accepted to the Defense

___________The Head

Of Translation Studies

Department

Mirzoyeva L.Y.

Kaskelen-2013



CONTENT

Introduction

1. TRANSLATION OF METAPHORS AND SIMILES

2. TRANSLATION OF EPITHETS

3. TRANSLATION OF PERIPHRASE

4. TRANSLATION OF PUNS

5. TRANSLATION OF ALLUSIONS

6. TRANSLATION OF THE QUOTATIONS

Conclusion



Introduction

translation metaphor epithet allusion

One of the most interesting aspects of the theory of translation is the problem of transfer of stylistic devices in the Target Language (TL). This problem attracted the attention of scientists, linguists, but is not well developed. The importance of studying translation shaped due to the need of adequate transmission imaginative artwork information on TL, recreating the stylistic effect of the original in the translation. But first, we define what is a translation.

Translation - a complex multi-dimensional phenomenon, certain aspects of which may be the subject of study of different sciences. Within the psychological study of translation, literary, ethnographic and other aspects of translation, as well as the history of translation in a particular country or countries. Depending on the subject of research "can distinguish psychological translation studies (psychology translation), literary translation studies (theory of artistic or literary translation), ethnographic translation, historical Translation", etc. The leading role in the modern translation studies belong to linguistic theory of translation (linguistic translation), transfer student as a linguistic phenomenon. Certain types of translation are complementary, aiming for a comprehensive description of the translation work. A good translator uses methods of transmission of certain stylistic devices used in the original in order to make the text brighter and expressiveness. The translator has the following choices: either try to copy the original appointment, or, if not possible, to create a translation of his own stylistic means having the same emotional effect. This - the principle of stylistic compensation, which K.I.Chukovsky said he did not need to pass a metaphor metaphor, simile comparing, and a smile - a smile, a tear - a tear, etc. The translator need not so much form as function of stylistic device in the text. This means some discretion: grammatical means of expression may pass lexical and vice versa down transferable into Russian stylistic phenomenon interpreter returns "duty" text created in a different place in the text - where it is most convenient - a different way, but similar stylistic direction .If a person is not used to thinking about issues of translation, to know something of an interpreter if he does not have the experience to compare different translations or translation from the original, then it is usually naive attitude to this case, the translator and the translation shall be made of the brackets, this simply does not think. "I did not like the style of Updike: too much speed adverbial-participial" If something goes wrong, blame the author, because there is simply no one else: whose book we read something in the end? whose name is on the cover? On the other hand, when one understands the complexity and importance of the interpreter used to talk about it and compare, and he translated something, perhaps, that in a curious way, he tends to the other extreme: the author disappears. If the translation is something wrong, the fault is a translator, for aesthetic and stylistic aspects of the text corresponds exactly it. "Here, look, how awful, is in Russian so they say?" - And there is even the thought that perhaps do not say, and, in French, in English or in Chinese, and that can be , the author of this piece did intentionally awkward (or even - horror of horrors - unintentionally). There is no malicious intent, as it is not in the first version, where no notice of an interpreter. By simply dissolves somewhere in the background.A closely related and the pursuit of an interpreter (or, often, the translation editor) "improve" the original text, sometimes consciously, sometimes unconsciously. The author used three times in the same adjective, as it is not good to look in the translation, to be replaced by synonyms! If you try to understand, the change is sometimes justified. Maybe, in the original language in this area a number of synonymous poorer, and the same three adjectives in a row so do not look clumsy, but quite normal: the translation should paint. But it can, and vice versa - the author wanted to emphasize a word or intentionally stingy with the synonyms in this passage. Or maybe the original language is a repetition of words that are often found on the inevitable grammatical reasons (personal pronouns in English, for example), and the translation can and should do so without tedious repetition. Necessary to understand (and take some inevitably subjective judgment). But quite often it happens that the question of how it was in the original and can be perceived by readers as the original and how it could be intended by the author of the original just does not float, it remains dissolved there, in the background. It is necessary to make a good read in translation, unfortunately, in practice, it often means that it is necessary to make smooth. From here, including (but not only unwittingly borrows grammatical and syntactical cripples) appears dull-smooth "Translation language. "But maybe in a different way and it is impossible. Depending on what used to cling to the idea that "someone" is the author or translator, and only for the person who takes the book and compares it with the original, will be readily apparent inadmissibility of such an approach is an obvious need to consider carefully and author, and translator, and the original language, and language translation. But, in the end, the translation is not done to a man, and he can read the original.It follows that the transfer, all trying to convey the author's text features (to the best of his understanding, and to the extent possible, of course - and the limits of these can be oh what narrow) - not very successful. Translation does not exist, does not make sense outside of the community of readers that can read it, evaluate, use it - but the expectations of the community of readers, the requirements of this community to the style, phraseology, to the lexicon of translation - these demands will inevitably cause the interpreter again and again violate the author's intent.Translation of stylistic devices (SP) bearing shaped charge works, often causes difficulties for translators due to national peculiarities stylistic systems of different languages. All linguists emphasize the need to preserve the image of the original in the translation, rightly considering that, first of all a translator should strive to reproduce the function of receiving and not the reception.When transferring stylistic figures of speech - comparisons, epithets, metaphors, proverbs, etc. - Interpreter every time you need to decide: it is advisable to keep lying in their image-based or value to be replaced by nother. The reason for substitution may be features of Russian usage, combinations of words, etc.

