The types of transformations in translation

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Course paper

The types of transformations in translation

2015



Сontents

Introduction

1. General theoretical issues of translation

1.1 Theory of translation

1.2 Denotative theory of translation

1.3 Transformation theory of translation

1.4 Semantic theory of translation

1.5 Translation transformation and their classification

2. Lexical transformations in translation

2.1 Transcription and transliteration

2.2 Tracing (calquing)

3. Grammatical transformations in translation

3.1 Types of grammatical transformations

3.2 Infinitive complexes

3.3 The gerund

Conclusion

References



Introduction

Translation has a long history. The roots, he goes back to that distant time when the Proto began to disintegrate into separate languages, and originated need of those who knew several languages and able to act the role of intermediaries in the communication between representatives of different linguistic communities.

Nevertheless, for several reasons, particularly because of its interdisciplinary nature, shape translate into an independent science only in the early twentieth century. With increased international contacts and exchange of information translation studies has developed rapidly and currently enjoys status of an independent scientific discipline with its theoretical basis, conceptual and terminological apparatus.

When translating from the language is the set of translation transformation, the cause of which, most often lies in the inherent English Language vision for peace and the related phenomenon of language selectivity. Describing the objective situation, the English language may choose other than, the starting point in the description. For him, in particular, is characterized predominant use of verbal forms. Russian language, on the contrary, characteristic of the increased use of materialized action and signs, which manifests itself in more frequent than in English, using nouns.

Reason translation transformations can also serve as the internal language factors such as reciprocity and communicative structure of sentences.

In this paper describes the main types of translation transformations model of how to do the translation, consider the situation application of a particular type of translation, are examples.

The object of research of this work are kinds of translation transformations.

The main aim is to consider different types of translation transformations as a means of achieving the adequacy of the translation.

This target causes the following problems:

* Analyze the essence of the concept of "transformation" in translation studies and linguistics as a whole;

* Consider the most significant transformations of translation classification developed by local and foreign scientists;

* Describe the main types of grammatical translation transformations.



1. General theoretical issues of translation

1.1 Theory of translation

Among the many challenges that examines contemporary Linguistics, an important place to the study of linguistic aspects inter language speech activity, which is called "transfer" or "translational activity".

Translation - is undoubtedly a very ancient form of human activity. As only in the history of mankind formed a group of people whose languages differed from each other, appeared and "bilingual" who helped communication between

"multilingual" groups. With the advent of writing to such oral translators - "Tolmach" joined and interpreters written, translate various texts of the official, religious and business nature. From the outset, translate fulfill an important social function, making it possible to cross-language communication between people. Distribution of written Translation opened people access to cultural achievements of other People made possible the interaction and mutual enrichment of literature and cultures. Knowledge of foreign languages can read in the original book on these languages, but to explore even one foreign language cannot each.

Early theorists of translation have been the translators themselves, eager generalize their own experience, and sometimes the experience of their fellow profession. Clearly, setting out his "translation credo "were the most outstanding interpreters of all time and, although expressed their views did not meet modern requirements of scientific and evidence and not evolved into a consistent theoretical concept, yet a number of such considerations, and today is undoubted interest. grammatical translation lexical

At one time a prominent Soviet linguist AA Reformatsky gave negative answer to the question about the possibility of creating a "science of translation "arguing that because the practice of translation that uses data various branches of the science of language, it cannot have their own theory.

However, since the theory of translation was firmly established as a scientific discipline. Contributing conscious public need scientific generalization of translation activity, the development of linguistics, the theory communication and other branches of knowledge, provide the scientific basis for study of translation, and, finally, the emergence of serious translation Studies have convincingly proved the possibility and prospects of establishing research area to identify the nature of translation as a process interlingual and intercultural communication.

Should not forget that the translation is a deliberate activities that meet certain requirements and standards and focused on achieving a certain result. These standards reflect holistic orientation of an interpreter, without which it is impossible satisfactorily explain the logic of translation solutions [1,50].

Exhaustive, comprehensive analysis of the transfer is only possible on the basis of as part of its procedure and its results, or, in other words, through a combination of dynamic and static approaches. Hence that the traditional translation analysis, based on comparison original and translated texts, has the same right to exist as and analysis, tracing the process of translation in its dynamics.

Studying translation as a special kind of verbal communication, the theory of translation is not limited to analysis of its linguistic mechanism. After translation - it is not only the interaction of languages, but also the interaction of cultures. Translated reflected the situation generated by the original text and the situation translation. Is unlikely to adequately describe the translation process, without considering that he had not carried out an idealized construct, a man value and psychological orientation which inevitably affects final result.

