The process of teaching foreign languages

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Introduction

The basic reason for learning foreign languages that all people have in common is communication - communication in any mode. It is a two-sided process, which requires the ability to understand each other, to be able to code a message that someone wants to convey to someone else in a way, which will be comprehensible to the receiver and also appropriate to a concrete situation and status of all participants. Vice versa, the person should be able to interpret a message that someone else is conveying to them. To acquire a good skill of communication in foreign language it is necessary to be familiar not only with vocabulary (single words and their meanings, collocations, phrases and phrasal verbs etc.) but also with language structures and above all with strategies for using them in right context according to concrete situations.

Learners can generally communicate well, having learnt all the basic structures of the language. However, they need to broaden their vocabulary to express themselves more clearly and appropriately in a wide range of situations.

Students might even have a receptive knowledge of a wider range of vocabulary, which means they can recognise the item and recognise its meaning. Nevertheless, their productive use of a wide range of vocabulary is normally limited, and this is one of the areas that need greater attention. At this stage we are concerned not only with students understanding the meaning of words, but also being able to use them appropriately, taking into account factors such as oral / written use of the language; degree of formality, style and others.

The relevancies of the topic are:

-Finding out the basic principles of teaching vocabulary in FLTL.

-Introducing the methodological aspects of teaching vocabulary.

-Looking for interesting and effective methods of teaching and learning foreign language vocabulary.

-Applying these methods on practice and creating classroom activities on their basis.

The problem:

-Choosing the most effective method of learning vocabulary among a great number of techniques and methods.

The topic:

The topic of my term paper is “Methods and principles of teaching in teaching and learning Foreign Language”. This research paper is directed to the role of vocabulary for the progress in teaching and learning foreign languages.

Object of the research: The process of teaching foreign languages.

Subject of the research: Principles and methods in teaching and learning foreign language vocabulary in order to outline suitable ways of effective and comfortable dealing with students' vocabulary teaching possibilities on the way of forming all four skill areas: reading, writing, speaking, and listening.

Goal: to find out the most efficient classroom activities on the basis of different methods and principles of building vocabulary.

Objectives:

- to illustrate the theoretical support of the importance of teaching vocabulary;

- to use techniques of teaching vocabulary on the lessons ;

- to find out the effective principles and methods of teaching vocabulary;

- to enlarge own knowledge of teaching.

Research methods: observation of the process of teaching and learning foreign languages at school, generalization, method of comparison, studying and analyzing scientific literature, method of processing and interpretation data, descriptive method.

Scientific basis:

1. Allen, V. (1983) Techniques in teaching vocabulary. OUP.

2. Gairns, R. Redman, S. (1986) Working with words. CUP.

3. Hill, J. (1999) `Collocational competence' English Teaching Professional, 11, pp. 3-6.

4. Lewis, M. (1993) The lexical approach. LTP.

5. Lewis, M. (1997) Implementing the lexical approach. LTP

6. Brown, H. D. (1987) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

7. Brumfit, C. and Johnson, K. (1979) (ed.) The Communicative Approach to Language Teaching. New York: Oxford University Press.



1. The importance of teaching vocabulary

1.1 Teaching vocabulary - the basis for forming four main skills

To know a language means to master its structure and words. Thus, vocabulary one of the aspects of the language to be taught in school. The problem is what words and idioms pupils should retain. It is evident that the number of words should be limited because pupils have only 2-4 periods a week; the size of the group is not small enough to provide each pupil with practice in speaking; schools are not yet fully equipped with special laboratories for individual language learning. The number of words pupils should acquire in school depends wholly on the syllabus requirements. The later are determined by the condition and method used. For example, experiments have proved that the use of programmed instruction for vocabulary learning allows us to increase the number of the words to be learned since pupils are able to assimilate them while working independently with the programme.

We know the following fact that

I - words used in reading,

II - words used in auding,

III - words used in speaking,

IV - words used in writing.

The main aim of teaching vocabulary is assimilation of the meaning, form of the words and its usage in oral and written speech - that is formation of lexical habits. People can have many aptitudes, but without a large and precise English vocabulary to express them, they cannot take full advantage of these abilities. Unlike aptitudes, vocabulary is not a natural ability; it can be improved if one is willing to make the effort to do so. [1,90]

Building vocabulary is a powerful way to enhance your life and career. Learning how to build a better vocabulary can be a pleasurable and profitable investment of both your time and effort. At least fifteen minutes a day of concentrated study on a regular basis can bring about a rapid improvement in your vocabulary skills, which in turn can increase your ability to communicate by writing, conversing, or making speeches. Acquiring a large vocabulary can benefit you in school, at work, and socially. It will enable you to understand others' ideas better and to have the satisfaction of getting your thoughts and ideas across more effectively. Perhaps the most important factor in a successful vocabulary-building program is motivation. It will be very difficult for you to study words month after month without a strong feeling that it is worth doing, that a larger vocabulary will help you in school and on the job, and that it can well lead to a more exciting and fulfilling life.