Topicality

The transferring of stylistic units is one of the most important methods of translation. And it should pay special attention. The expression is most often found in literary texts. Translation, whether oral or written (including the translation of literary texts) - the process is quite complex and multifaceted. Translation - it's not just the replacement of one language by another. Translated encounter different cultures, personalities, levels of development, traditions and attitudes. And the main task of the translator - to remember about all the difficulties of translation, and try as closely as possible to express the author's thought, while not forgetting to pass through various special artistic techniques. In other words, their difficulties and "pitfalls" exists in written translation and oral. As already mentioned, the awareness of these difficulties - a step to success professional translator.

The structure of the Course paper consists of introduction, one chapters, conclusion and reference.



1. TRANSLATION OF METAPHORS AND SIMILES

Metaphor is a transference of some quality from one object to another. It is an implicit comparison of two unlike objects. The purpose of metaphor is to liven up the text, make it more colorful, dramatic and witty - that is, metaphor carries out an emotive function.

Metaphor is inherent in language. In this case it can go unnoticed in everyday conversation, like she attacked my views; an ailing economy; to have a load taken off one's mind. Language metaphors are stock metaphors. They are trite and typical for many users, and fixed by the dictionary, as mostly idioms. They are sometimes called dead metaphors.

Other metaphors are occasionally constructed in individual speech. They are neologistic and euphemeral unless they become language metaphors by being diffused through popular speech and, later, the media.

Metaphor is the main feature of imaginative writing. In his/her work, a translator must be fully aware of its sense and the emotive effect it produces through its image. Both sense and image should be preserved as much as possible.

A trite metaphor is one that is overused in speech, so that in has lost its freshness of expression. Such metaphors often turn into idiomatic phrases, fixed in dictionaries: seeds of evil; a rooted prejudice, a flight of imagination, in the heat of argument; to burn with desire, to fish for compliments.

Usually the metaphors (especially, cliches) are rather easy for translation: they are translated either by keeping to semantic similarity, e.g., ray of hope - луч надежды, or by choosing an appropriate pragmatic equivalent, e.g., flood of tears - море слёз.

Peter Newmark, an outstanding British theorist of translation, suggests the following procedures for translating metaphor, in order of preference:

Reproducing the same image in the target language. This procedure is employed if the image has comparable frequency and similar associations in the appropriate register. For example, ray of hope - луч надежды. But associations may differ from language to language, becoming tricky for translation. For an English-speaking person, the image of duck is associated with a darling: Look Jenny! What a little duck of a dog! (R. Hitchin) - Смотрите, Дженни, какая прелестная собачка! For a Russian receptor, the image of duck raises negative connotations: Ольга Федоровна чудовищно растолстела, была обжорлива, как утка, и нечистоплотна. (В. Вересаев) Выбежала из светлицы Настя, и, лениво переваливаясь с ноги на ногу, как утка, выплывала полусонная Параша. (П.Мельников-Печерский)

Replacing the image in the source language with a standard target language image. What you hear is not genuine. She makes clouds with one hand, rain with the other. She is trying to trick you, so you will do anything for her. (A. Tan) - Ее слова лживы. Левая рука не знает, что творит правая. Ей хочется поймать тебя в ловушку, чтобы ты делала для нее все, что ей угодно. This procedure is not infrequent in translating similes: ноги как ватные - legs like jelly. The tongue is a fire. - Язык как бритва. Sometimes the image substitution helps the translator to play upon the extended metaphor: She was inclined to think … that her brother was the apple of Mrs. Ashbury's eyes, and (that she thought) the apple was full of worm-holes. - Она была склонна думать, что миссис Эшбери … носится со своим сыном как с писаной торбой, и что торба эта гнилая.

Translating metaphor with a simile, retaining the image. Books are mirrors. - Книги как зеркало. Translating a metaphor (simile) by simile plus sense (i.e. plus explanation of the sense). This transformation is used if there is risk that a simple transfer of metaphor will not be understood by most readers.

