Neologisms in the English language from 2005 and means of translation into Russian

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Content

Introduction

1. Neologisms in modern English

1.1 The definition of concept and term «neologism»

1.2 Methods of forming neologisms

1.3 Translation of neologisms

1.4 Ethnic and cultural specificity of learning a new vocabulary of the English language

2. Translation features of neologisms in the modern vocabulary

2.1 Means of translation of modern neologisms

2.2 Translating difficulties of neologisms in the modern vocabulary

2.3 Translation features of neologisms in modern texts

2.3.1 Lexical transformation

Conclusion

List of references

Applications

Introduction

This research is devoted to the study of the neologisms of modern English language as well as their translation in the modern vocabulary in the anthropocentric paradigm of the study, the essence of which consists in shifting the interests of the researcher to the objects of knowledge on the subject.

The increased interest to the neology problem is due to the important role of neologisms as a mirror of language development, which reflects the language adaptation to the changing under the influence of external factors, the conditions of its operation.

The starting point of lexical innovation is the practice, because cultural and historical, socio-political conditions of life and work of a speech community affect to lexical and nominative activities.

Given the fact that the most of the nominative incentives are provided by social, political, scientific and technical, cultural spheres of human activity, at the present stage of development of the science of language is becoming increasingly evident need for a comprehensive study of the linguistic and socio-cultural processes in their functional interaction. The expediency of such approach is even more apparent because of the globalization of culture, which is understood as the acceleration of the integration of nations into the global system, which is accompanied by a global informatization of the world community.

The relevance of this research is, on the one hand, the need to learn new vocabulary as a means to reflect the changes taking place in contemporary lingvoculture influenced by such factors as socially significant computerization, informatization, globalization, etc.

In transitional periods of social and economic development the issue of language changes is one of the central in scientific research, as objectively measures the dynamics of social and industrial transformations. On the other hand, during the change of linguistic paradigms grows interest of linguists to study cognitive structures, objected with linguistic forms. In connection with the foregoing, in the world, the role of translation increases.

A significant number of errors made by interpreters in the transmission of modern vocabulary, suggests that the problem is quite acute, which is paid a lot of attention in linguistic researches. These problems are examined differently, are recommended various techniques and methods of translation, there are different opinions as unambiguous, standard solutions are not and can not be.

Depending on the situation is required a different approach, a different strategy of translation, different translation solutions.

The object of this research is based on English neologisms in the modern vocabulary

The subject of the research are neologisms in modern English and their translation.

The purpose of the study is theoretical and practical justification of the issue of neologisms in modern English and their translation

To achieve this objective there is a set of tasks:

define the concept and the term «neologism»;

consider the definitions of a neologism;

consider the characteristics of neologisms translation;

consider the characteristics of a modern vocabulary translation;

Scientific novelty of the research is determined by the tasks, the orientation of research on the disclosure of the scientific potential methodological reasons, the search and processing of information, taking into account not only linguistic but also cultural factors that form the content of neological fields in the English language, as well as the problems of translation of modern vocabulary.

The theoretical significance of this research is to further develop the neology theory as one of the branches of the theory of nomination, the allocation of the total for the language and culture of the methodological platform on the basis of which to develop methods for the study of the language of the lexical units, acting in feature playable characters of the 'language' culture and participating in broadcast mentality of the people who are native speakers, as well as the problems of their translation.

The practical value of the work is determined by the fact that the conclusions of the study, as well as illustrative material can be used in the formation of linguistic-cultural competence of English language learners, as apart from the social and cultural environment of language learning there are objective difficulties in learning new vocabulary.

The materials of this work can also be used to write textbooks in cross-cultural problems, in the practice of creating reference books of a new American vocabulary, in lecture courses of general linguistics, lexicology of modern English language, special courses on English neology, economic vocabulary of modern English in different educational institutions ( universities, centers of language training, courses, etc.).

The material of the research are economic texts of the English periodical newspapers "The Daily Express", "The Daily Mail", "The Daily Mirror", "The Daily Telegraph", "The Financial Times", "The Guardian", "The Independent" , "The Independent on Sunday", "The Sun", "The Sunday Telegraph", "The Sunday Times", "The Times"; magazine "The Economist" and "The Observer".

The theoretical basis for this study are the scientific developments in the field of neology and neografy (SI Alatortseva, JK Voloshin A. Ivanov, NC Kotelova, VI Zabotkina, E. Rosen, E. V. Senko, G. Stepanov, EV Yumshanova, J. Algeo, J. Ayto, R. Barnhart, G. Cannon, G. Forgue, S. Rot, D. Odmark, A. Rey, G. Guilbert), in cognitive linguistics (NF Alefirenko, ND Arutyunov, A. Grandma, EL Boyar, A. Wierzbicka, VG Gak, VZ Demyankov, ES Kubrjakova, LA Lipilina, VA Maslov, J. Lakoff and M. Johnson) and in linguistics (VI Karasik, DS Likhachev, VA Maslov, Yu Stepanov, B . N. Telia), in translation Kommissarov V., AN Garbovsky etc.