1.2 Basic steps of building vocabulary

For the first, according to the topic of my research paper I identify four basic steps to a better vocabulary:

1. Be Aware of Words

2. Read

3. Use a Dictionary

4. Study and Review Regularly

While there are not any magic shortcuts to learning words, the larger your vocabulary becomes, the easier it will be to connect a new word with words you already know, and thus remember its meaning. [1,101]

1. Be Aware of Words

Many people are surprised when they are told they have small vocabularies. “But I read all the time!” they protest. This shows that reading alone may not be enough to make you learn new words. When we read a novel, for instance, there is usually a strong urge to get on with the story and skip over unfamiliar or perhaps vaguely known words. But while it is obvious when a word is totally unknown to you, you have to be especially aware of words that seem familiar to you but whose precise meanings you may not really know. Instead of avoiding these words, you will need to take a closer look at them. First, try to guess at a word's meaning from its context--that is, the sense of the passage in which it appears; second, if you have a dictionary on hand, look up the word's meaning immediately. This may slow down your reading somewhat, but your improved understanding of each new word will eventually speed your learning of other words, making reading easier. Make a daily practice of noting words of interest to you for further study whenever you are reading, listening to the radio, talking to friends, or watching television.

2. Read

When you have become more aware of words, reading is the next important step to increasing your knowledge of words, because that is how you will find most of the words you should be learning. It is also the best way to check on words you have already learned. When you come across a word you have recently studied, and you understand it, that proves you have learned its meaning. What should you read? Whatever interests you--whatever makes you want to read. If you like sports, read the sports page of the newspapers; read magazines like Sports Illustrated; read books about your favorite athletes. Often people with very low vocabularies don't enjoy reading at all. It's more of a chore for them than a pleasure because they don't understand many of the words. If this is the way you feel about reading, try reading easier things. Newspapers are usually easier than magazines; a magazine like Reader's Digest is easier to read than The Atlantic Monthly. There is no point in trying to read something you simply are not able to understand or are not interested in. The important idea is to find things to read you can enjoy, and to read as often and as much as possible with the idea of learning new words always in mind. [1,112]

3. Use a Dictionary

Most people know how to use a dictionary to look up a word's meaning. Here are some pointers on how to do this as a part of a vocabulary-building program:

* Have your own dictionary

Keep it where you usually do your reading at home. You are more likely to use it if you do not have to get it from another room. At work, there may be a good dictionary available for your use. At home, most people do not have a big, unabridged dictionary; however, one of the smaller collegiate dictionaries would be fine to start with.

* Circle the words you look up

After you have done this for a while, your eye will naturally move to the words you have circled whenever you flip through the dictionary. This will give you a quick form of review.

* Read the entire entry for the word you look up

Remember, words can have more than one meaning, and the meaning you need for the word you are looking up may not be the first one given in your dictionary. Even if it is, the other meanings of the word will help you understand the different ways the word is used.

Also, the word's history, usually given near the beginning of the entry, can often give a fascinating picture of the way the word has developed its current meaning. This will add to the pleasure of learning the word as well as help you remember it.

4. Study and Review Regularly

Once you have begun looking up words and you know which ones to study, vocabulary building is simply a matter of reviewing the words regularly until you fix them in your memory. This is best done by setting aside a specific amount of time each day for vocabulary study. During that time you can look up new words you have noted during the day and review old words you are in the process of learning. Set a goal for the number of words you would like to learn and by what date, and arrange your schedule accordingly. Fifteen minutes a day will bring better results than half an hour once a week or so. However, if half an hour a week is all the time you have to spare, start with that. You may find more time later on, and you will be moving in the right direction. Teaching a word does not cause its automatic learning by the students. That is one of the first things teachers realize when they start teaching. It would be wonderful if finishing a unit of the course book meant that the students master all the words in it. Unfortunately, a lot of work (recycling, vocabulary notebooks keeping, memory techniques...) has to be done before students thoroughly know a word. The activities which follow have been tested on students and provide a practical suggestion for a systematic approach to vocabulary learning. Appendix A

To conclude, student should more read, use a dictionary, and must be aware of all new words he has learned to enrich the vocabulary; but the main rule is the regularity of this job.