Converting metaphor to sense, that is explicatory translation: I guess I keep hoping that if we stay right where we are, she'll come back, and we can turn the clock back. (D. Steel) - Мне кажется, я все еще надеюсь, что если мы останемся здсь, она вернется и все будет как прежде. This procedure is justified only in case of a dead metaphor. In other cases, the expressiveness of the metaphor should be compensated in a nearby part of the text.

Deletion, or reduction. This transformation is employed only if the metaphor is redundant. A deletion of metaphor can be justified only on the ground that the metaphor's function is being fulfilled elsewhere in the text.

Using the same metaphor combined with sense. Calque translation of metaphor supported by explanation is recommended only if the translator lacks confidence in the metaphor's power and clarity.

Simile is much less investigated than metaphor, although it occurs as frequently in discourse. This paper aims to provide an account ofsimiles in English, which serves as the starting point for an exploration of the problems they can pose when translated into Italian. First, it deals with the nature and functi on of similes, the criteria for their classification, and their interpretation. Then, it examines a range of similes illustrating the translation problems they can pose, and discusses the strategies to adopt for each problem stated. The data discussed are taken from English texts belonging to various textual genres, and their translations into Italian.

While metaphor has attracted interest and research in a number of different disciplines philosophy, linguistics, cognitive psychology, literary theory and criticism with an extraordinary amount of papers and books on the subject, simile is much less investigated. The same is true in Translations Studies, where the translation of metaphor has been treated in many studies while the translation of simile is, when referred to, simply mentioned in passing. Simile is a figure of speech used in general language as well as specialized language, in everyday conversation as well as literary, journalistic and promotional texts. Research on simile is carried out within rhetoric, literary, linguistics and psycholinguistics, often discussing simile along with metaphor.

Similes are easily recognisable by the presence of one of a variety of comparison markers. In English, the available markers include the following:

a) verbs: seem, look like,act like,sound like, resemble, remind;

b) adjectives: similar to,the same as;

c) nouns: a sort of, some kind of;

d) prepositions (in comparative phrases): like, as

e) conjunctions (in comparative clauses): as if/though, as when.

Such markers are not interchangeable: they impose different syntactic

requirements on the constituents being compared, and often have different meanings. For example, be like signals a clear similarity, while be a sort of a loose similarity; the verb seem can signal both an objective and subjective similarity, while remind signals a subjective one (i.e. `thinking of x as'). They alsooccur in different registers: similar toand resemble occur most typically in written, more formal discourse.

We can also observe compressed similes, realized invarious ways, such as:

f) N-like adjectives: native-like proficiency;

g) N-shaped adjectives: an L-shaped room;

h) N-style: Star Trek-style command seat;

i) N-typeadjectives:terrorist-type offences;

j) N + N: bow tie.

The compound adjectives are a way of compressing information into a two-word lexeme, where N functions as vehicle. They typically occur in attributive position, and are an alternative to a full relative clause, e.g. proficiency which is like that of a native. They are formed exploiting highly productive processes and, with the exception of some established words (e.g.child-like), are not listed in dictionaries, being created ad hoc according to the writer's communicative needs The N (vehicle) + N (topic) sequences are `covert' similes without any surface marker; for this reason, they are not easily recognisable. Some are lexicalized (e.g. bow tie), but many are novel (e.g. She wore her Marilyn Monroe wig), since the juxtaposition of nouns is an extremely productive device. Novel sequences can be interpreted as similes by inferring the semantic relation between the two nouns (i.e. `head resembles modifier') from the discursive context.

N + N sequences, as well as compound adjectives, tend to occur in written, rather formal genres, such as fiction, newspaper articles and academic prose. Gotti registers their presence in specialized discourse, e.g. drum-typein drum-type printer, and butterfly valve, which refer to the aspect or the category of an item. Though a simile is easily recognised, it is not always easily understood: in most cases, the reader has to discover the aspect(s) forthe claimed similarity 13, and this is the central problem in the interpretation of similes. First, the reader will look for the properties of the vehicle that either match properties of the topic, or that can be attributed to the topic. S/he will extract them from the lexical meaning of the vehicle, or activate world knowledge(what the reader knows about the two entities), while processing the discursive context. Then, the reader will transfer the identified properties (or features) from the vehicle to the topic; the vehicle preserves all its features, while the topic is `enriched'. Certain features belonging to the topic are highlighted, or novel features not belonging tothe topic are added.