Currently, there are three models of the theory of translation: denotative, transformational, and semantic [2, 190]. Let me dwell a bit on each of these models more.

1.2 Denotative theory of translation

Denotative (situational) theory of translation - is the most common model of translation. It comes from the fact that the content all linguistic signs reflects some objects, phenomena, relationships reality. These elements of reality, reflected in the signs of language, usually referred to as denotations. Created with using language code messages (speech segments) also contain information about some situations, about some denotation set in a certain to each other.

Denotative theory of translation defines translation as a process description with using language translation denotation described in the original language. Perceiving original text, the translator identifies the components of the text units with known him signs of the source language, and through these recent finds out which describes the situation in reality the original. After clarification denotations of the original translator describes the same situation in the target language.

In some cases, the same process is much more succinct way. Translator it is known that certain elements of the SL (source language) and TL (target language) have the same referents, and it directly replaces the original unit of the relevant units translation, without resorting to the translation process to extra linguistic reality.

It is important to emphasize that the transfer is only possible because between the units two languages have been tentatively identified situational identity through Treatment to reality.

However, the denotative theory has many weaknesses. It does not take into account Some facts and passes a very important aspect translation process. This theory does not reveal the basic mechanism transition from the original text to text translation. It "works" in those when the situation is more or less uniquely defines the necessary translation.

However, in most cases, the same situation maybe described by a combination of linguistic signs of TL. In these cases appeal to reality does not give sufficient reasons for selecting translation. Denotative theory cannot explain the possibility several variants of the translation of the same segment of the original and can give a theoretical basis to justify the choice between these variants.

Not disclose denotative theory and systematic relationship between content of the original and translation. It does not take into account the identity informative load themselves units of both texts. Accessing actually makes it possible to determine only. As stated in translated text, but not as described.

denotative theory does not solve the problem of equivalence in translation.

Identity denotata original and the translation does not yet provide (or rather, not always provide) the necessary degree of equivalence of the two texts.

There still remains much of the information associated with the choice of language funds as in the original and in translation. Denotative community - it sign of a paraphrase, not translation.

1.3 Transformation theory of translation

In denotative theory of translation focuses on the identity two situations described by the SL and TL. In establishing the connection between these situations units of the original and the translation is given only the role intermediate mediators. On the other hand, the actual process of translation may be submitted and otherwise: the translator receives the original produces some operations related to the original, and as a result creates a text translation. Actions can be an interpreter in this case regarded as the work of some system, the "input" which comes original, and the "exit" given translation. In other words, the basis translation activities will be a kind of transformation or transformation of the original text in translation.

From this idea of translation work and proceeds Transformation theory of translation. The emergence of this theory is connected with ideas of language teaching, known as the "transformational grammar. "Transformational Grammar is considering rules generation syntactic structures, which are characterized by commonality of tokens and basic logical-syntactic relations, such as: "The boy threw a stone", "The stone was thrown into a boy," "Abandoned boy's Stone," Throwing stone boy. "Similar structures can be obtained from one another on relevant transformational rules. Differing form components their units, they have a considerable, though not absolute, common (otherwise the "invariance") of the content.

Transformational Grammar is not just relate to one another structure, related rules of transformation. She believes some of these structures source ( "nuclear"), and the remaining structure ( "Transform") prints of small number of nuclear structures or, conversely, reduces to the nuclear structures. For example, if the nuclear adopted predicative structure "figure - action" - "Мальчик¹читает²", then it is easily deduced from other transforms that preserve this fundamental attitude: "Чтение²мальчика¹", "Читающий²мальчик¹", "Прочитанное²мальчиком¹" etc.

In the general theory of translation can be divided into two directions, in different ways using the ideas of transformational grammar. The first direction examines the process of creating a text translation as a transformation units and structures SL in the unit and the structure of TL. Expected intralingual transformation and translation from one language to another - the phenomenon same order and that the translation is a series of inter language transformations.

Second direction of development of transformational theory of translation, not considering how the transformation of the transition itself from the SL to TL, describes a series phases of the translation process in terms of transformation.

This theory first postulated the possibility of reducing total variety of linguistic forms SL and TL to some relatively small (in Anyway, foreseeable) the number of structures. It is assumed that between similar structures SL and fifth there is complete equivalence. In any two languages is a set of units with similar content. It these units are "nuclear", and to them according to certain rules may reduced all the other units of language. As between the nuclear units SL and TL there is complete equivalence, the translation at the level of these structures will be reduced to a simple substitution, the replacement of the nuclear structure SL equivalent of nuclear structure TL.

