Problems in translation of idioms and proverbs

Размещено на http: //www. allbest. ru/

Contents

Introduction

Chapter I. Cultural implications and theoretical studies on translation science

1.1 Introduction to the translation science

1.2 Strategies and techniques in translation

Chapter II. Reflection of culture in the language

2.1 Problems in translation of idioms and proverbs

2.2 Traditions

Bibliography

Abbreviations



Introduction

The present qualification paper is largely based on research in the field of translation. Translation is an influential valid feature of our society, and it symbolizes one of the most important aspects in shaping the upcoming course of the planet. The translator's tasks are complex and refer to his abilities of dealing with every aspect of the process of translation. The power of translator lies in his responsibility for his end product.

Translation is defined in many ways and may be understood differently by people. By the people who are not translators, translation is seen as a text, but by the translators, it is seen as an "activity".

Translation is one of the diverse means of communication and the most important one. This is mainly because it sets up an association between at least two languages and their culture. Through translation, are also transferred the characteristic elements from one language into the other.

Extensive research has been done in the field of translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper.

The aim of this qualification paper is to introduce the concepts and models of translation studies. Because the research being undertaken in this field is now so extensive, the material selected is necessarily representative and illustrative of the major trends. For reasons of space and consistency of approach, the focus is on written translation rather than oral translation (the latter is commonly known as interpreting or interpretation), although the overlaps make a clear distinction impossible. Also in the subsequent stages of the theoretical part of the paper we have shown the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies. Baker (1992) offered the clearest taxonomy of translation strategies that she believed professional translators use when they encounter a translation problem while performing a translation task.

The fact, that nowadays, in a world characterized by global communication, translation plays a key role in exchanging information between languages and to move along the natural and professional continuum of conveying the meaning from one particular language into another, a translator needs to learn some skills, which are referred to as translation strategies, defines the topicality of the present qualification paper.

The object of this study is idioms of three languages: English, Russian and Kyrgyz, which is a mixed number of languages being compared. And we study not all phraseological fund of these languages, but only the lexical - semantic fields. This is such idioms, which contains in its composition the components Їbody parts or so -called somatic idioms. For example: to be glad to see back of someone, to be all ears, to knock one's head against a break wall. (English). Сидеть на шее у кого либо, совать голову в петлю, с гулькин нос. (Russian). Кулак мурунду шылып салгандай, баш териси он, бутун бут колун кол кылуу. (Kyrgyz).

The chosen aim of the qualification paper has determined the following tasks for the theoretical part to be investigated:

1) To investigate the theoretical studies on the given subject.

2) To specify and analyse different strategies and techniques suggested by famous linguists and linguistic schools.

The task for the second chapter, which is considered the practical part of the qualification paper, is:

1) To apply the obtained knowledge in analysis and translation of idioms and proverbs from Kyrgyz into English language.

The theoretical value of the qualification paper is defined by the fact that most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation is not useful. Different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their different perspectives. This qualification paper concentrates on the differences between these theories. It intends to show what translation strategies exist and when and why they are used by professional translators.

The structure of the work consists of: Introduction, two main chapters, conclusion and the bibliography list.



Chapter 1. Theoretical studies on translation science

Translation is a kind of activity which inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions. As this statement implies, translators are permanently faced with the problem of how to treat the cultural aspects implicit in a source text (ST) and of finding the most appropriate technique of successfully conveying these aspects in the target language (TL). These problems may vary in scope depending on the cultural and linguistic gap between the two (or more) languages concerned [E. Nida “Translation theory”1964 p.130].

The English term translation, first attested in around 1340, 2 derives either from Old French translation or more directly from the Latin translatio (`transporting'), itself coming from the participle of the verb transferre (`to carry over'). In the field of languages, translation today has several meanings:

(1) the general subject field or phenomenon

(2) the product - that is, the text that has been translated

(3) the process of producing the translation, otherwise known as translating (`translation service').