Given the specificity of the studying linguistic phenomena, the solution of tasks was carried out by a complex of methods:

1) descriptive (techniques of observation, generalization, the typology of the analyzed material, its quantitative representation);

2) analysis of dictionary definitions based on component analysis methods and elements of content analysis, based on the identification of socio-cultural markers in the content of dictionary definitions of neologisms;

3) modeling method using a frame-based methods and conceptual analysis;

4) word-formation analysis.

neologism translation vocabulary ethnic

1. Neologisms in modern English

1.1 The definition of concept and term «neologism»

Neologism (neo + Greek. Logos word) - a new word, linguistic innovation (figure of speech), the grammatical feature, which appears in the language. [1;7]

A large number of new lexical units appeared in connection with the development of computer technology. Such neologisms are divided into several semantic groups:

1) lexical units, referring to types of computers and their structure, such as: personal computer (PC) - “персональный компьютер", supercomputer-“суперкомпьютер”, multi-user-“компьютер для нескольких человек”, neurocomputer-“электронный аналог человеческого мозга", hardware-“части компьютера”, software-“программа компьютера”, monitor-“экран компьютера”,megabyte of computer memory-“мегабайт памяти компьютера", data-“текст программы, вводимой в компьютер", bogusware-“программа компьютера, составленная для разрушения программ компьютеров", vapourware-“опытные образцы ЭВМ, для выставок, но не для производства”, etc.

2) lexical units, referring to types of computer languages, such as: BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) - “Бейсик", Fortran (Formula Translation) - “Фортран” and others;

3) lexical units, denoting concepts associated with work on the computers, for example: liveware - “специалисты, работающие на компьютерах", computerman - “специалист по ЭВМ", computerize - “составлять программу ЭВМ или оборудовать компьютерной техникой", “компьютеризовать”, computerization - “компьютеризация”, to trouble-shoot - “исправить, починить компьютер”, to blitz out - “уничтожить часть данных в памяти компьютера” etc.

In English-speaking countries, computerization is distributed in the various spheres of life, including mode of life. A large number of neologisms associated with the use of computers in everyday life, is formed by the reduced form of tele-, eg: telepost - “место в доме, где находится компьютер”, telework, to telecommute - “работать на дому, имея компьютерную связь с производством”, telebanking - “финансовая служба, позволяющая клиенту осуществлять банковские операции через телевизор или домашний компьютер”, telemarketing - “практика продажи по телефону", teleshopping - “заказ покупки по телефону” (in the last two cases, there is a computer fixing of costs and connection with the bank) . Other types of lexical units are used, such as: dial-a-taxi - “заказ такси по телефону", dial-meal - “заказ еды по телефону” (in these cases, as well as above, provides a computer linked to a center), etc.

Computerization is used in various fields of science and technology, leading to a large number of terminological neologisms. For example, in the field of linguistics: translation - “машинный перевод", interlingual - “искусственный язык для машинного перевода на несколько языков”, electronic - translator - “ЭВМ-переводчик”; в биометрии, в частности для обозначения биометрических средств защиты от воров: biometric security - “биометрическая защита”, biometric systems - “биометрические средства защиты”, biometric locks - “биометрические замки", computerized card - “карточки с биометрическим устройством, позволяющим открывать дверь, сейф и т.п. ", finger-print-scanner - “биометрическое устройство, распознающие отпечатки пальцев" (т.е. “узнающее" отпечатки пальцев того, кому можно открыть дверь, сейф и т.п.), biometric eye-scanner - “биометрическое устройство, распознающее особенности радужной оболочки глаза" (в разговорной речи это устройство получило название Eye-Dentity - своеобразный каламбур со словом identily), voice verification - “биометрическое устройство, распознающее голос"; в медицине: telemonitory systems\unit -“аппаратура, позволяющая врачу лечить больлных на расстоянии” (в разговорной речи данная аппаратура получила название Buddy System, to electronically monitor - “лечить больных на расстоянии с помощью соответствующей аппаратуры".

A relatively new group of semantic neologisms can be considered neolodisms, related to outer space. Since the priority of space exploration belongs to our country, in English, the first lexical units in this area have been borrowing from the Russian language, for example: sputnic, cosmos, cosmonaut, Lunokhod, planetokhod, etc. In connection with the development of the American space appeared neologisms in which is often used morpheme space-, eg: spaceship, spacenik - “космический корабль", spacefaring - “полеты в космос” (similar to the seafaring). Appeared neologisms, such as satellite - “искусственный спутник”, astronaut - “астронавт” Due to the experiment ofspecial apparatus for movement in space extravehicular any synonyms have been created space-bike b mini-bike in definition "автолет." By Space neologisms are also following lexical units: microgravity - “мкрогравитация", zero gravity - “нулевая гравитация", aerocapture - “тормозящее устройство космического корабля", retrorocket - “возвращающаяся ракета”, link up - “стыковка космический кораблей", cargo module - “грузовой отсек космического корабля", penguin suit - “скафандр космонавта", stellar brothers - “космонавты, совершающие совместный космический полет", etc.