Using the transformational model for the study of translation activity seems to be very useful. Considering formal units of the original and translation as related transforms, Transformational theory thus gives a prominent place comparative study of multilingual forms, among which may be established relationship translation equivalence. This approach provides a theoretical basis to describe the system of translation of specific relations between the two languages that is one of the main tasks of translation. Very fruitful and a description in terms of transformation of the process of translation. On by comparing the initial and final forms of translation transformations it is possible to identify the different types of transformation in the translation, that equips the interpreter knowledge so-called "translation techniques, which are widely used in practice.

Nevertheless, for several reasons, transformational theory of translation is suitable to describe only certain aspects of translation activities, mainly related to the grammatical relations structures SL and TL. To describe the translation work required more "strong" general theory of translation.

1.4 Semantic theory of translation

One of the main objectives of the general theory of translation is the realization of essentially equivalent to the relations between the content of the original and translation.

It is natural to assume that the theoretical model of translation activities should primarily be based on a study of the semantic text and translation. Arguing in theory, one could argue that equivalence of the content of the two texts (including the two texts different languages) implies identity or sufficiently close similarity all or some of the semantic elements that make up the content of these texts. The translation process in this case would be to allocate semantic elements in the original and the choice of units TL, the maximum the degree of expressing the same elements of meaning in translation.

Any semantic model of translation, theory of translation.

Stipulated for comparing elements of the content of the original and translation inevitably involves an analysis of the structure of the content, the ability to allocate him some basic units or components. This creates significant difficulties in developing such theories, because until recently, linguistics not? Completely satisfactory methods for the analysis plan content. In connection with this early work on linguistic translation studies were limited to very basic articulation of content original, which must be brought in translation. The text of the original allocated "semantic content" and "expressive-stylistic features. The first (referred to as "object-logical content") united all the factual information and the second - the emotional-evaluative elements and characteristics of units of text in terms of their belonging to certain functional style of language or genre of speech. All the same, and such segmentation is allowed to point to the need to include in the translation equivalence of expressive-stylistic consistency of the original and translation. Nonequivalence identical messages transmitted through linguistic signs belonging to different segments of the stylistic language indisputable.

Further development of linguistic studies of the content has the possibility of a more detailed description of the elements of meaning in the original and translation. Content (value) of any unit of language is seen as set (beam) more elementary meanings, semantic factors or Sem.

Select individual Semantic in the content of a linguistic unit is made by determine the differential characteristic for which the content of this opposed to close to the unit value of another unit of language.

Semantic Translation Theory establishes translation equivalence on Semantic common stock in the content of the original and translation. This commonality does not exist between the set of things, reserved for some units different languages (such commonality is fundamentally impossible because of language selectivity), but only between the individual elements of meaning. Task interpreter is to play in the translation of precisely those basic meanings, which are communicatively relevant to the original. Loss all other things, contained in the value of transferred units, is considered in translation of unimportant.



1.5 Translation transformation and their classification

Main purpose of the transfer - the achievement of adequacy. Adequate, or as it also called equivalent translation - is a translation, which performed at the level necessary and sufficient for transfer invariable plane of content, subject to appropriate plan expression, rules of the translation language.

By definition AV Fedorova, adequacy - a "comprehensive transfer semantic content of the original and fully functional and stylistic correspondence to him"[3, 28].

Main task of an interpreter in achieving adequacy - ably produce various translation transformation in order to text translation as close as possible to transmit all information contained in the original text, while respecting the rules of the translation language.

"Transformation - the basis of most methods of translation. It consists in Change of formal (lexical or grammatical transformations) or semantic (semantic transformation) components of the source text while preserving the information for the transfer "[4, 320]. YI Retsker defines transformation as "the techniques of logical thinking, with we disclose the value of foreign words in context and find him n match, does not coincide with the dictionary "(Retsker 1974, p.38)

Currently, there are many classifications of translation transformations (the PT), proposed by various authors.

Consider some of them.

LK Latyshev (Latyshev 1981 p.131-137) gives a classification of the nature Friday deviations from the interlanguage of correspondences in which all are divided at:

1) Morphological - replacement of a categorical form of one or more;

2) Syntax - changed the syntactic functions of words and phrases;

3) The style - stylistic change in color of the segment of text;

4) Semantic - a change not only the content of expressions, but the content itself, namely, those signs by which describe the situation;

5) Mixed - lexical-semantic and syntactic and morphological.