The process of translation between two different written languages involves the changing of an original written text in the original verbal language into a written text in a different verbal language: Source text Target text in source language in target language Thus, when translating a product manual from let us say Kyrgyz into English, the ST is Kyrgyz and the target text is English. This type corresponds to `interlingual translation' and is one of the three categories of translation described by the Russo-American structuralist Roman Jakobson (1896-1982) in his seminal paper `On linguistic aspects of translation'. Jakobson's categories are as follows:

(1) intralingual translation, or `rewording' - `an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language'

(2) interlingual translation, or `translation proper' - `an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language'

(3) intersemiotic translation, or `transmutation' - `an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems' [R. Jakobson “On linguistics aspects of translation” 1959 p. 139].

These definitions draw on semiotics, the general science of communication through signs and sign systems, of which language is but one [Cobley 2001, Malmkjжr 2011“Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications”

]. Its use is significant here because translation is not always limited to verbal languages. Intersemiotic translation, for example, occurs when a written text is translated into a different mode, such as music, film or painting. Examples would be Jeff Wayne's famous 1978 musical version of H. G. Wells's science-fiction novel The War of the Worlds (1898), which was then adapted for the stage in 2006, or Gurinder Chadha's 2004 Bollywood Bride and Prejudice adaptation of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice. Intralingual translation would occur when we produce a summary or otherwise rewrite a text in the same language, say a children's version of an encyclopedia. It also occurs when we rephrase an expression in the same language. In the following example, revenue nearly tripled is a kind of intralingual translation of the first part of the sentence, a fact that is highlighted by the trigger expression in other words.

It is interlingual translation, between two different verbal sign systems, that has been the traditional focus of translation studies. However, as we shall see as the qualification paper progresses, notably in subsequent stages of qualification paper, the very notion of `translation proper' and of the stability of source and target has been challenged. The question of what we mean by `translation', and how it differs from `adaptation', `version', `transcreation', `localization' the linguistic and cultural adaptation of a text for a new locale, and so on, is a very real one. Sandra Halverson (1999) claims that translation can be better considered as a prototype classification, that is, that there are basic core features that we associate with a prototypical translation, and other translational forms which lie on the periphery.

Much of translation theory has also been written from a western perspective and initially derived from the study of Classical Greek and Latin and from Biblical

practice. By contrast, Maria Tymoczko (2005, 2006, 2007: 68-77) discusses the very different words and metaphors for `translation' in other cultures, indicative of a conceptual orientation where the goal of close lexical fidelity to an original may not therefore be shared, certainly in the practice of translation of sacred and literary texts.

1.1 Introduction to the translation science

Translation has a great effect on our everyday life. We can define it as being a process or even being a product, as well. Therefore, it covers different perspectives. Translation focuses on the translator's role from taking a source text and turning it into one in another language, but also concentrates on the specific product created by the translator. In Susan Bassnett's book, Translation Studies, we find translation defined as the transfer of meaning.

Translation involves the transfer of "meaning" contained in one set of language signs into another set of language signs through competent use of the dictionary and grammar; the process involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria also.

Throughout history, written and spoken translations have played a crucial role in inter-human communication, not least in providing access to important texts for scholarship and religious purposes. As world trade has grown, so has the importance of translation. By 2008, in the European Union alone the turnover of the translation and interpreting industry was estimated at 5.7 billion euros. Yet the study of translation as an academic subject only really began in the second half of the twentieth century. In the English-speaking world, this discipline is now generally known as `translation studies', thanks to the Dutch-based US scholar James S. Holmes (1924-1986). In his key defining paper delivered in 1972, but not widely available until 1988, Holmes describes the then nascent discipline as being concerned with `the complex of problems clustered round the phenomenon of translating and translations' [J. Holmes “Translated!: Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies” 1988 b/2004 p.181]. By 1995, the time of the second, revised, edition of her Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach , Mary Snell-Hornby was able to talk in the preface of `the breathtaking development of translation studies as an independent discipline' and the `prolific international discussion' on the subject [Snell-Hornby “The Turns of Translation Studies” 1995, preface]. Mona Baker, in her introduction to the first edition of The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation, talked effusively of the richness of the `exciting new discipline, perhaps the discipline of the 1990s', bringing together scholars from a wide variety of often more traditional areas. In 2008, the second edition of the Encyclopedia shows how far this discipline has evolved. It comments on `new concerns in the discipline, its growing multidisciplinarity, and its commitment to break away from its exclusively Eurocentric origins, while holding on to the achievements of the past decades' [M. Baker “In other words” 2009 p.22].