2. Theoretical background of teaching vocabulary

2.1 Principles

The vocabulary, therefore, must be carefully selected in accordance with the principles of selecting linguistic material, the conditions of teaching and learning a foreign language in school. Scientific principles of selecting vocabulary have been worked out. The words selected should be:

- frequently used in the language (the frequency of the word may be determined mathematically by means of statistic data);

- easily combined (nice room, nice girl, nice weather);

- unlimited from the point of view of style (oral, written);

- included in the topics the syllabus sets;

- valuable from the point of view of word-building (use, used, useful, useless, usefully, user, usage).

The first principle, word frequency, is an example of a purely linguistic approach to word selection. It is claimed to be the soundest criterion because it is completely objective. It is derived by counting the number of occurrences of words appearing in representative printed material comprising novels, essay, pays, poems, newspapers, textbooks, and magazines.

Modern tendency is to apply this principle depending on the language activities to be developed. For developing reading skills pupils need “reading vocabulary” (M. West), thus various printed texts are analyzed from the point of view of word frequency. For developing speaking skills pupils need “speaking vocabulary”. In this case the material for analysis is the spoken language recorded. The occurrences of words are counted in it and the more frequently used in speaking are selected. [2,15]

The other principles are of didactic value, they serve teaching aims.

The words selected may be grouped under the following the classes (M. West):

1. Words that we talk with or form (structural) words which make up the form (structure) of the language.

2. Words that we talk about or content words.

In teaching vocabulary for practical needs both structural words and content words are of great importance. That is why they are included in the vocabulary minimum.

H. Douglas Broun in his book "Principles of language learning and teaching" offers lots of psychological and scientific information regarding the principles of teaching. We just do an attempt to choose the appropriate one for vocabulary. Appendix B

The first principle in teaching vocabulary is the availability of comprehension and production. In child language, most observational and research evidence points to the general superiority of comprehension over production: children seem to understand "more" than they actually produce. For instance, a child may understand a sentence with an embedded relative in it (e.g., "The ball that's in the sandbox is red") but not be able to produce one. W.R. Miller gave us a good example of this phenomenon in phonological development: "Recently a three-year-old child told me her name was Litha. I answered Litha?' *No, Litha.' 'Oh, Lisa.' 'Yes, Litha.'" The child clearly perceived the contrast between English s and th, even though she could not produce the contrast herself." In teaching it is very important to develop the comprehension competence and production competence as well. However it is necessary to make a distinction between production competence and comprehension competence. A theory of language must include some accounting of the separation of the two type of competence. In fact, linguistic competence no doubt has several mode or levels, at least as many as four, since speaking, listening, reading, an writing are all separate modes of performance. [2,22]

The second principle for teaching vocabulary according to H. Douglas Brown is systematicity and variability. One of the assumptions of a good deal of current research on child language is the systematicity of the process of acquisition. From pivot grammar to three- and four-word utterances, and to full sentences of almost indeterminate length, children exhibit a remarkable ability to infer the phonological, structural, lexical, and semantic system of language. The teacher realizing this phenomenon of children's acquisition should introduce new vocabulary systematically. But in the midst of all this systematicity, there is an equally remarkable amount of variability in the process of learning. Just as native speakers of a language vacillate between expressions like "It has to be you" and "It must be you," learners also exhibit variation, sometimes within the parameters of acceptable norms, sometimes not. Some variability in learner language can be explained by what Gatbonton (1983) described as the "gradual diffusion" of incorrect forms of language in emergent and systematic stages of development. First, incorrect forms coexist with correct; then, the incorrect are expunged. Context has also been identified as a source of variation. In classrooms, the type of task can affect variation (Tarone & Parrish 1988).

The third principle is the creating of motivation. Motivation is probably the most frequently used catch-all term for explaining the success or failure of virtually any complex task. It is easy to assume that success in any task is due simply to the fact that someone is "motivated." It is easy in second language learning to claim that a learner will be successful with the proper motivation. Such claims are of course not erroneous, for countless studies and experiments in human learning have shown that motivation is a key to learning and learning vocabulary as well. [3, 12]

The fourth principle is error treatment. One of the major issues involved in teaching vocabulary is the manner in which teachers deal with student errors. The most useful implication of Vigil and Oiler's model for a theory of error treatment is that cognitive feedback must be optimal in order to be effective. Too much negative cognitive feedback--a barrage of interruptions, corrections, and overt attention to malformations--often leads learners to shut off their attempts at communication. On the other hand, too much positive cognitive feedback--will-ingness of the teacher-hearer to let errors go uncorrected, to indicate understanding when understanding may not have occurred--serves to reinforce the errors of the speaker-learner. The task of the teacher is to discern the optimal tension between positive and negative cognitive feedback: providing enough green lights to encourage continued communication, but not so many that crucial errors go unnoticed, and providing enough red lights to call attention to those crucial errors, but not so many that the learner is discouraged from attempting to speak at all.