The classification Barkhudarov translation transformations differ on formal grounds: transpositions, additions, substitutions, omissions (Barkhudarov 1975 P.190-231). When this LS Barkhudarov emphasizes that such a division is in largely approximate and conditional. Transpositions are called changes in location (order of) the language elements in the text translation compared with the text of the original. Under the substitutions are meant as changes in the translation of words, parts of speech, parts of the sentence, types syntactic context, and lexical substitution (instantiation, generalization, antonymic transfer, compensation). Additions imply the use of additional words in the translation, without correspondences in the original. By omission meant the omission of one or other words in the translation. YI Retsker (Retsker 1974 p.38) writes that "although not always possible classify each example the transfer because of interlocking categories, generally can be identified 7 types of lexical transformations:

- differentiation of values;

- specification of values;

- Generalization of values;

- semantic development;

- antonymic translation;

- holistic transformation;

- compensation for losses in the translation process.

LS Barkhudarov (1973), LK Latyshev (1988), TR Levitskaya, AM Fiterman (1973), VN Komissarov (1994), YI Retsker (1974) divided Fri on the lexical, grammatical, stylistic. Transformations can combined with each other, taking the nature of complex transformations. For example, ZD Lviv (1985) finds that among the different types of transformations are no blank wall, the same transformation can sometimes be a contentious case, they can be attributed to different types.

In this paper we performed an analysis of lexical and grammatical transformations on the example of translation of selected chapters from the book by J. Salinger "The Catcher in the Rye", made R. Wright-Kovaleva.

2. Lexical transformation in translation

Lexical transformations are applied in translation in the case of source code is found non-standard language units at the word level, example, a proper name, inherent in the original language and culture absent in transforming the language, the term in a professional area; words denoting the objects, phenomena and concepts of the original culture or the traditional naming elements of the third culture, but absent or have other structural and functional orderliness in transforming the culture. Such a word is very important place in the translation process, since, being relatively independent of context, they nevertheless give the translation, the different direction, depending on the choice of an interpreter.

To the lexical transfer methods accepted include the following: transcription and transliteration, tracing, lexical-semantic change, instantiation, generalization, or modulation of semantic development.

2.1 Transcription and transliteration

Translation transcription - a formal phoneme reconstruction original lexical unit with the phonemes of the translation language phonetic imitation of the headword. Another method of translation is transliteration - formal Literal recreate the original lexical units with the alphabet of the translation language, character imitation of the form headword. Thus the original word in the translation presented in a form adapted to the pronunciation characteristics transforming the language, for example, Shakespeare - Shakespeare:Russian form of name should be partially read the rules of English spelling of sounds (the sounds w, k, n are the direct analogs of the original), and partially transforms them into roughly similar - in those cases where the n language there phonetically analogs (English diphthongs become monophthong e, and -- the initial element of the diphthong).

In other words, transcription or transliteration (full or partial), the direct use of the word for realities, or its roots in the writing of the letters of their language or in combination with suffixes of their language.

Transliteration with translation into n language is used frequently in those when it comes to names of institutions, positions, specific for a given country, the scope of the socio-political life, the names objects and concepts of material life, the forms of treatment to the interlocutor and etc.

Transliterated way to transfer is widely distributed and leaves significant footprint in the n literary translation, and in the original works (artistic, journalistic, scientific). Evidence are such that, for example, words related to the British public life as a "peer", "mayor", "landlord", "Esquire," or the Spanish, as "Hidalgo", "Torero", "corrida" and others; words associated with the life of the French cities, such as "cab", "concierge", British treatment "Miss", "Sir" and many others like them.

There is no word which could not be translated into another language, least descriptively, common combination of words of the language.

But the transliteration is needed precisely when it is important to observe lexical brevity of notation, corresponding to its familiarity in the language the original, and at the same time emphasize the specificity of known things, or concept, if there is no exact match in the target language. Evaluating feasibility of using transliteration, you must accurately take into account How important is the transfer of this specificity. If the latter is not required, the use of transliteration becomes abuse foreign borrowing, leading to obscuring meaning, and to obstruction native language.

Should be highlighted as a translation problem of the so-called reality naming of national and cultural objects, characteristic for the original Culture and relatively little or no known transforming culture. In conditions of large-scale cross-cultural communication are naming are a very large group, and the most common way of transfer to another language is a translation or transcription standard transliteration.

Feasibility and legality of transliteration in certain cases proved by the fact that often the authors who write about the life of other peoples resorted to this language means, as a way to include and emphasize realities of life specific to this nation. In the n language included, For example, the word "village", "village", "hut" and many others and this is transliteration become traditional. It stressed the specificity of things denoted by the word, it differs from what would be approximately denotes the corresponding n word (cf. the "village" and "village", with one hand, and "village", on the other, "hut" or "hut" and "hut"). Sample words borrowed by the transliteration of the original literature, is motivation for using such words in the translation.