There are four very visible ways in which translation studies has become more prominent. Unsurprisingly, these reflect a basic tension between the practical side of professional translating and the often more abstract research activity of the field. First, just as the demand for translation has soared, so has there been a vast expansion in specialized translating and interpreting programmes at both undergraduate and postgraduate level. These programmes, which attract thousands of students, are mainly oriented towards training future professional commercial translators and interpreters and serve as highly valued entry-level qualifications for the professions. Take the example of the UK. The study of modern languages at school and university has been in decline but the story of postgraduate programmes in interpreting and translating, the first of which were set up in the 1960s, is very different. At the time of the first edition of this book (2001), there were at least twenty postgraduate translation programmes in the UK and several designated `Centres for Translation Studies'. By 2010-11, the keyword search `translation' revealed over twenty institutions offering a combined total of 143 MA programmes, even if translation was not necessarily central to all. The types of translation covered at each institution may also vary. These may include MAs in applied translation studies, scientific and technical translation, conference and bilateral interpreting, audiovisual translation, specialized British Sign Language and audio description.

A smaller number of programmes focus on the practice of literary translation. In Europe, literary translation is also supported by the RECIT network of centres where literary translation is studied, practiced and promoted.

The first of these was set up in Strдlen, West Germany, in 1978.

Second, the past decades have also seen a proliferation of conferences, books and journals on translation in many languages. Longer-standing international translation studies journals such as Babel (the Netherlands) and Meta (Canada), first published in 1955, were joined by TTR ( Traduction, terminologie, rйdaction, Canada) in 1988, Target (the Netherlands) in 1989, and The Translator (UK) in 1995. There are numerous others too, including Across Languages and Cultures (Hungary), Cadernos de Traduзгo (Brazil), Chinese Translators Journal (China), Linguistica Antverpiensia - New Series (Belgium), Translation and Literature (UK), Palimpsestes (France), Perspectives (Denmark), Translation and Interpreting Studies (the Netherlands), Translation Quarterly (Hong Kong Translation Society), Translation Studies (UK), Turjuman (Morocco) and the Spanish Hermeneus, Livius and Sendebar.

In addition, there is a whole host of other journals devoted to single languages, modern languages, applied linguistics, comparative literature and others where articles on translation are often published. The new and backlists of European publishers such as Continuum, John Benjamins, Multilingual Matters, Peter Lang, Rodopi, Routledge and St Jerome have series in translation studies. There are also various professional publications dedicated to the practice of translation. In the UK these include The Linguist of the Chartered Institute of Linguists, The ITI Bulletin of the Institute of Translating and Interpreting and In Other Words, the literary-oriented publication of the Translators Association.

Third, as the number of publications has increased so has the demand for general and analytical instruments such as anthologies, databases, encyclopedias, handbooks and introductory texts. Their number is ever-growing. Among these are Translation Studies, Contemporary Translation Theories, The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies [M. Baker “In other words” 2009], Dictionary of Translation Studies (Shuttleworth and Cowie 1997), Introducing Translation Studies (Munday 2001/2008), A Companion to Translation Studies (Kuhiwczak and Littau 2007), The Routledge Companion to Translation Studies (Munday 2009), Critical Concepts: Translation Studies (Baker 2009), Critical Readings in Translation Studies (Baker 2010), Exploring Translation Theories (Pym 2010), the Handbook of Translation Studies (Gambier and van Doorslaer 2010) and The Oxford Handbook of Translation Studies (Malmkjжr and Windle 2011). The best-known searchable online bibliographies are Translation Studies Bibliography (John Benjamins), Translation Studies Abstracts (St Jerome) and the free-access BITRA (University of Alicante).