New semantic group of neologisms are related to the alleged visits to earth by aliens from outer space, for example: UFO (Unidentified flying object) - “НЛО (неопознанный летающий объект) ” and the formation of the English abbreviations such as ufology - “уфология", ufologist - “уфолог", UFO-drome - “площадка, где садится НЛО", extra-terrestrials - “инопланетяне", saucerman - “инопланетянин", saucer"s feet - “отпечатки, оставленные летающей тарелкой".

A large number of neologisms were created with the development of the press.

Bigger bang for a buck - эффективное использование ассигнований на оборону, в основном за счет ядерных средств сдерживания.

Big lie - большая ложь, гитлеровская пропаганда.

Black hats - злодеи, негодяи.

Can carrier - козел отпущения.

Green power - власть денег.

Jane Crow - дискриминация женщин.

Larger than life - невероятный, сказочный, преувеличенный.

Log-roller - политический толкач.

Man on horseback - военный диктатор.

Pot-culture - образ жизни наркоманов.

Put-down - резкий ответ.

Trade off - компромисс.

Roll-call - перекличка для проверки наличия.

In connection with the development of aviation appeared following lexical units: airbus - “аэробус", helibus - “вертолет-автобус", seadrome - “гидроаэродром", to bail out - “катапультироваться" " and others when there were planes that require a small area for take-off and planting, had the following neologisms: STOL (Short Take-Off and Landing) - “укороченный пробег”, STOL-port - “аэродром для самолетов, с укороченным пробегом", verti-port - “аэродром для самолетов с вертикальным взлетом и посадкой".

In the field of fine art there is a rapid process of experimentation, and there are new manners of painting and other art works. [2; 76] For example, in the 60es of XX century there was abstract art, built on the basis of geometric shapes, and in connection with this direction had the following synonymous neologisms: minimal art, minimalism, rejected art, reductivism. In the same period, there were other art movements: : ABC art - “искусство, упрощающее и разлагающее на элементарные составные части цвет и форму", soft art - “искусство, использующее мягкие материалы”, kinetic art - “искусство, использующее движущиеся предметы (обычно части машин) ”, luminal art - “искусство, использующее световые эффекты", optical art (op art) - “искусство, использующее оптические эффекты”, pop art - “поп-арт, поп-искусство" (неавангардистское искусство, черпающее образы и формы из рекламных плакатов, комиксов и т.п. и создающее из них произвольные комбинации), action painting - “живопись, использующая приемы разбрызгивания, нашлепывания красок, revivalism - “школа современной живописи, возвращающаяся к старым формам и приемам живописного искусства”.

"In 70es was further expansion of the vocabulary of the semantic group in connection with the new direction that focused on the processes taking place in the artist's mind while creating their works of art. This trend is reflected in the following synonymous neologisms: conceptual art, process art, antifopm art. Impossible art. During the 80-es appeared neologism computer art - “искусство, использующее компьютеры”.

In the theatrical life there were also changes - new types of theatres, and with them new words, such as: theatre of absurd - “театр абсурда", theatre of cruelty - “театр жестокости", son et lumiere (фр. = sound fnd light) - “театр с использованием звуковых и световых эффектов", theatre of fact - “театр факта", black theatre - “негритянский театр" and others, among many other neologisms related to theatrical life, there are such, for example, nouns, as revolve - “вращающаяся сцена" и theatredom - “театральный мир".

In the field of film, television and video there were many new technical hardware behind them appeared a large number of neologisms, such as: inflight movies - “кинофильмы, демонстрирующиеся в полете на борту самолета", inflight videosystem - “видеосистема, используемая на борту самолета", serial - “многосерийный фильм с единой фабулой", series - “многосерийный фильм, в котором каждая серия имеет отдельный, законченный сюжет", featurette - “короткометражный документальный фильм", satellite-delivered show - “программа, передаваемая при помощи спутника", HDTV (High Definition Television) - “телевидение высокой четкости изображения", chat show - “интервью с знаменитостью, транслируемое со студии", kidvid - “телепередачи для детей", videoplayer - телевизор для воспроизведения видеозаписей”, video cassette - “видеокассета”, video-cassette recorder - “видеомагнитофон”, video - camera - “видеокамера", video-screen movie - “видеофильм"" etc.

A large number of neologisms arise in connection with the social changes taking place in the English-speaking countries. Among the most common social phenomena, especially specific to the UK, include the so-called feminist movement, that is, women's movement for equal rights with men. [3;154] Due to this movement there were a lot of new lexical items, such as: the Lib Movement - “феминистическое движение", libber, libbie - “участница или сторонница феминистического движения” etc.

It is interesting to note that in the 70es. the members of the feminist movement have declared English as a sexist language, ie, language, discriminatory female sex, because it contains more forms of masculine than feminine (usually because of the word man as a second component of the names of many professions). As a result, the name of the second component-man changed, for example: instead of the cameraman was more to use camera operator, instead of firemen - firefighter, instead of policemen - police-officer, instead of the chairman - chairperson, instead of Congressman - Congressperson (though many of the words with the second component - person instead -man are often used with a touch of humor, irony), instead of businessmen - bu sinesspeople, even in church mankind replaced by the people.