Often foreign words are transferred to the target language is to highlight shades of specificity that is inherent in their expressed realities - with possibility of lexical translation, more or less accurate.

When the word is used rarely, or, especially, for the first time transferred to the n translated text, it is necessary commentary on explanation, and the appropriate context.

However, in the Russian translations of Western literature in recent years increasingly been enhanced tendency to avoid such words, which would require explanatory notes, are not expected original - i.e. is transliterated signs of foreign realities, but which have become commonplace. In contrast, in modern translation Oriental languages transliteration is used quite often, when it talking about things or events that are specific to the material or social life, i.e. have no correspondences with us.

Transliteration and transcription are used for the translation of proper names, names of peoples and tribes, geographical names, names of business institutions, companies, firms, periodicals, names of sports teams, stable groups rock musicians, cultural facilities, etc. Large some of these names are relatively easy to transcription, translation or, rarely, transliteration:

Hollywood [JDS 5] [5] - Hollywood [Per. 241] [6]

Pencey [J.D.S. 5] - Pensi [Per. 241]

Saxon Hall [J.D.S. 6] - Saxon Hall [Trans. 242]

Robert Tichener [J.D.S. 9] - Robert Titchner [Trans. 243]

Paul Campbell [J.D.S. 9] - Paul Campbell [Trans. 243]

Elkton Hill [J.D.S. 20] - Elkton Hill [Per. 250]

Edgar Marsala [J.D.S. 24] - Eddie Marsalla [Trans. 252]

Bank of London - Bank of London

Minnesota - Minnesota

Wall Street Journal - Wall Street Journal

Detroit Red Wings - Detroit Red Wings

Beatles - The Beatles, etc.[Kazakova, p.. 67][7, 11].

Transcription are also names of fantastic creatures, referred to in folklore and literature:

Baba-Yaga - Baba-Yaga

Hobbit - The Hobbit goblin - goblin, etc. [Kazakova, page 75].

T+o foreign proper name - be it names or the names real or imaginary persons, geographic names, etc. - More importance is the question of the sound design of the translation, and -- respectively - on their writing. The greater the differences in phonetic Strohe two languages in the system and their phonemes - the greater is the question.

If there is a common system of the alphabet in both languages (as, for example, in Western Romance, Germanic and Finno-Ugric languages) from sound in the form of names in translation and original texts general refuse, limited only exact reproduction of their writing - transliteration. In n literature - as transferable and original - there is (to the extent possible) the tradition of transmission sound image of foreign-language proper names. Of course, with significant phonetic differences between the two languages (as, for example, between English and n) to play their phonetic side may be only partial and conditional, and usually represents a well-known trade-off between the transfer of sound and writing.

When it comes to common names (cities, rivers, famous historical figures), or commonly used names, translator guided by tradition - regardless of ability to get closer to authentic sound. Sometimes the traditional n spelling is sufficiently close to the exact phonetic form of foreign language name, for example: "Schiller", "Byron", "Dante", "Brandenburg" etc.

Anthony Wayne Avenue [JDS 9] - street Anthony Wayne [Trans. 243]

existing practice transfer rule application to the names translation transcription or transliteration is often insufficient, if the proper name is compounded by the symbolic function, there is the name of a unique object, or not used as name, and as, for example, nicknames, that is a peculiar name common noun, because it reflects the individual characteristics and properties referred object. In such cases, in addition to or instead of transcription using a combination of semantic translation from tracing. In some cases, the tradition will require different messages for different transmission of the same name, the same language: thus, the British "George" normally transcribed in the form of "George", but when it is - the name of the King it is transliterated in the form of "George".

Some problems may arise when translating the names of educational institutions in different educational traditions in different countries.

Thus, in the American system of school education the word is widely used to variety of educational institutions, a completely different level and type.

Translated from Russian, also may have some difficulties: for example, the word Institute in is used to indicate a higher educational institution, and as for research or administrative administrative agencies, while in English-speaking countries the word institute is used only in the second meaning, and therefore not always adequately as a match since distorts the basic concept.

Whooton School [JDS 20] - Huttnonskaya School [Per. 250]

Finally, a special type of linguistic units, usually undergoes transcription,

- This term. The source of transcription, as a rule, are Greek, Latin or English units in the head?? dependences on what roots lie the basis of the original term. n terms are marked national color, also often subject to transcription when transferred to English: black earth - chernozem

Duma - Duma, etc. [Kazakova, page 75].



2.2 Tracing (calquing)

Along with the translation transliteration for linguistic units without direct correspondence in transforming the language is sometimes used tracing - does not play sound, and combinatorial composition words or phrases, when the constituent parts of words (morphemes) or phrases (tokens) are translated into the corresponding elements of the translation language.