Fourth, international organizations have also prospered. The Fйdйration Internationale des Traducteurs (International Federation of Translators, FIT) was established in 1953 by the Sociйtй franзaise des traducteurs and its president Pierre-Franзois Caillй. It brought together national associations of translators. In more recent years, translation studies scholars have banded together nationally and internationally in bodies such as the Canadian Association for Translation Studies/Association canadienne de traductologie (CATS, founded in Ottawa in 1987), the European Society for Translation Studies (EST, Vienna, 1992), the European Association for Studies in Screen Translation (ESIST, Cardiff, 1995), the American Translation and Interpreting Studies Association (ATISA, Kent, OH, 2002) and the International Association of Translation and Intercultural Studies.

International conferences on a wide variety of themes are held in an increasing number of countries. From being a relatively quiet backwater in the early 1980s, translation studies has now become one of the most active and dynamic new areas of research encompassing an exciting mix of approaches.

Writings on the subject of translating go far back in recorded history. The practice of translation was crucial for the early dissemination of key cultural and religious texts and concepts. In the west, the different ways of translating were discussed by, among others, Cicero and Horace (first century BCE) and St Jerome (fourth century CE). Their writings were to exert an important influence up until the twentieth century. In St Jerome's case, his approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the Scriptures. Indeed, in Western Europe the translation of the Bible was to be the battleground of conflicting ideologies for well over a thousand years and especially during the Reformation in the sixteenth century. In China, it was the translation of the Buddhist sutras that inaugurated a long discussion on translation practice from the first century CE.

While the practice of translation is long established, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the latter part of the twentieth century. Before that, translation had often been relegated to an element of language learning. In fact, from the late eighteenth century to the 1960s and beyond, language learning in secondary schools in many countries had come to be dominated by what was known as grammar-translation [Cook “Translation in Language teaching” 2010 p. 9-15]. Applied to Classical Latin and Greek and then to modern foreign languages, this centered on the rote study of the grammatical rules and structures of the foreign language. These rules were both practiced and tested by the translation of a series of usually unconnected and artificially constructed sentences exemplifying the structure(s) being studied.

The gearing of translation to language teaching and learning may partly explain why academia considered it to be of secondary status. Translation exercises were regarded as a means of learning a new language or of reading a foreign language text until one had the linguistic ability to read the original. Study of a work in translation was generally frowned upon once the student had acquired the necessary skills to read the original. Grammar-translation therefore fell into increasing disrepute, particularly in many English-language countries, with the rise of alternative forms of language teaching such as the direct method and the communicative approach from the 1960s and 1970s [Cook 3 “Translation in Language teaching” 2010 p.6-9, 22-26]. The communicative approach stressed students' natural capacity to learn language and attempts to replicate `authentic' language-learning conditions in the classroom. It often privileged spoken over written forms, at least initially, and generally avoided use of the students' mother tongue. This led to the abandoning of translation in language learning. As far as teaching was concerned, translation then tended to become restricted to higher-level and university language courses and professional translator training. It is only relatively recently that there has been a move to restore translation to language teaching [Cook 3 “Translation in Language teaching” 2010 p.125-53].

In 1960s USA, starting in Iowa and Princeton, literary translation was promoted by the translation workshop concept. This was based on the reading and practical criticism workshops of Cambridge critic I. A. Richards (1893-1979) from the 1920s and on later creative writing workshops. The translation workshops were intended as a platform for the introduction of new translations into the target culture and for the discussion of the finer principles of the translation process and of understanding a text. 9 Running parallel to this approach was that of comparative literature, where literature is studied and compared transnationally and transculturally, necessitating the reading of some works in translation.