At the same time, the name of women's jobs are replaced by the neutral forms, such as instead of the stewardess is used flight attendant, or, if these professions are busy by men is the token male, for example: male nurse, male secretary, male exotic dancer, etc.

As a result of women antidicrimination is the use of a written language he / she in the cases referred to when a person can be either male or female. Abridged version - s / he - is less employed.

The same result of feminist movement can be considered the introduction of forms Ms [miz], representing a reduction of graphical forms Mrs and Miss, which emphasize the marital status of women. Form Ms, as well as the form Mr, applied to men, does not include the underscore.

An important aspect of the life of society is the sphere of education. In the UK in 1988 was issued a new education law, known as Gerbil (Great Education Reform Bill). Due to this law, there were many neologisms, such as: City Technology Colleges - название нового вида школ, которые субсидируются центральными (а не местными, как большинство школ старого типа) органами образования и в которые отбираются дети в возрасте 11 лет на основании экзаменов, получивших название Standard Assessment Tasks (SATs); grand-maintained status - название статуса, который имеют школы типа City Technology Colleges и другие учебные заведения, субсидируемые центральными органами образования; Teacher Appraisal - оценка деятельности учителя, в соответствии с которой он получает заработную плату (оценка зависит от количества учеников у данного учителя и качества их подготовки - после экзаменов типа SATs, если позволяют результаты экзаменов, родители сами выбирают школу и учителя для своих детей, а качество подготовки учеников проверяется с помощью специальных контрольных работ); licensed teachers - учителя, не имеющие высшего педагогического образования, но прошедшие практику в школе на основе базового образования и получившие свидетельство, которое дает им право обучать детей; star schools, non-star schools термины, обозначающие школы для учащихся разного уровня обучения (этот уровень определяются с помощью вступительных экзаменов, в частности экзаменов типа SATs) etc.

Recently, there are new methods of teaching, which are indicated by the following neologisms: sleep-teaching - “обучение во сне”, CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory of Automated School System) - “класс программированного обучения", TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) - “система обучения английскому языку как иностранному”, multimedia lecture - “лекция с использованием нескольких средств информации (видеомагнитофона, телевизора, магнитофона и др.) ”, telelecture, telecourse - “учебная программа по телевидению" etc.

There are new types of educational institutions, such as: megaversity - “крупный университет, в котором обучается много тысяч студентов”, multiversity - “университет с большим количеством факультетов", para-university - “университет на общественных началах (со свободной программой) ”, para-school - “школа на общественных началах".

Instead, the terms student, pupil, were more likely to use the term educatee, schooler; coined the term educationalist - “специалист (теоретик или практик) в области просвещения".

English, as well, as other languages of the world, is enriched by the active vocabulary for the members of different professions, social groups and ages. [4;329]

For example, only one need in the names of various professional jargons spawned many neologisms with the second component -speak: Artsspeak - “жаргон художников", Sportsspeak - “жаргон спортсменов", Medspeak - “жаргон медиков", Teacherspeak - “жаргон учителей", Videospeak - “жаргон пользователей видеоаппаратуры", Cablespeak - “жаргон работников кабельного телевидения" etc. Neologisms, typical for vocabulary of high society such as dial-a-meal, dial-a-taxi became publicly known. Also many of the words and expressions, typical for adolescents became famous, such as: Drugs! - “Согласен! ”, “Хорошо! ”, “Правильно!" (is used instead OK), sweat - “бег на длинные дистанции", task - “домашнее сочинение”, brunch (сокр. от breakfast+lunch) - “поздний завтрак" etc.

Under the neologisms are defined as any new vocabulary and phraseological units, which appeared in the language at this stage of its development and or designating new concepts arising from the development of science and technology, new conditions of life, social and political changes, etc., or expressing new words created in order to emotional and stylistic already existing concepts.

Neologisms of the second type are called stylistic neologisms unlike terminological neologisms, which we call the first group of new words. Both the first and the second group of neologisms have a variety of stylistic features and are used for various purposes.

Neologisms are usually formed under the laws of the relevant language, in his productive patterns of word formation. However, literary books neologisms are sometimes created by unproductive ways of word formation. In such cases, the effective power of word-formation means becomes clearer, vivid, and tangible. The means of new words formation so often act as a stylistic devices.

Professor RA Budagov quite rightly notes that "in neologisms of the language usually find unity sustained and sustainable, on the one hand, and an unstable, moving, changing - with another." [5;90]

Stylistic features of neologisms differ depending on whether the neologism is terminology or style, that is, in other words, whether it is created to indicate the newly formed concepts of objective reality or to an already existing concept to explain in a special way.

The most typical ways of formation of neologisms in the language of English writers are compounding, conversion and change the meanings of words

In the early periods of English art style speech, a significant role in the formation of stylistic neologisms played barbarisms. Recently, borrowing give way to the semantic process of education writers neologisms.

"The turning point in the history of many words'meanings - says V.V.Vinogradov, - is their new acutely expressive and imaginative individual use. (Emphasis added - I. D). This is a new and original use of the word if it complies with the general trends of development of the semantic language, often determines all further semantic history of the word. "

The same observation makes and R.A. Budagov in work on the language and style of Ilf and Petrov.