Tracing as a translation method was the basis for a large number all kinds of borrowing in cross-cultural communication in those cases when transliteration was any reason is unacceptable. However, tracing how translation transformation rarer than transcription or transliteration.

Unlike transcription, tracing is not always easy mechanical operation of transferring the original form to the transferring language; often have to resort to some transformations. First That includes modifying a case forms, the number of words in the phrase, affixes, word order, morphological and syntactic status of words and etc.

In my work study by J. Salinger tracing is not met, therefore, these examples are taken from other sources.

Large number of phrases in the political, scientific and cultural areas of practice are tracings:

the head of the government - head of the government

Supreme Court - Supreme Court mixed laws - laws of mixed non-confidence vote - a vote of no confidence, etc.[Kazakova, p. 89].

Tracing usually are terms widely-used words and phrases:

names of historical and cultural

Winter Palace - Winter Palace

White House - the White House.

names of political parties and movements of

the Democratic Party - the Democratic Party

Our Home -Russia - Our Home Is Russia

historical events of

the invasion of Batu Khan - the invasion of Batu Khan, etc. [Kazakova, p. 90].

Lexical-semantic replacement

Lexical- semantic replacement - a way of translation of lexical items foreign language through the use of units of the target language, which does not coincide with the initial value, but can be deduced logically.

Logical-semantic basis of the transformation is clearly defined in the VG Hook: "As for the types of semantic changes in the translation, then as denoted by the object remains the same, change the name explains the relationship of concepts, which in the minds of the speaker may correlated with the same segment of reality. Thus, through renaming (semantic transformations), as well as the basis changes in values, such as, for example, expansion, contraction, various types of transport, are formal-logical patterns of thinking, relations between concepts. "widespread method of generalization and specificity in the translation from English.



3. Grammatical transformations in translation

Differences in the types of the two languages (analytical and synthetic) result in grammar transformations. A grammar transformation means a change of the original syntactic structure in translation.

In very rare cases the translator manages to reserve the original syntactic structure by using analogous grammar forms in the TL or a word-for-word translation. This can be called a zero transformation. The latter concerns short simple sentences with equivalent grammar forms in the TL. She came into the room - она вошла в комнату. Omission of articles, linking verbs and other secondary elements of the English sentence in translation does not involve the change of the sentence structure. But basically the translator has to resort to a grammar transformation of a certain type or even their combination.

There are the following factors that can cause grammar transformation:

1. Absence of the corresponding grammar unit in the target language.

2. Non-coincidence of stylistic function of analogous grammar unit in the SL and TL.

3. Non-coincidence of semantic structure of lexical units in the SL and TL.

A transformation can be either complete or partial. A complete transformation takes place when there is a substitution of principal parts of a sentence. Partial if secondary parts are replaced in the TL.

3.1 Types of Grammatical Transformations

Grammatical Transformation can be conventionally subdivided into 4 types:

1.Transposition is a very frequent type of grammar transformation. It is high frequency can be easily accounted for: we should bare in mind the differences in the word order of English and Russian sentences, or in other words the differences of information structure (theme-rheme arrangement in the two language). The translator resorts to transposition to preserve a functional sentence prospective. В темноте вспыхнула спичка - A match fled in the darkness. А интуиции Гарри я доверял - And I trusted Harry's instincts.

2. Substitution is a very common type of transformation. Substitutions can affect nearly all types of linguistic units. Substitution of word forms, parts of speech, sentence members, sentence types and types of syntactic relations.

A. Substitution of word forms. This type of Transformation in composes (включает) substitution of singular by plural and наоборот, tense forms - past by present, passive by active и наоборот. They never Caught (active) whoever

did for him - того, кто это сделал, так и не поймали (пассив).

B. Substitution of parts of speech. Replacement of English nouns by Russian verbs is especially typical. The English language makes a great use of so called nominalization (verbal nouns are used to denote actions). It is our hope that - мы надеемся, что. She gave him an Emerous Look - она Посмотрела на него Влюблено.

C. Substitution of sentence members. Из-за тумана (adv) прекратилось движение - the fog (subj) stopped the traffic.

D. Substitution of sentence types. 1. A simple sentence in the SL can be substituted by a compound or complex sentence TL or наоборот. He had to duck his head just to enter the cell - ему пришлось наклонить голову, чтобы зайти в камеру. He stepped away as I stepped forward - С каждым моим шагом он отступал. 2. Sentence partitioning (fragmentation - членение предложения). They road back to Fairview mostly in silence, Heldi driving until they were 15 miles of New York City and the traffic got heavy. По дороги В Фейрвью оба в основной молчали. Хелди вела машину, пока до Нью-Йорка не осталось миль 15 и движение стало довольно плотным. 3. Sentence joining. He glanced at her for only a second. Then he returned his eyes in the road - Он бросил на неё мимолетный взгляд и вновь сосредоточился на дороге.