The fifth principle involves taking into account personal factors of learners which the teacher usually deals with. Personal factors include: the affective domain - emotional side of human behavior; self-esteem; inhibition - attempts to protect the ego; risk-taking; anxiety, extraversion, self-esteem, and introversion. [4,32]

These five principles refer to developing the acquisition and may be expanded. David Nunan offers another description of teaching principles concerning vocabulary. He proposes them to avoid the difficulties in planning the vocabulary component of a course. These guiding principles can be applied in a variety of teaching and learning situations.

2.2 Methods of teaching vocabulary

The variety of methods (of teaching vocabulary) leads to increased vocabulary learning.

Different methods for teaching vocabulary:

Explicit instruction (definitions instruction including pre-teaching and analysis of root words)

Implicit instruction (exposure to words during reading)

Multimedia methods (pictures, hypertext)

Program methods based on investigating of different scientists (Direct, Audio-lingual, Grammar-translation, Suggestopedia, etc.) [5,10]

Direct method

The direct method of teaching foreign languages, sometimes called the natural method, refrains from using the learners' native language and uses only the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900. Characteristic features of the direct method are:

teaching vocabulary through pantomiming, real-life objects and other visual materials;

teaching grammar by using an inductive approach (i.e. having learners find out rules through the presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target language);

centrality of spoken language (including a native-like pronunciation);

teacher-centering;

Principles of the Direct method

Classroom instructions are conducted exclusively in the target language.

Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.

Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.

Grammar is taught inductively.

New teaching points are introduced orally.

Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.

Both speech and listening comprehensions are taught.

Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.

Student should be speaking at least 80% of the time during the lesson.

Students are taught from inception to ask questions as well as answer them.

The aim of direct method is to think in the target language to develop a good communication skill. [6, 18]

The teaching techniques rely mostly on

Reading Aloud: Students take turns reading sections of a passage, play or dialog loud. At the end of each students turn, the teacher uses gestures, pictures, realia, examples or other means to make the meaning of the section clear.

Question and Answer Exercise: This exercise is conducted only in the target language. Students are asked questions and answer in full sentences so that they practice with new words and grammatical structure. They have the opportunity to ask questions as well as answer them.

Getting Students To Self-Correct: The teacher the class has the students self-correct by asking them to make a choice between what they said and an alternate answer he supplied. There are, however other ways of getting students to self-correct. For example, a teacher might simply repeat what a student has just said, using a questioning voice to signal to the student that something was wrong with it.

Conversation Practice: The teacher asks students a number of questions in the target language, which the students have to understand to be able to answer correctly.

Fill-in-the-blank Exercise: This technique is already been discussed in the grammar translation method, but differs in its application in the Direct Method. All the items are in the target language; furthermore no explicit grammar rule would be applied. The students would have induced the grammar rule they need to fill in the blanks from examples and practice with earlier parts of the lesson.

Dictation: The teacher reads the passage three times. The first time the teacher reads it at a normal speed, while the students just listen. The second time he reads the passage phrase by phrase, pausing long enough to allow students to write down what they have heard. The last time the teacher again reads at a normal speed and students checked their work.

Map Drawing: An Example: The students are given a map with the geographical features unnamed. Then the teacher gives the students directions such as the following, “Find the mountain range. Write the words “Toros Mountains” across the mountain range”. The teacher gives instructions for all the geopraphical features of Turkey so that students will have a completely labeled map if they follow the teacher's instructions correctly.

Paragraph Writing: On an example topic about geography the teacher may ask the students to write a paragraph in their own words on the major geographical features of Turkey. They can do this from memory, or they can use the reading passage in the lesson as a model.

Clearly the Direct Method is a shift away from the Grammar Translation Method. One of its positive points is that it promises to teach the language and Not about the language. More advantages can be listed as follows:

It is a natural method which teaches language the same way the mother tongue is acquired. Only the target language is used and the learning is contextulaized.

Its emphasis on speech made it more attractive for those who have needs of real communication in the target language.

It was one of the first methods to introduce the teaching of vocabulary through realia. [7,58]

Audio-lingual method

This method of Language Learning is also called the Aural-Oral Method. This method is said to result in rapid acquisition of speaking and listening skills. The audio-lingual method drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. When this method was developed it was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the second language was through conditioning or helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement.

The Audio-lingual Method is based on the following principles:

Speaking and listening competence preceded reading and writing competence.