"The writers - he writes - do not create proper morphological neologisms, but they are able to extract from the already existing words and more new shades. This is achieved by Ilf and Petrov due to movement seemingly incidental, meaning of the word in the center of attention of the reader, which inevitably pushes common understanding of the word into the background and creates a kind of semantic neologism. "[6;147]

"Watching for a moment of weakness she wrenched it free; then placing the dining table between them, said between her teeth: "You are the limit, Monty". (Undoubtedly the inception of this phrase - so is English formed under the stress of circumstance).

As an illustration stylistic neologisms we can cite the following:

... besides, there is a tact -

(That modern phrase appears to me sad stuff.

But it will serve to keep my verse compact).

(Byron. Don Juan)

Sense in which is used here the word tact appeared, according to the Oxford dictionary in 1804, and Byron, acutely aware of the novelty of the word, reluctantly accepts it.

Another example is the following passage from the novel by Galsworthy "In Chancery", where the author notes the birth of a new meaning of the word limit - невыносимый.

As pointed out by the historian of English Baugh, Modern English many new words arreared thanks to Spencer, Thomas More, Milton, who, by the way, is attributed to the birth of such words as consolidate, disregard, sensuous. Sydney is believed to have created such words as emancipate, eradicate, exist, extinguish, harass, meditate, etc.

An interesting form is neologism Blimp - a fictional name created by cartoonist Lowe to describe rude, smug, ultra-conservative British army colonel. Hence, is the adjective blimpish.

Attitide to neologisms, is expressed differently at different stages of development of modern English language. We have already mentioned the play of Ben Johnson's "The Poetaster," which shows that many words, firmly included in the modern literary language, viewed as undesirable neologisms in the literary language of the XVI century.

Many neologisms created by the authors, remained in the sphere of individual consumption. Others go beyond such use. For example, pickwickian have only Dickens neologism unlike quixotic, which came into the vocabulary of the English language as a fully fledged unit of the vocabulary of the language.

Therefore, not every word, and even created in accordance with the internal laws of the relevant language, automatically enters the vocabulary. Neologism must undergo a significant period of testing in a public speech practice, in order to win the "right of citizenship" in the vocabulary of the language and become part of the vocabulary.

The main functions of stylistic neologisms are two: the first is disclosure of some additional features of the phenomenon and the second is revealing one's relationship to the facts of objective reality.

In the style of rhythmic speech the second function is the leading in stylistic neologisms. Thus, most writers neologisms are characterized by a strong emotional meaning.

The first function, i.e. disclosure of some additional features of the phenomenon often appears in the style of speech, where most is reflected ripple in social life of the people who speak that language, in newspaper-style. In these neologisms, especially in the meanings of political neologisms, are easy to install due to certain events and facts of political life of the English society at a given period of its development.

How easy are formed neologisms in language newspaper, is the following example. During the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt in political terminology of the United States of America had a new term - New Deal with meaning - новые мероприятия политического и экономического характера, направленные на оздоровление американской экономики. Later, in American newspapers appeared derivative word New Dealish.

Last Monday Mr. Eisenhower outlined to Republican Congressional leaders his mildly New Dealish domestic program...

In any English flimsy you can find such neologisms as Prime Ministerless, to out-British, magpietude, intellectualistic eggheads, Megabuck (1,000,000 dollars), and many others.

Many stylistic neologisms appeared in the pages of British newspapers in connection with the launch of artificial Earth satellite in the USSR. Such, for example, words to out-sputnik, orbiting, orbitch (from orb + bitch - so named Laika the dog), post sputnik (era), and others. There are also interesting neologisms have appeared in connection with the concept of the meeting at the highest level. Here are some of them: summit conference, summiteer, summitry ("верхушечность"), etc.

Recently, a number of articles, in lectures, reports, speeches on the radio there are protests against unbridled newspaper and individual coinages. So Ottawa Evening Journal in the article "Let us finalise all this nonsense" writes:

"We diarise, we earlierise, any day we may begin to futurise,...

We also itinerise, and reliableise; and we not only decontaminate and dehumidife but we debureaucratise and we deinsectise. We are, in addition, discovering how good and pleasant it is to fellowship with one another... .

... let"s finalise all this nonsense."

Most of the literary book neologisms are formed by means of affixation and compounding, as opposed to spoken neologisms, which will be discussed below, and which are formed by means of conversion and change themeanings of the words.

The life of neologisms depends on how they are tested in social practice, what is the need of this word to refer to the relevant concepts, and how many "rivals" - synonymous funds has given word in the vocabulary of the language.

Many neologisms completely disappear from the language, and some writers neologisms are fixed by English dictionaries indicating the author. The same words that were born in the midst of the people, are not often fixed and disappear without a trace.

Neologism has a short life. As soon as it is tested in the practice of public use, it ceases to be a neologism.