4. Substitution of syntactic relations. Both L-s make use of syndetic (союзный) and asyndetic structures, but their frequency within the 2 Language is different: English prefers syndetic structures, whereas Russian - asyndetic. All I have in it is my 2 dresses and my shoes And my underwear And my socks And some other things - В нем только 2 платья, туфли, белье, носки и всякие мелочи.

3. Addition. Some implicit (имплицитный - скрытый) elements of the original text must be rendered in transformation by additional lexical or grammatical units. He Had Taken his hicary batton out of the custom-made holster he carried it in - дубинку он Уже Достал из самодельного чехла… Addition (уже) renders the meaning of priority expressed by the English past perfect form, the latter being a grammar lacking category in Russian.

4. Omission - this device is just the opposite to that of addition: it is aimed at eliminating redundancy (избыточность) of the units which are irrelevant in the context. The government resorted to force and violence - Правительство прибегло к насилию. He joked away with an expression of fear and dismay and The infinitive.

The Infinitive alongside with the participle and gerund belongs to the group of non-finite (неличные) forms of the verb. The infinite forms generally express time absolutely, that is they refer an action to the present, past or future.

The verbals, the Infinitive among them, express time relatively, that is through the prism of the action of the predicate verb in the Sent. The action expressed by the verbals may be simultaneous with that of the predicate verb, priatuate or posterior. The Infinitive has the properties of the noun and the verb. The English Infinitive has a wider range of tens forms than the Russian. It can be simple, continuous, perfect and perfect continuous.

Depending on its function and position in a sentence it has different translation versions.

1.The Infinitive I the function of an attribute is translated into Russian mainly by means of an attributive subordinate clause with modal verbal predicate expressing obligation or possibility or by verbal predicate in the future tense form. The Russian Infinitive isn't used in the similar function. (this is the rule to be remembered by you - это правило, которое нужно запомнить. This question will be discussed at the conference shortly to open in Moscow - Этот вопрос будет обсуждаться на конференции, которая вскоре открывается в Москве). The Infinitive in the attribute function is often used after the words the last, the only and ordinal numerals. The attribute Infinitive is translated by the future form of the verb in the same tense form as the predicate of the Sent. (He is the only employee To Agree to the directors decision - он единственный из сотрудников, кто согласен с решением директора). The Attribute Infinitive is also often used when prepositional verbs comprise its structure and this preposition should be always retained in translation. (There was nobody to be angry with - Злиться было не на кого). The Attribute Infinitive in some cases can be translated by the participle, adjective and prepositional noun. (The shape of things to come is shown by the data obtained by the experts - О характере Предстоящих событий можно судить по данным, полученным специалистами).

2. Infinitive in the function of an object is translated by the Infinitive or subordinate clause. (Scientists plan to study the formation of fish shoals, summering flora and soals - ученые собираются изучать образование косяков рыбы, подводную флору и почву).

3. The Infinitive in the function of consequence and attended circumstances. The Infinitive preceded by such words

as: enough, so.. , to… such as, only, has a modal meaning and is translated into Russian by the Infinitive or separate sentence introduced by the conjunctions -и, но. He managed to obtain this concession from the management only To Find that no one really needed it - он добился этой уступки от администрации и обнаружил, что она никому не нужна.

4. In the functions of subject nominal part of the compound predicate, predicative and adverbial modifier of purpose is usually translated either by the Infinitive or noun. (To influence a person is to give him once one thoughts - Влиять на человека - это значит навязывать ему свои собственные мысли). It should be born in mind that the Infinitive having different tense forms is translated differently into the target language. Perfect Infinitive is always rendered by the predicate in the past tense form (She was sorry To have intruded on her - Она сожалела, что помешала ей). Continuous Infinitive is often translated by lexical means (The children may be playing in the garden - возможно дети сейчас играют в саду). Perfect continuous Infinitive is mainly translated using lexical addition (уже). (He must have been investigating this problem for quite a long time - Он вероятно изучал эту проблему уже довольно долгое время).

3.2 Infinitive complexes

1.Complex subject (nominative with the Infinitive construction). An English sentence with complex subject is translated into Russian by a complex sentence. Its principal clause is an indefinite personal sentence of the type (говорят, сообщают известно) and subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction (что, как) (All bodies are known to possess weight - Известно, что все тела обладают весом). There is a variety of Infinitive forms within this construction (simple and compound, active and passive). (The experiment is said To have been successfully completed - Говорят, что эксперимент был успешно завершен).