It should be noted that TL comparison due to their semantic structure, almost always the result of tracing, and hence the absolute voice embodiments: "The lawn started at the beach and ran toward the front door for a quarter of a mile, jumping over sundials and brick walks and burning gardens - finally when it reached the house drifting up the side in bright vines as though from the momentum of its run “Зеленый газон начинался почти у самой воды, добрую четверть мили бежал к дому между клумб и дорожек, усыпанных кирпичной крошкой, и, наконец, перепрыгнув через солнечные часы, словно бы с разбегу взлетал по стене вьющимися виноградными лозами”.

Method of comparison is often difficult, because what is acceptable in one language can not be interpreted properly in another language. Translators are often faced with the transfer of comparison in the translation of idioms. For example, "as plain as the noise on your face" (literally, "plain as the nose on your face") is translated as "как дважды два." If the Russian-speaking person to translate as "plain as the nose on your face," because he does not understand where does the nose. And add that in Russian so do not say.



2. TRANSLATION OF EPITHETS

Today's imaginative literature is characterized by the great role of epithet as an ornamental element able to express the author's attitude to the character, idea and overall narration. To convey the author's intent, the translator must be very careful in selecting words with the same denotative and connotative meanings.

There are some specific problems of translating the epithet. One of them is enantiosemy, or using a word in its paradoxical meaning when the word is capable of carrying two opposite significations. Usually the enantisemic epithets reveal a negative attitude of the speaker. He is a fine fellow as ever I saw. He simpers and smirks and makes love to us all. I am prodigiously proud of him. I defy even Sir William Lucas himself to produce a more valuable son-in-law. (J. Austen) The words simpers and smirks show an ironic attitude of the speaker to the character. The epithets valuable and prodigiously proud are understood in the opposite sense. This irony must not escape from a target text reader.

Enantiosemy is characteristic of both English and Russian literature. For example, Откуда, умная, бредешь ты голова? - addressing an ass. In translation the paradoxical meaning can be shown with the help of particles, word order, etc.: My good fellow! - Любезный ты мой! A nice place to live away from. - Ну и местечко! A pretty story! - Хорошенькая же история!

Another problem is the transferred qualifier, or an epithet syntactically joined to a word to which it does not belong logically. He ran a tired hand through his hair. (D. Steel) - Устало он провел рукой по волосам. The word tired logically is linked with he, syntactically with hand. In translation the logic disagreement is normally corrected, since the structures of this type are not typical of modern Russian, though it is interesting to note that in the 19^th century they were used in Russian fiction: Здесь кажут франты записные

Свое нахальство, свой жилет

И невнимательный лорнет.

(А.Пушкин. Евгений Онегин)

In English transferred epithets are used not only in poetry and prose, but also in journalism and in everyday conversation.

Translation of the transferred epithet often requires word order change: a British breakfast of depressing kidney and fish - наводящий тоску завтрак из почек и рыбы; or extension: He raised a supercilious eyebrow. - Он поднял бровь, и лицо его приняло высокомерное выражение. Stock epithets are calqued: her sapphire glance - ее сапфирный взгляд; dumb love - немая любовью

Inverted epithet is a word syntactically functioning as a headword, but semantically serving as a modifier to a dependent noun: a darling of a girl, a bear of a man. This epithet is very expressive and should be rendered in Russian by an appropriate expressive means: прелестнейшая девчушка; не человек, а медведь.

Gradation of epithets, that is a sequence of synonymous epithets, is constructed on a different basis in English and in Russian. In English, gradation is based on rhythmical sequence; in Russian, this device is logic-centered: the word, most important logically, is positioned in the end of the sequence. This inevitably causes word order change in translation: Privacy is viewed as a requirement which all humans would find equally necessary, desirable, and satisfying. - Частная жизнь - это требование, которое абсолютно все люди считают положительным, необходимым и желательным.

3. TRANSLATION OF PERIPHRASE

Periphrase, or periphrasis, is circumlocution, or extended rewording of an object through one of its aspects: Green continent = Australia, pub-crawler = drunkard; канцелярская крыса = чиновник, цветы жизни = дети. The term is derived from the Greek periphrasis, `roundabout expression'. It should not be confused with `paraphrase', or a restatement of a text or passage in another form or other words in order to clarify the meaning. The Russian equivalent to periphrase is перифраз(а), and `paraphrase' is equivalent to `парафраз' or `перефразировка'.

The periphrase carries out two main functions in the text - cognitive and expressive. The cognitive function implies that the periphrase deepens our knowledge of the phenomenon described: three R's = reading, writing and 'rithmetic, forming the base of children's education; Madison Avenue = advertising, as this New York street is famous as the center of the advertising industry. The expressive function of periphrase allows authors to use it as a stylistic device: Меж тем как сельские циклопы (= кузнецы) перед медлительным огнем российским лечат молотком изделье легкое Европы (= кареты), благословляя колеи и рвы отеческой земли …(А.Пушкин) By using periphrase, Pushkin shows us his humorous attitude towards Russian country life.