The verb to admire initially meant respectively the Latin meaning of the word "удивляться". This meaning has been completely superseded by the meaning of which developed in the word and remaining in the modern English language, that is, восхищаться. We could cite many examples of changes in the meanings of words, where the new meanings in some period of its formation are regarded as neologisms, and then either approved in its meaning (sometimes coexisting with the old one), or disappear from the language completely.

Stylistic features of neologisms are functions arising from the meaning of the means of the formation of new words. If there is a group of English suffixes that are used to give emotional meaning to the word (diminutive, derogatory, magnifiers, etc.), it is natural that neologisms formed by this means will perform this emotional function (see, for example, such tumors, as clippie, bookie, etc.).

If new words are formed by the conversion, the main function of the neologism is associated with a more concise and sometimes imaginative interpretation of the phenomenon. For example, to corner somebody is загнать кого-нибудь в угол will be imaginative interpretation of the narrative turn to put somebody into a corner.

Special features are neologisms formed by some writers who wish to depart from the usual means of expression. It is known that the Futurists believed that the language can not express the variety of feelings and shades of thought, therefore, that the language gradually loses the ability nuances of thought that for such nuances need a new language, new words. [7;67]

Naturally, these words could not remain in the language. The function of such neologisms is function of decoration. They like poeticisms make the language of poetry in the language for the few and pervert the language norm.

In neologisms function "perversion" most finds expression in the English literature by poets-esthetes of XIX-XX centuries, such as Swinburne, Thomas Elliott and others. These withheld in the language of neologisms include the writer's word singultus - the medical term used to explain the concept of Byron, usually expressed by the word sob.

Types of neologism

Scientific -- words or phrases created to describe new scientific discoveries or inventions. Examples:

black hole. (1968) A black hole is a concentration of mass great enough that the force of gravity prevents anything from escaping from it except through quantum tunneling behavior.

laser. (1960) A LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is an optical source that emits photons in a coherent beam.

prion. Prions -- short for proteinaceous infectious particle -- are infectious self-reproducing protein structures.

quark. (1960) Quarks are one of the two basic constituents of matter in the Standard Model of particle physics.

radar . (1941) It is a system used to detect, range (determine the distance of), and map objects such as aircraft and rain.

posterized. Posterization occurs when a region of an image with a continuous gradation of tone is replaced with several regions of fewer tones, resulting in an abrupt change from one tone to another. This creates an effect somewhat similar to that of a simple graphic poster.

beetle bank. (early 1990s) In agriculture, a beetle bank is a strip of grass or perennials in a field that provide habitat which fosters and provides cover for insects hostile to pests. They are used as a form of biological pest control to reduce or replace the use of insecticides.

· Science fiction concepts created to describe new, futuristic ideas. Examples:

Ringworld (1971) Ringworld is a Hugo and Nebula award-winning 1970 science fiction novel by Larry Niven, set in his Known Space universe. The work is widely considered one of the classics of science fiction literature. It is followed by three sequels, and it ties in to numerous other books in the Known Space universe.

Dyson Sphere (circa 1960) A Dyson sphere is a hypothetical megastructure first described in 1960 by the physicist Freeman Dyson in a short paper published in the journal Science entitled "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation".

· Political -- words or phrases created to make some kind of political or rhetorical point, sometimes perhaps with an eye to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Example:

political correctness (1990). Political correctness (also politically correct, P.C. or PC) is a term used in English-speaking countries to describe real or perceived attempts to impose limits on the acceptable language and terms used in public discussion. While it usually refers to a linguistic phenomenon, it is sometimes extended to cover political ideology or public behavior.

sie and hir (neologisms). Sie and hir are two terms proposed to serve as gender-neutral third person singular personal pronouns in English . These neologisms are used by some people who feel that there are problems with gender-specific pronouns because they imply sex and/or gender. However, sie and hir are very rare compared to other solutions and most commentators feel that it is unlikely that they will catch on.

homophobia (1969). The term "homophobia" is a portmanteau derived from the words homosexual and phobia. In current usage it is employed to refer to the aversion to, or disapproval of physical intimacy and sexual expression between individuals of the same sex and those who engage in such activities. This aversion may range from mild to intense.

meritocracy (1958) As the suffix "-cracy" implies, meritocracy is strictly speaking a system of government based on rule by ability (merit) rather than by wealth or social position. In this context, "merit" means roughly intelligence plus effort. However, the word "meritocracy" is now often used to describe a type of society where wealth, income, and social status are assigned through competition, on the assumption that the winners do indeed deserve (merit) their resulting advantage. As a result, the word has acquired a connotation of Social Darwinism, and is used to describe aggressively competitive societies, with large inequality of income and wealth, contrasted with egalitarian societies.

dog-whistle politics (1990). Dog-whistle politics is a term used to describe a type of political campaigning which is "only heard" by a specific intended audience. It is usually used pejoratively by those that do not approve of the tactics.

genocide. Genocide is the systematic killing of substantial numbers of people on the basis of ethnicity, religion, political opinion, social status or other particularity. The most widely known example is the Holocaust (the genocide of various groups, especially Jews, during World War II by Nazi Germany and its collaborators). Lesser known in the West are Stalin's forced starvation of Ukrainian farmers, or Mao's murder of 20 to 60 million Chinese

Some political neologisms, however, are intended to convey a negative point of view. Example: brutalitarian

· Pop-culture -- words or phrases evolved from mass media content or used to describe popular culture phenomena (these may be considered a subsection of slang). Examples:

jumping the shark. Jumping the shark is a metaphor used by US television critics and fans since the 1990s. The phrase, popularized by Jon Hein on his website, jumptheshark.com, is used to describe the moment when a pop culture icon, originally a TV show or similar episodic medium, is in retrospect judged to have passed its "peak" and shows a noticeable decline in quality, or when it has undergone too many changes that take away the original charm and interest.