The predicate can be expressed by the following verbs in the pas form: to say, to report, to state, to believe, to announce, to expect, to understand, to see, hear etc. (Mush greater economic tasks were seen to lie ahead - предстояло решить ещё более важные экономические задачи. The vestle Shevchenko was reported to have arrived in Odessa - Сообщили, что теплоход Шевченко прибылв Одессу. Теплоход Шевченко, как сообщили, прибыл в Одессу). If in the original the Predicate is in the negative form in translation.

If the predicate is a combination of a modal verb plus the infinitive, in translation it is rendered by an indefinite personal sentence with a modal meaning (this question should be considered to be settled - Следует считать, что этот вопрос разрешен).

The Infinitive may be also preceded by the verbs in active voice: seem - казаться, appear - по-видимому, happen, chance - случилось так, случайно, prove, turn out - оказаться. This house appears to have been built by good architect - Этот дом, по видимому, был построен хорошим архитектором. When translating from Russian into English and using complex subject in translation the Translator should the negation from the subordinate clause into the English main clause (with the English predicate). Кажется, он не знает правду - He doesn't seem toknow the truth. I happened To be there at that time - Случилось так, что я был там в то время.

Complex subject is also used when the predicate is expressed by the following word combinations with theverb to be: to be likely - вероятно, to be unlikely - маловероятно, be certain, sure - наверняка, определенно, to be found - обязан. In this case simple infinitive often refers action to the future. The goods are unlikely to be unloaded today - маловероятно, что товары будут разгружены сегодня.

Complex object (objective with the Infinitive construction).

This complex also consists of 2 elements: nominal and predicate. Its' nominal part is expressed either by a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case and its' predicate part is expressed by the simple Infinitive. Complex object is used after a number of verbs expressing different notions - wish (wish, would like, want, like, hate), supposition (expect, think, know, believe, consider, declare), physical perception (see, watch, observe, notice, hear, feel). The sentence with this construction is translated by a complex sentence.

The subordinate object clause is introduced by the conjunctions что, чтобы, как, когда (after the verbs like and hate). (They saw the fascist plane fly over the house; They heard the bombs drop and felt the earth shake - Они видели как фашистский самолет пролетел над домом, услышали, как падали бомбы и

почуствовали, как содрагалась земля.

Some verbs require using only bear infinitive. They include the following: see, hear, watch, notice, observe, feel and causative verbs: make, let, have. Hisscientificadvisermadehimalterhisproject - Его научный руководитель заставил его внести изменения в проект.

For - with the Infinitive construction.

This construction presents some difficulty for translation. It is introduced by the preposition for and consists of the following elements: the nominative element is expressed by the noun in the common case or personal pronoun in the objective case and the Infinitive. It has different functions in a sentence and different translation versions.

1.Complex subject. It was unusual for her to dwell on the details in her speech - обычно она не останавливалась на подробностях в своей речи.

2. Complex predicative. The most important thing is for him to conduct this experiment successfully - для него самое важное - удачно провести эксперимент.

3. Complex object. I am anxious for her to marry John - Я очень хочу, чтобы она вышла замуж за Джона.

4. Complex attribute. There is a fax for him to send it off immediately - Вот факс, пусть он отправит его немедленно.

5. Complex adverbal modifier. A) purpose. He stepped aside for me to pass - Он отступил чтобы дать мне пройти.

B) Complex adverbial modifier of result. His handwriting was too different for me to make out - Его почерк был слишком неразборчивым, чтобы я мог его понять. This construction has a very wide usage: both in fiction and newspaper style.

Absolute nominative construction with the Infinitive

This construction is always at the end of the sentence and is separated by a comma. It conveys attendant circumstances with a modal meaning of obligation. It is translated by a sentence introduced by the conjunction. The buyers requested the sellers to keep them informed of the position of the vestle, the communications to be addressed to their agents -Покупатели просили продавцов держать их в курсе местонахождения судна, при чем сообщения должны направляться их агентам.

3.3 The gerund

Is a non- finite form of the verb peculiar to the system of English verb and missing in the Russian Language. Gerund combines the features of both noun and verb. Like noun the gerund functions as a subject, object, nominal part of the predicate and forms prepositional combinations used as attributes and adverbial modifiers. Like verb it has different forms: simple (active and passive) and perfect (active and passive).

The gerund is translated into the target Lang by the Infinitive, verbal noun, verbal adverb, preposition plus noun and subordinate clause depending on its function in a sentence.

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