To translate a periphrase, it is important to understand both denotative and connotative meanings. The translator must realize the degree to which the receptor is aware of the meaning and associations connected with the periphrase. Dictionaries and reference-books can be helpful, especially dictionaries of language and culture.

Some periphrases have analogue equivalents in the second language: канцелярская крыса - desk drudge, pencil pusher, red-tapist; черный ящик - 'black box', human mind. Others are transliterated: John Bull - Джон Буль; or most commonly, calqued and explained: the Last Frontier - последняя граница, прозвище штата Аляска; the Aloha State - гостеприимный штат, прозвище штата Гавайи; the Evergreen State - вечнозеленый штат, прозвище штата Вашингтон.

However, calque translation may cause false associations with the receptor if a similar designation exists in his/her culture: the three sisters for a Russian receptor is associated with A. Chekhov's play, whereas in English the phrase means `the fatal sisters, the Fates' (from Greek mythology), which corresponds to Russian 'мойры, богини судьбы'.

Some of the periphrases are borrowed from classical sources (myths and the Bible); others are typically English. To give just a few examples, the periphrases of classical origin are:

From the Bible: prodigal son(= блудный сын); the golden calf (= золотой телец); Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's and unto God the things that are God's (= отдайте кесарю кесарево, а Богу - Божие); at the eleventh hour (= в последний момент); the promised land (= земля обетованная); the writing on the wall (= зловещее предзнаменование).

From Shakespeare: salad days (= молодо-зелено; период становления); at one fell swoop (= одним махом; в одно мгновение); sound and fury (= драматические события); every inch a king (= самый настоящий); `tis neither here nor there (= к делу не относится); cry havoc (= кричать караул; сеять панику).

Typically English periphrases are: Lake country (= England); The Lord; Almighty; Goodness; Heavens; the Skies (= God); a shield-bearer (= a soldier); a play of swords (= a battle).

As a rule, periphrases do not present difficulties for translation, however, their correct translation strongly depends on the situation and appropriate background information.

Special attention is to be paid by a translator to overt and covert quotations. Whereas the former require only a correct rendering of the source quotation in the target language (Never suggest your own home-made translation for a quotation of a popular author!), the latter usually takes the shape of an allusion and the pragmatic equivalence seems the most appropriate for the case. For example, the Trojan Horse raid one may translate as нападение, коварное, как троянский конь (i.e. preserving the allusion) or as коварное нападение (loosing the meaning of the original quotation).

4. TRANSLATION OF PUNS

A Pun, the so-called “play on words”, is righteously considered the most difficult for translation. Pun is the realization in one and the same word of two lexical meanings (direct and figurative) simultaneously: May's mother always stood on her gentility, and Dot's mother never stood on anything but her active little feet. One more example of pun is represented in the humorous report about two duellists who fired at each other and both missed, so when one of the seconds said, after the duel, “Now, please, shake your hands!” the other answered “There is no need for that. Their hands must have been shaking since morning”.

Play on a word polysemy: the direct meaning is contrasted to a transferred meaning of the word:

“Owl,” said Pooh solemnly, “you made a mistake. Somebody did want it [the tail].”

“Who?”

“Eeyore. My dear friend Eeyore. He was fond of it.”

“Fond of it?”

“Attached to it,” said Winnie sadly. (A. Milne)

The following two meanings of the word form `to be attached' are played upon: a) to be connected; b) to be fond of. The same principle of word playing is possible in Russian, as the participle `привязан' has the same two meanings:

Сова, - сказал Пух торжественно, - он [хвост] кому-то очень нужен.

Кому?

Иа, моему дорогому другу Иа-Иа. Он … он очень любил его.

Любил его?

Был привязан к нему, - грустно сказал Винни-Пух. (Пер. Т.Ворогушин, Л.Лисицкая)

Play on direct and figurative meaning of a phraseological unit:

Once upon a time, a very long time ago now, Winnie-the-Pooh lived in a forest all by himself under the name of Sanders.

“What does `under the name' mean?” asked Christopher Robin.

“It means he had the name over the door in gold letters, and lived under it.”

The figurative meaning of the phrase `to live under the name' is `to live with a false name'. This meaning is contrasted with the direct one explained in the extract, which is derived from the meanings of its components. The Russian correspondence of the phrase admits the similar play:

Винни-Пух жил в лесу один одинешенек, под именем Сандерс.

- Что значит «жил под именем»? - немедленно спросил Кристофер Робин.

- Это значит, что на дощечке над дверьюбыло золотыми буквами написано «Мистер Сандер», а он под ней жил.