Chuck Cunningham syndrome. Chuck Cunningham syndrome is a term that refers to a television series in which a main character or a character otherwise important to the show's plot is removed without explanation. The term comes from the character Chuck Cunningham in the American television series, Happy Days.

Baldwin (a good-looking man, such as one of the Baldwin family of actors)

Scooby Gang (a group which humorously resembles the teens on the cartoon Scooby-Doo)

sex-it-up a recently used phrase describing the memo that was said to be the cause of the Iraq invasion.

· Imported -- words or phrases originating in another language. Typically they are used to express ideas that have no equivalent term in the native language. Examples:

zen (1727). Zen is the Japanese name of a well known branch of Mahвyвna Buddhist schools, practiced originally in China as Chan (вW), and subsequently in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Zen emphasizes the role of sitting meditation (zazen) in pursuing enlightenment. Zen can be considered a religion, a philosophy, or simply a practice depending on one's perspective. It has also been described as a way of life, work, and an art form.Zen is the common name for this branch of Buddhism in Japanese as well as in English. However, in the last half of the 20th century, Zen has become an international phenomenon, with centers in many countries around the world.

ao dai (1960s). The ao dai (pronounced 'ao yai' in the South; pronounced 'ao zai' in the North) is a traditional Vietnamese dress worn by women. It is the uniform for female students in Vietnamese secondary schools and universities. The ao dai is and has been more prevalent in southern Vietnam than in northern Vietnam.

Tet (1968). T?t Nguyen ?an (derived from Chinese ђЯЊі'U), more commonly known as T?t (ђЯ), is the most important holiday in Vietnam. It is the Vietnamese New Year which is based on the Chinese calendar, a lunisolar calendar.

anime (1988). Anime (ѓAѓjѓЃ) is Japanese animation, sometimes referred to by the portmanteau Japanimation. It is often characterized by stylized colorful images depicting vibrant characters in a variety of different settings and storylines, aimed at a wide range of audiences. Anime is usually influenced by Japanese comics known as manga.

detente (1960s). Detente is French for relaxation. It was also the general reduction in the tension between the Soviet Union and the United States and a weakening of the Cold War, occurring from the late 1960s until the start of the 1980s. More generally, it may be applied to any international situation where previously hostile nations not involved in an open war "warm up" to each other and threats de-escalate.

manga. Manga (-џ‰ж) is the Japanese word for comics and/or cartoons (not necessarily animated, this includes print cartoons); outside of Japan, it usually refers specifically to Japanese comics. Manga developed from a mixture of ukiyo-e and Western styles of drawing, and took its current form shortly after World War II.

· Trademarks are often neologisms to ensure they are distinguished from other brands. If legal trademark protection is lost, the neologism may enter the language as a genericized trademark. Example: Laundromat. A laundromat (U.S.), launderette (British), Washette (Southeastern U.S.) or washateria (Southwestern U.S.) is a store where clothes are washed and dried. This is often done by coin operated machines that are worked by the client. Laundromats may have a staff to wash the clothing; this is referred to as Fluff-n-Fold or drop-off service. Laundries are equipped with both washing machines and dryers, usually specialized ones designed to survive heavy use.

· Nonce words -- words coined and used only for a particular occasion, usually for a special literary effect.

· Inverted -- words that are derived from spelling (and pronouncing) a standard word backwards. Example: redrum

· Paleologism - a word that is alleged to be a neologism but turns out to be a long-used (if obscure) word. Used ironically.

Versions of neologisms

*Unstable - Extremely new, being proposed, or being used only by a very small subculture.

*Diffused - Having reached a significant audience, but not yet having gained acceptance.

*Stable - Having gained recognizable and probably lasting acceptance.

Neologisms can be defined as newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units that acquire a new sense. Unless they are opaque, obscure and possibly cacophonous.

Newmark proposed 12 types of neologisms:

A) Existing lexical items with new senses:

1. Words

2. Collocations

B) New forms:

1. New coinages

2. Derived words

3. Abbreviations

4. Collocations

5. Eponyms

6. Phrasal words

7. Transferred words (new and old referents)

8. Acronyms (new and old referents)

9. Pseudo-neologisms

10. Internationalism

1.2 Methods of forming neologisms

All neologisms, their morphological structure and the character values are together along the lines of English word-building traditions, when exists the need for a new word.

Modern English has many ways of forming new words, which include compounding, conversion, reduction, adektivization, substantivization, back formation, lexical-semantic way, alternating sounds and the transfer of stress in a word (phonological way), etc. However, not all of these methods are used to the same extent, and the share of each in the word-formation processes varies.