Use of German is highly discouraged in the classroom.

The development of language skills is a matter of habit formulation.

Students practice particular patterns of language through structured dialogue and drill until response is automatic.

Structured patterns in language are taught using repetitive drills.

The emphasis is on having students produce error free utterances.

This method of language learning supports kinesthetic learning styles.

Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures. Abstract vocabulary is taught through association of ideas.

The printed word must be kept away from the second language learner as long as possible.

Types of activities using Audio-lingual method:

1. Dialog Memorization: Students are given a short dialog to memorize then they must use mimicry and applied role playing to present the dialog.

2. Backward Build Up: Provide students with the the sentence fragments found in the materials section. Students repeat each part of the sentence starting at the end of the sentence and expanding backwards through the sentence adding each part in sequence. [8,45]

3. Transformation Drill: The teacher provides a question which must be transformed into a statement. An extension of this activity is to have the students make a question out of a statement.

4. Complete the Dialog: Have the students fill in the blanks in the dialogs provided. The proper English word must be inserted into the text. This activity is much like a cloze activity.

5. Dictation: Using any piece of literature at the students' reading level, read the piece aloud several times. Have the students write down what they hear. The idea is to write what they have heard as literally as possible.

6. Flashcards: Using flashcards with words that are relevant to them brainstorm other words about the word on the card. A new word could be chosen each day.

7. Chain Drill: A chain of conversation forms around the room as the teacher greets or questions a student and that student responds then turns to the next student and greets or asks a question of the second student and the chain continues.
8. The Alphabet Game: The teacher picks a category, such as the supermarket. Then the first student says, "I am going to the supermarket. I need a few apples." (The first student names something beginning with A.) The second student says, "I am going to the supermarket. I need a few apples and I need a few bananas." The game continues in this manner with each consecutive student adding an item beginning with the next letter after repeating the items named before their own. [8,53]

Suggestopedia

Suggestopedia is a teaching model developed by a Bulgarian, Dr. Georgi Lozanov, at the University of Sofia in Bulgaria in the 60's. Dr. Lozanov was a pioneer in that Suggestopedia was the first of the various cutting-edge brain friendly learning techniques which are utilized in progressive classrooms today.

There are two phases incorporated in this approach:
Students learn new information very quickly and efficiently in a state of light relaxation accompanied by Baroque or classical music. This new material which has been acquired 3 to 5 times faster than with traditional learning techniques, is now stored passively in the brain. It is then activated by means of creative, interactive and communicative learning techniques, i.e. grammar games, role play, etc. which contribute not only to recall and retention but also to the communication skills and personality development of the students. [7,78]

The benefits of this approach:

You will address the learning needs and styles of every student in your class.

You will guarantee a higher and faster success rate among learners.

You will increase retention and recall of material and long-term memory.

You will instill higher confidence and self-esteem in your learners.

You will promote the creativity as well as the learning and social competence of your students.

You will create a pleasant, cooperative and fun learning environment in your classroom.

You will have motivated students coming to your classes -- students who have rediscovered the joy of learning. And motivated students make motivated teachers!!

Levin 's Keyword Method

The Keyword method is a mnemonic strategy in which the students devise a keyword, which looks or sounds like original word to be learnt, to associate new information with a mental image to aid in later recall of the target word. Owing to this idea, Wenden and Rubin posit that mnemonic strategy may be meant as "aiding memory” in which the students can memorize and retrieve all kind of language routine occurring in the classroom. Often, it refers, to "memory trick" where the students may utilize a retrieval plan to be developed during encoding and mental imagery, both visual and verbal. Briefly, mnemonic strategy enables the students to store verbal material and retrieve it when needed for communication. Relating to the use of keyword in mnemonic or memory strategies, Oxford (1990:62) clarifies that this strategy combines sounds and images so that the students can more easy to remember what they hear or read in the new language. The strategy has two steps.

Firstly, identify a familiar word in one's own language or another language that sounds like the new word.

Secondly, generate visual image of thy new word and thy familiar one interacting in some way. In line with the use of keyword mentioned above, it might be inferred that keyword method is regarded as means of helping the students in remembering new vocabulary in harmony with the sound produced. But, before applying this strategy, the English teacher should need to consider not only its advantages but also disadvantages.