Play on homonymy is most difficult for translation. Generally, contextual substitution is employed like this:

“If she [governess] couldn't remember my name, she'd call me `Miss' as the servants do.”

“Well, if she said `Miss' and didn't say anything more,” the Gnat remarked, “of course you'd miss your lessons. That's a joke.” (L.Carroll)

The form `Miss' is homonymous. As a verb, it has the meaning `to fail to attend or perform, to leave out or omit' (to miss a class, a day of work). As a noun, it denotes a title of courtesy. The clash of the two meanings gives a humorous ring to the extract. The translator into Russian had to use a contextual substitution to preserve a pun:

Это мне не поможет, - возразила Алиса, - даже если она забудет мое имя, она всегда может сказать: «Послушайте, милочка.»

Но ведь ты же не Милочка, - перебил ее комар. - Ты и не будешь слушать. Хорошенькая вышла шутка, правда?

(Пер. Демуровой)

As we see, in the translation, a common and a proper name are opposed. The common name performs a phatic function that is also observed in the English sentence.

Play on paronymy. Paronyms are assonant words with differing meanings. Another example from Through the Looking-Glass by L. Carroll:

“I beg your pardon,” said Alice very humbly, “you had got to the fifth bend, I think?”

“I had not!” cried the Mouse sharply.

“A knot?” said Alice, always ready to make herself useful, and looking anxiously about her. “Oh, do let me help to undo it!”

Alice's misinterpretation of the negative particle not, pronounced by the Mouse, is manifested by the collocation to undo a knot. It is almost next to impossible to find a Russian correspondence in the paronymous form for this couple of words not-knot. Translator Demurova based the pun on homonymy:

Нет, почему же, - ответила Алиса с недоумением. Вы дошли до пятого завитка, не так ли?

Глупости! - рассердилась мышь. - Как я от них устала! Этого просто не вынести!

А что нужно вынести? - спросила Алиса. - Разрешите, я помогу!

Contextual substitution is accompanied by the change of image.

Play on the word sound similarity: contamination. If two words have similar sounds or sound clusters, the common sounds are joined and a new word comes into life. This occurs according to the formula: (a-b) + (b-c) = a-b-c. For example, bread-and-butter + butterfly = bread-and-butterfly; баобаб + бабочка = баобабочка. A translator uses the same procedure of contaminating assonant words and coins a new “nonsense” (at first glance) word. Similarly, we see a hybrid word in the extract from Winnie-the Pooh by A. Milne:

“Bother! Said Pooh… “What's that bit of paper doing?”

He took it out and looked at it. “It's a missage,” he said to himself, “that's what it is.”

The contaminated word missage is coined by Winnie-the-Pooh from the noun message and the verb to miss. Boris Zakhoder, when translating the story, substituted the verb by the one that is assonant to the noun послание --спасти. What has come of it is this:

Он вытащил бумажку и посмотрел на нее.

- Это Спаслание, - сказал он, - вот что это такое.

This pun principle may involve not only words, but also phrases. Mock Turtle, a character from Alice in Wonderland by L. Carroll, reminisces about his school teacher: We called him Tortoise because he taught us. Demurova makes a play with the noun, on the one hand, and noun and preposition, on the other: Учителем у нас был старик Черепаха. Мы звали его Спрутом, … потому что он всегда ходил с прутиком.

Play on associative meanings. By “corrupting” a word, the author aims at the receptor's background associations. This metalingual function of the text must be retained in translation. That is why the translator looks for an assonant word, bringing about similar associations on the part of the translation receptor: Reeling and Writhing studied at sea school in Alice in Wonderland is definitely associated with Reading and Writing, difficult subjects of an elementary school. The translators substituted the nouns with verbs according to the context: сначала мы, как полагается, чихали и пищали (associated with читали и писали) (пер. Демуровой); учились чесать и питать (пер. В.Набокова).

In search for a proper means of compensation or substitution, translators are apt to be rather free: Carroll says that at school children studied Mystery, Ancient and Modern (associated with History, Ancient and Modern), Seaography (Geography), Drawling (Drawing). Here the translators seem to be competing with each other as for the number of school subjects and their expressiveness: Demurova's version of translation: У нас было много всяких предметов: грязнописание, триконометрия, анатомия и физиология. The list of subjects in Orel's translation is increased: Еще была Болтаника и Уродоведение; …Палкебра и Драконометрия; Водная Речь; Хроматика, Морквология, Свинтаксис; Физия и Хихика. And V. Nabokov compensated the nouns by saying that they studied the following subjects: Лукомория, древняя и новая; арфография (это мы учились на арфе играть)… Затем делали мы гимнастику. Самое трудное было - язвительное наклонение.