We will discuss the most common of these methods, formation of neologisms, such as:

Affixal way (prefixing and suffixing ways)

Compounding

Conversion

Reduction

Borrowing from other languages

Contact derivation

Symphysis.

Abbreviation.

Next, we explain each of these in more detail

Affixes units account for 24% of all tumors and slightly inferior to compound words. A characteristic feature is the formation in scientific terms: for example, the suffix-on (elementary unit or particle) is used to create such terms as: gluon новая элементарная частица в физике, склеивающая кварки, luxon элементарная частица с нулевой массой. In edaphology taxonomy is actively used the new suffix-sol (from the Latin solum почва) to determine the different types of soil: aridisol (in the American version) почва пустынь, histosol влажные почвы, глиняные почвы, hioxisol тропические почвы.

Prefixing units demonstrate the increased role of prefixes. The main source of prefixes is Latin, French and Greek: acro-, bio-, xeno-, micro-, euro-, tele-, etc. Their use is generally limited to scientific and technical fields. Some prefixes are singled out phrases and compound words: dial-a (to refer to a service that can be ordered by phone) of dialphone, for example, dial-a-bus, dial-a-meal.

Extremely popular in the U.S. unofficially prefix mega-, acting as reinforcement particle. In recent years, the prefix is used heavily in the vocabulary of teenagers. For example, for the expression of the highest rated events, phenomena, people use the word megadual (totally awesome) is something very good. Dual in this case is used in the meaning «в два раза лучше».

Suffixed units greater are used in everyday life and are more marked "slang". Thus, one of the most commonly used slang suffix is the suffix -y/-ie, (ironic meaning). The words formed with its help have a restriction of the use of the framework of informal communication, especially among young people. For example: Например: groupie поклонник поп-ансамбля или звезды, повсюду сопровождающих их; roadie член группы музыкантов, ответственный за транспортировку и установку аппаратуры; weapy сентиментальный фильм; preppie ученик частной привилегированной школы (is used ironically by middle class); tekky (techno-freak) человек, одержимый техническими новшествами.

Compounding

One of the most ancient, universal and common methods of derivation in the English language is the word composition. The process of compounding is a merger of the two bases - homonymous word forms. For example, carryback is «перенос убытков, на более ранний период», think-tank is «коллективный мозг».

When connecting words ending and beginning with the same vowel or consonant, one of them falls:

net + etiquette = netiquette «неписаные общепринятые правила общения или размещение информации в Интернет».

The number of hard-derived units increases. The main productive suffix is the suffix-er: page-turner чрезвычайно интересная книга; all-nighter нечто, длящееся всю ночь, for example, занятия во время сессии.

Among the complex units, high proportions are words formed by particles and adverbs, especially for adjectives and verbs Laid-back расслабленный, buttoned-down консервативный, традиционный, turned-on взволнованный, switched-off отключенный, ничего не чувствующий.

One of the most commonly used multi-component models has become in recent time, the model with the word line, which is on the verge of difficult words and phrases: straight-line responsibility прямая ответственность; dotted-line responsibility ответственность, поделенная на двоих; bottom-line окончательный; top-of-the-line самый лучший. This model is limited to the use of informal communication situations by the business community

Very often, when a similar method of forming, neologisms have a satirical painting, especially in the press, "... that they taste the same in Peking as they do in London or New York, and so it was that world burgernomics was born by McDonald's ». In this case, the author wishes to draw attention to the significant development of a chain of restaurants, "McDonald's", fast food industry, which has its own laws and phenomena. And like other economic laws are equally valid in the different countries, "... that in Pekin they taste the same as in London or New York, that's it, "McDonald's" created a world gamburgernomiku

In general, multi-component units that are used in everyday conversation, more characteristic of American, for example: to nickel-and-dime уделять большое внимание мелочам, meat-and-potatoes основной, nuts-and-bolts базисный, quick-and-dirty бар, кафе, где можно быстро перекусить.

Conversion

Conversion is transition from one word to another part of speech. For example, now in the Internet we can often see E-mail me / us to ... Clarifying the meaning of this neologism is easy. Syntactic context makes it possible to determine the membership of the words to transitive verbs, and knowing the meaning of the word E-mail (электронная почта) we translate: Высылайте сообщения электронной почтой по адресу …

Conversion as a way of creating new words slashed its activity and is inferior to all other types of word formation

Among the converted nouns growing trend towards the formation of verbs with postpositions: rip-off воровство (from to rip-off воровать). A significant number of new nouns are formed by the conversion of adjectives, such as: collectbles предметы, подлежащие коллекционированию, особенно устаревшие или редкие; cool самоконтроль, сдержанность часто употребляется во фразах to lose one`s cool, to keep one`s cool (потерять контроль, сдержаться).

Especially productive formation of nouns from adjectives ending in - ic, such as: acrylic, transuranic, tricyclic. Nouns can be formed from the verb phrases, for example: work-to-rule выступление рабочих с требованиями соблюдать все пункты трудового договора.

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