Hence, Nagy and Anderson (1991) as cited by Robert et al (1995), reveal that there are some disadvantages of applying the strategy, applying the strategy, among others are: “The first it could be time consuming for the teacher to generate keywords and their accompanying image. Second, the visual images initially used are teacher-provided, not students-provided that which they are less involvement in their own learning, and third, the extent to which students can transfer the keywords techniques to other areas of study is relatively unknown at this time.” Based on some the quotations above, it is possible to conclude that effectiveness of keyword method largely depends on a process of re-coding, relating and retrieving. It means that the students must be able to re-code or transform the unknown word to be learnt into a more meaningful keyword that looks or sound like original. Besides, its effectiveness also depends on the allocated-time, the students' involvement, and the length of word to be learnt. [9, 34]

Communicative approach

As the name implies, the central concept in communicative language teaching is “communicative competence” [9,159]. This covers both the spoken and written language and all four language skills. As Oxford states, the “development of communicative competence requires realistic interaction among learners using meaningful, contextualized language”.

Learning strategies, like allowing learners to become more self-directed and more independent in learning the new language help them to participate actively in communication. In her book “Interpreting Communicative Language Teaching: Contexts and Concerns in Teacher Education” Savignon includes a useful summary of the eight characteristics of communicative language teaching by the linguist M. Berns:

1) Language teaching is based on a view of language as communication. That is, language is seen as a social tool that speakers use to make meaning; speakers communicate about something to someone for some purpose, either orally or in writing.

2) Diversity is recognized and accepted as part of language development and use in second language learners and users, as it is with first language users.

3) A learner's competence is considered in relative, not in absolute, terms.

4) More than one variety of the language is recognized as a viable model for learning and teaching.

5) Culture is recognized as instrumental in shaping speaker's communicative competence, in both their first and subsequent languages.

6) No single methodology or fixed set of techniques is prescribed.

7) Language use is recognized as serving ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions and is related to the development of learner's competence in each.

8) It is essential that learners be engaged in doing things with language - that is, that they use language for a variety of purposes in all phases of learning.

One major feature of communicative language teaching is pair and group work. This type of work “is suggested to encourage students to use and practice functions and forms” [10,171]. That helps the students to become more independent and to accept responsibility.

Thus, when teaching vocabulary we must take into account the following principles: availability of comprehension and production, systemacity and variability, motivation, error treatment, and personal factors. There are plenty of methods in teaching/learning language. I considered the most popular such as direct method, suggestopedia, keyword method, audio-lingual, and communicative approach.



3. The methods used on practice

3.1 Presentation of new lexical material

Having analyzed the principal methods of learning English, I would like to offer to combine the main features of the methods that appealed to me more. The method given below is synthesized from the principle peculiarities of the direct method and the communicative approach.

As we know, the object of learning FL is the building of the communicative competence. As for me, communicative skills can be perfect only if the learner can think on this language. It seems to me that at school students are not taught how to think in English, they are taught how to translate faster and more correctly. Of course, at the beginner level the translation to the mother tongue is inevitable, that's why this method can be applied at the higher levels of knowing English.

I am not saying that translation does not have a place in learning a language but what I am saying there is no place for it in the language classroom. There are a number of reasons for this:

1. Learners need to develop their perception, their skills, their analytical abilities, if they are to successfully learn another language. Translating can reduce and at times eliminate the use of these skills, which have gone for many people into various degrees of dormancy.

2. They need to become comfortable in making educated guesses and with making mistakes and then recovering themselves from the blunders. All of these things are part and parcel of learning languages. Students refuse to make guess or try to work something out, which is within their powers to do. Instead, they rush to their bilingual dictionary - knowing that the answer will be instantaneous. No mistakes, no “pain”, no need to go out on a limb, no need to form questions that can help them get closer to the goal.

3. Languages exist in different parts of the brain. Anyone who has tried to learn by translation ail know the feeling of getting stuck because they are looking for a word in their mother tongue, translating it AND then wanting to say it. No wonder they get stuck. When you speak a language there is no time to cross reference to your first language…you MUST be independent in the new language. The sooner and faster you can become independent in it, the better off you will be. Translation delays the formation of the required necessary neural paths in the brain, replacing them with artificial ones that will only need to be discarded. In other words, we are putting in our way an unnecessary steps that can distract us from what we really need to do.

A main factor that has some practitioners advocate translation is that it lends itself to “easy” teaching. How simple is it to get students to translate or to explain in the first language. Think for a moment, when we learnt our first language, we mastered it without the need for translation. Those capacities we had then, we still have now, and I would suggest even more. So why not use them and have learners come to understandings of the new language by using their awareness, wits, their intelligence, their perception. All of this usage making them better language learners. The trick for the language teacher is to teach in ways that encourage these practices but not to replace translation with copious explanations and practices that dull the mind, or at least don't stimulate it to grow.