So the crucial principle of a pun translator is receptor-centered translation, taking into account the equivalent effect upon the receptor.

5. TRANSLATION OF ALLUSIONS

Allusions and quotations play a special role in the English culture. No other language in the world has such a great number of quotation dictionaries as English. Allusions and quotations are widely used not in fiction only, but in everyday speech of common people. To illustrate their own thoughts, people use allusions and quotations and they often play upon them. This makes a translator's work more difficult - the quotations are generally altered, turned into allusions, and often hardly recognized by a representative of another culture. Many quotations and allusions are derived from Shakespeare, the Bible, classical literature, poetry. For a translated text to be of good quality, the translator and a source text receptor must share background knowledge. No less important is to convey the allusion or quotation to the receptor of the target text.

To translate a quotation or allusion, it is possible to use commentaries, to do explicatory translation: Oh, Mamma, you're too kind to me! I don't deserve it/ It's like heaping coals of fire on my head after the way I've gone on. (A.Cronin) - О мама, ты слишком добра ко мне! Я этого не заслужил. Ведь я так себя плохо вел. Твоя доброта жжет мне совесть, как раскаленные уголья. (Пер. А. Кунина) The source of this allusion is the Bible. The dictionary of idioms suggests the following translation, close to the Russian Bible: `отплатить добром за зло'. However, the context provided another translated version.

If necessary, the translator mentions the allusion or quotation source: Как говорится в Библии….

It should be kept in mind that biblical allusions and quotations are far less known in Russian culture than in English. Therefore, it is recommended that the translator use a Russian analogue to a biblical quotation rather than a direct quotation, which might be absolutely unfamiliar to a Russian reader, as it occurred with the following extract from Galsworthy: From Condaford the hot airs of election time had cleared away and the succeeding atmosphere was crystallized in the General's saying:

“Well, those fellows got their deserts.”

“Doesn't it make you tremble, Dad, to think what these fellows desert will be if they don't succeed in putting it over now?”

The General smiled.

“Sufficient into the day, Dinny.”

To render the final quotation, a translator used the direct quotation from the Russian Bible, “Довлеет дневи злоба его, Динни”, which is not comprehensible to a common reader. It would be better to substitute the quotation with its proverbial analogue: Всему свое время.

There is one more translation trap. When a source text contains a quotation from the target language, it is essential to be very careful and accurate in translation, consulting dictionaries of quotations, catch phrases, and idioms. For example, in the Russian text, which is to be translated into English, a translator comes across the phrase “быть или не быть”. It is unacceptable to use one's own translation, like “Shall I be or shall I not be?”, since it is the world famous question of Hamlet “To be or not to be…”

Allegory is a device by which the names of objects or characters of an article are used figuratively, representing some more general things, good or bad qualities. We often find allegory in parables, essays and pamphlets. It is also a typical feature of proverbs containing generalizations (expressing some moral truths): All is not gold that glitters (= impressive words or people are not always really good. Russ.: Не всё золото, что блестит.); Every cloud has a silver lining (= even in bad situations there may be positive elements. Russ.: Нет худа без добра.); Make the hay while the sun shines (= hurry to achieve your aim while there is a suitable situation. Russ.: Куй железо, пока горячо.).

As a type of allegory we distinguish Personification, i.e. ascribing human qualities to inanimate objects, phenomena or animals:

Silent, like sorrowing children, the birds have ceased their song… the dying day breathes out her last… and Night, upon her sombre throne, folds her black wings above the darkening world, and, from her phantom palace, lit by pale stars, reigns in stillness (Jerome).

In English personification is often represented grammatically by the choice of masculine or feminine pronouns for the names of animals, inanimate objects or forces of nature. The pronoun He is used for the Sun, the Wind, for the names of animals that act like human beings, (for example, The Cat who walked by himself), for strong, active phenomena (Death), or feelings (Fear, Love). The pronoun She is used for what is regarded as rather gentle (the Moon, Nature, Silence, Beauty, Hope, Mercy; e.g., Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth, but Melancholy marked him for her own (Gray), or in some way woman-like (in Aesop's fable about The Crow and the Fox, the pronoun She is used for the Crow, whose behavior is coquettish and light-minded, and He - for the Fox).

In neutral style there are also some traditional associations of certain nouns with gender. These are apparent in the use of personal or possessive pronouns. The names of countries, if the country is not considered as a mere geographical territory, are referred to as feminine: England is proud of her poets. But if the name of the country is meant as a geographical one, the pronoun “it” is used: Iceland is an island, it is washed on three sides by the Atlantic Ocean. The names of vessels (ship, boat, steamer, ice-breaker, cruiser, etc.) are referred to as feminine: The new ice-breaker has started on her maiden voyage. She is equipped with up-to-date machinery.