Besides the translation, there are many other means of explaining new vocabulary that are more effective and interesting. [11]

1. Definitions: All words can be defined in plain words or exemplified. For example, a quail can be defined as a kind of small wild bird that is often hunted.

2. Synonyms and antonyms: These can be effective since students build on words and phrases that students already recognize. Adjectives often have several symptoms, and phrasal verbs will usually have a non-phrasal verb equivalent.

For example, the word interesting has more than 40 synonyms: alluring, curious, delightful, intriguing, engaging, thought-provoking, and many others. As for antonyms, they are about 15, which are boring, usual, familiar, dull and so on.

However, this does not work for all advanced vocabulary lessons, since rich actually has more meanings than "having a lot of money." For older students, prefixes and suffixes are also helpful.

3. Drawing: For visual students, drawing can be a fun medium to explain vocabulary. Teacher does not have to be a perfect artist - stick figures and basic sketches will often work well. He can even have students do their own drawings, which further reinforces their understanding of the vocabulary.

4. Rankings: If teacher has several gradable words to introduce at the same, he can introduce them together on a scale. For instance, frequency can be used, such as always-often-occasionally, or teacher can do emotions in this way, with cheerful-happy-joyous-ecstatic.

5. Cuisenaire Rods: This is another tactic to help visual students. Different colored rods can be used to symbolize different types of words, such as prepositions, verbs, or adjectives.

6. Pictures: Some words work well with pictures, particularly nouns. This can also be a good way to introduce blocks of related words, which is often utilized in foreign language classes, such as nouns and verbs related to the classroom or the house. Pictures can also be used in printable worksheets and flashcards, where pictures are matched to the word they represent.

7. Mime: Miming works well with younger students. Emotions and everyday activities can be mimed out to teach new words.

8. Sound: Sound can be an easy way to illustrate words that describe sounds, such as whistle, scratching, and tinkling. The sounds can be made by teacher, or bring in tapes or CDs for students to listen to and write down the words that they hear.

9. Total physical response: This works well with young students or students studying a foreign language to help introduce them to new concepts. After explaining new vocabulary, you can then ask the students to perform the actions. This can work with simple words like blink or sneak, or more complex ones like eat a sandwich or read a book.

10. Reality: When it is convenient, bringing in the actual item can help students remember the word better and allows for a hands-on experience. Teacher can also use this to introduce step-by-step concepts, like how to play a card game or run a computer program.

All these techniques can help students to get aware of new vocabulary but then they need to memorize it.

3.2 The role of performance

vocabulary teaching performance

Previously I considered the delightful ways of presentation new lexical. But which activity in the classroom is more effective in building the language awareness and training skills? Usually in classroom learners have to sit at the desk and make monotonous, tiresome exercises. As a result, they forget soon the biggest amount of new lexemes, or they can be good in making exercices but be confused in the situation of the real-world communication.

I offer to use the game method, i.e. students must perform, act the theme they are learning. For example, if the topic of a lesson is medicine, they can perform the situation in a hospital; one student can be a doctor, while others can perform as a nurse, a pacient. Learners can improvise, or a teacher can give them a plot. This method is frequently applied as a subsidiary with the aim to defuse the atmosphere. But why not to make this activity the main on a lesson?

ESL plays provide practical experience in communicating, they give children the opportunity to learn to work together and to be part of something, to belong in a group and to develop tolerance and empathy as they begin to see the world from different perspectives. They promote active learning, enriching and reinforcing their more traditional school experiences. In addition, most children are excited by the prospect of performing in front of others as a chance to be the center of attention.

Here are the advantages of using plays. [12]

First of all, it's authentic. Using drama enables children to use English appropriately in real conversations. English is taught in the context in which it will be used, which makes students aware of the language, and as a means of communication and which is far removed from lists of vocabulary, work-sheets and textbooks.

The conversational use of language in an ESL play script promotes fluency. While learning a play, students listen to and repeat their lines over a period of time. By repeating the words and phrases they become familiar with them and are able to say them with increasing fluency.

ESL Drama also teaches to enunciate their words properly and to project their voices when they speak, helping them to become clear and confident speakers.

Using drama to teach English also helps to improve the understanding and retention of language. By the time a student has read, rehearsed and acted out a scene focusing on the phrase "I've forgotten my..." there is little likelihood of ever forgetting how to use it in context. The same would not hold true if the verb "to forget" had been memorised by rote for a vocabulary test.

The active participation required in an ESL drama lesson involves not only the intellect but also learners' imagination and emotions. By encouraging self-expression, drama motivates them to use language confidently and creatively.

Drama allows to tap into different learning styles - visual, auditory, kinesthetic and tactile. Hearing the lines, seeing the actions, feeling the props, acting out movements and using expression all make the lesson a far richer one.