The names of vehicles (car, carriage, coach) may also be referred to as feminine, especially by their owners, to express affectionate attitude to these objects:

I found my car at the curb; her window was broken.

Zeugma is a stylistic device that plays upon two different meanings of the word (the direct and the transferred meanings), thus creating a pun. This comes from the use of a word in the same formal (grammatical) relations, but in different semantic relations with the surrounding words in the phrase or sentence, which is a result of the simultaneous realization (in one text) of the literal and figurative meanings of a word: A leopard changes his spots as often as he goes from one spot to another (spot = 1.пятно; 2. место); At noon Mrs. Turpin would get out of bed and humour, put on kimono, airs, and water to boil for coffee (O. Henry); He has taken her picture and another cup of tea.

Here again the translator's task is to try to render this ironical comment either by finding a similar irregularity in the target language or, failing to show a zeugma and irony of the author, stick to the regular target language meaning (i.e. separate the two actions Он её сфотографировал и выпил ещё одну чашку чая or try to render them as a zeugma as well Он сделал снимок и ещё один глоток чая из чашки).

Semantic and syntactic irregularities of expression may be used as a stylistic device called transferred qualifier. A good example of this device is He paid his smiling attention to her - here the qualifier smiling refers to a person, but is used as an attribute to the state (attention). The translator's task in this case consists in rendering the idea in compliance with the lexical combination rules of the target language. For instance, in Russian it may be expressed as Улыбаясь, он заметил...

Irony is based on simultaneous realization of two opposite meanings: the stable, direct meaning of the words and their contextual (covert, implied) meaning. Usually the direct meaning in such cases expresses a positive evaluation of the situation, while the context contains the opposite, negative evaluation: How delightful - to find yourself in a foreign country without a penny in your pocket!; The Holy Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria) was minded to stretch the arm of its charity across the Atlantic and put republicanism down in the Western Hemisphere as well as on its own (Goldwin Smith).

Cases of irony do not present a serious problem for translation and the approaches similar to those mentioned above (semantic or pragmatic equivalence) are commonly used. For example, the ironical expression paper war may be translated as бумажная война or война бумаг.

While translating the cases of personification and traditional use of personal and possessive pronouns, a translator should render the English pronouns in accordanee with the norms of the target language.

6. TRANSLATION OF THE QUOTATIONS

Translate the quotations - a complex time-consuming process that requires a large vocabulary translation and extraordinary thinking. For the first time, for every new text input at the Procrustean bed of such examination shall be fixed for a set of data generated by the text of his own expressions and phrases, that is unique units (blocks) have the potential to be quoting other authors. We should also highlight the cases of self-citation and self-repetitions. This set will be further reduced or supplemented, if the "palm" of a new word (neologism-phrase) will be taken from the text (the author), some even earlier text-author, or if the result will be clear that the author's neologism as quoted by anyone but himself, no longer used, that is to say it has zero citations. And this option is possible: for each author is allocated a special subset of neologisms, expressions, dead-end in terms of quotations is generating a wave of citation, what will obviously be a lot of Khlebnikov, White, Northerner, Platonov Radishcheva University. You can probably distinguish between "internal" and "external" author's style: what formed his style for him, and from what - for his contemporaries and descendants.

Most non-standard in this task is to determine the meaning of a new conflict-context quotations from the old and the net effect of such a conflict, which would trace the development of the language through the evolution of the meaning of a quotation, namely this evolutionary moment in the existing dictionaries of quotations not. Such an approach would demonstrate communication and delineate the roles that play the old and the new context as well as their opposition within the inter-text of the author and quote it in the future, going anyway after him authors. Stable quote-phrases can be context and for each other, and often stylistically contrasting, and it is in contrast will contain informative part of the message that "appendage" or that assertsiya they carry the reader. It is therefore important to determine the stylistic uniformity and overlap between the different styles. An example would be the obvious invasion of aggression and ironically stebovoy stylistic jet when quoting from the inversion of meaning suffering Tyutchev “Умом Россию не понять, аршином общим не измерить...”. Also depends on the context, for example, the sound of too official "культурная программа" On the one hand, in the speech of party leaders (quite naturally and uniformly) and, on the other hand, in a conversation between two friends - just like an echo of someone else's speech, with a parody repulsion from the first style. (Here, apparently, it is necessary to start the analysis from the standpoint of the theory of "three styles" Lomonosov and parodies Tynyanov tale Eichenbaum, as well as "foreign words" Bakhtin, developing criteria overlap between the different layers of quotations in the author's voice. )

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