Teacher should try to keep the roles you ask students to play as real to life as possible. It may be hard for students who have little opportunity to travel to imagine they are in 'The Old Tea Shop' in the heart of the English countryside. However, it may be within their schema to imagine they have been asked to help an English speaker who is visiting their own country. This may take some to explain about the local culture or to translate local menus into English for the guest to their country. Students working in the business world may find it easy to role-play a business meeting with colleagues visiting from abroad. If working with young children, teacher should try to exploit their natural ability to 'play'. They are used to acting out a visit to the shops or preparing food, as that is how they play with their friends.

As students practise the role-play they might find that they are stuck for words and phrases. In the practice stage teacher has a chance to 'feed-in' the appropriate language. This may need teacher to act as a sort of 'walking dictionary', monitoring the class and offering assistance as and when necessary. If teacher is not happy doing this and you feel that the process of finding the new language should offer more student autonomy, you could have 'time-out' after the practice stage for students to use dictionaries to look up what they need.

There are many ways to correct mistakes when using role-play. It is rarely appropriate for the teacher to jump in and correct every mistake. This could be incredibly demotivating! Some students like to be corrected straight after a role-play activity, while the language is still fresh in their minds. Sentences with errors can be written on the board for the group to correct together.

Self-correction - If you have the equipment to record the role-plays either on audiocassette or on video, students can be given the opportunity to listen to the dialogue again and reflect on the language used. They may find it easy to spot their own mistakes.

Peer-correction - Fellow students may be able to correct some mistakes made by their peers. Students could be asked to listen out for both great bits of language they'd like to use themselves, and some mistakes they hear. Be careful to keep peer-correction a positive and profitable experience for all involved.

Making a note of common mistakes yourself and dealing with them in future classes ensures that the students don't lose motivation by being corrected on the spot or straight after the role-play. Negotiate with students and ask them how they would like to be corrected.

Certainly, it can be time-consuming for teacher to prepare the plot for each lesson but he can give few minutes in the end of each lesson to talk over the next lesson's play.

3.3 The value of authentic sources

The methods considered above can seriously improve the productive skills but teacher must not forget about the development of reading and listening skills. The authentic sources are considered by many linguists to be the most useful.

Martinez defined that “Authentic would be material designed for native speakers of English used in the classroom in a way similar to the one it was designed for”.

There are many references to authentic material in the language teaching literature (Martinez, 2000; Nunan, 1999; Spelleri, 2002; Widdowson, 1990). Those authors who support the use of authentic materials share a common idea which is “exposure”. By using authentic materials in the classroom, even when it is not in an authentic situation, it still provides the learners with many significant advantages. Martinez summarized several benefits of using authentic materials. The first one is that by using authentic material, students are exposed to real discourse, as in videos of interview with famous people where intermediate students listen for general idea. Secondly, authentic materials keep students informed about what is happening in the world, so they have an intrinsic educational value. Thirdly, as language change is reflected in the materials so that students and teachers can keep abreast of such changes. Fourthly, reading texts are ideal to teach/practise mini-skills such as scanning, e.g. students are given a news article and asked to look for specific information. Also, teachers can have students practice some of the micro-skills of listening, e.g. basically, students listen to news reports and they are asked to identify the names of countries, famous people, etc. Fifthly, different authentic materials such as books, articles, newspapers, and so on contain a wide variety of text types, and language styles not easily found in conventional teaching materials. Thus, it can help student extend their vocabulary and help memorize them in a number of meaningful recyclings. Lastly, authentic materials can encourage reading for pleasure because they are likely to contain topics of interest to learners, especially if students are given the chance to have a say about the topics of kinds of authentic materials to be used in class. As a result, learners will keep high motivation and interesting in language teaching through these meaningful interactions with the materials.

The use of authentic sources leads to greater interest and variety in the material that learners deal with in the classroom. This authentic material helps bring the contact to life, and ultimately makes learning and using language more meaningful, and, ultimately, easily for students”

Spelleri makes a more practical case for using authentic materials with her adult immigrant learners. She argues that authentic materials offer real language that is contextually rich and culturally pertinent. These materials have a high interest value because of their relevance and because there are at least three layers of learning embedded within them: language learning, cultural insights, and practical application. Authentic materials can customize what textbooks have to make generic because of mass marketing consideration. They can help learners “bridge the gap from the classroom lesson to real life by making immediate use of classroom lessons in their lives”. By exposing learners to authentic language can help them develop their predication skills and improve their strategies for dealing with uncertainty in understanding or using target language. [13]

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