Another area in which translation became the subject of research was contrastive linguistics. This is the study of two languages in contrast in an attempt to identify general and specific differences between them. It developed into a systematic area of research in the USA from the 1930s onwards and came to the fore in the 1960s and 1970s. Translations and translated examples provided much of the data in these studies (e.g. Di Pietro 1971, James 1980 and later Connor 1996). The contrastive approach heavily influenced important linguistic research into translation, such as Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) and Catford (1965), even if it did not incorporate sociocultural and pragmatic factors nor sufficiently the role of translation as a communicative act. The continued application of linguistics-based models has demonstrated their obvious and inherent link with translation. Among the specific models used are those related to generative grammar, functional linguistics and pragmatics. The more systematic, linguistic-oriented, approach to the study of translation began to emerge in the 1950s and 1960s. There are a number of now classic examples:

1. Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet produced their Stylistique comparйe du franзais et de l'anglais (1958), a contrastive study of French and English which introduced key terminology for describing translation. It was not translated into English until 1995;

2. Alfred Malblanc (1944/1963) had done the same for translation between French and German;

3. Georges Mounin's Les problиmes thйoriques de la traduction (1963) examined linguistic issues of translation;

4. Eugene Nida (1964a) incorporated elements of Chomsky's then fashionable generative grammar as a theoretical underpinning of his books, which were initially designed to be practical manuals for Bible translators.

This more systematic approach began to mark out the territory of the `scientific' investigation of translation. The word science was used by Nida in the title of his 1964 book “Toward a Science of Translating, 1964a”. The German equivalent, Ьbersetzungswissenschaft, was taken up by Wolfram Wilss in his teaching and research at the Universitдt des Saarlandes at Saarbrьcken, by Werner Koller in Heidelberg and by the Leipzig School, where scholars such as Otto Kade and Albrecht Neubert became active. At that time, even the name of the emerging discipline remained to be determined, with other candidates staking their claim, such as translatology and its counterparts Translatologie in German, traductologie in French and traductologнa in Spanish.

A seminal paper in the development of the field as a distinct discipline was James S. Holmes's `The name and nature of translation studies'. Holmes draws attention to the limitations imposed at the time because translation research, lacking a home of its own, was dispersed across older disciplines (languages, linguistics, etc.). He also stresses the need to forge `other communication channels, cutting across the traditional disciplines to reach all scholars working in the field, from whatever background'. Crucially, Holmes puts forward an overall framework, describing what translation studies covers.

Holmes's `map' of translation studies.

In Holmes's explanations of this framework, the objectives of the `pure' areas of research are: (1) the description of the phenomena of translation; and (2) the establishment of general principles to explain and predict such phenomena. The `theoretical' branch is divided into general and partial theories. By `general', Holmes is referring to those writings that seek to describe or account for every type of translation and to make generalizations that will be relevant for translation as a whole. `Partial' theoretical studies are restricted according to the parameters discussed below (medium, text-type, etc.). The descriptive branch of `pure' research in Holmes's map is known as descriptive translation studies. It may examine: (1) the product; (2) the function; and (3) the process.

(1) Product-oriented DTS examines existing translations. This can involve the description or analysis of a single ST-TT pair or a comparative analysis of several TTs of the same ST (into one or more TLs). These smaller-scale studies can build up into a larger body of translation analysis looking at a specific period, language or text/discourse type. Examples would be translation in the twenty-first century, in the English< >Chinese language pair, or of scientific reports. Larger-scale studies can be either diachronic (following development over time) or synchronic (at a single point or period in time). Holmes foresees that `one of the eventual goals of product oriented DTS might possibly be a general history of translations - however ambitious such a goal might sound at this time'.

(2) By function-oriented DTS, Holmes means the description of the `function [of translations] in the recipient sociocultural situation: it is a study of contexts rather than texts'. Issues that may be researched include which texts were translated when and where, and the influences that were exerted. For example, the study of the translation and reception of Shakespeare into European languages, or the subtitling of contemporary cartoon films into Arabic. Holmes terms this area `socio-translation studies'. Nowadays it would probably be called the sociology and historiography of translation. It was less researched at the time of Holmes's paper but is more popular in current work on translation studies.

(3) Process-oriented DTS in Holmes's framework is concerned with the psychology of translation, i.e. it is concerned with trying to find out what happens in the mind of a translator. Work from a cognitive perspective includes think-aloud protocols (where recordings are made of translators' verbalization of the translation process as they translate). More recent research using new technologies such as eye-tracking shows how this area is now being more systematically analysed.

1.2 Strategies and techniques in translation

The word strategy is used in many contexts. In translation studies many theorists have used the term translation strategies widely but with some considerable differences in the meaning and the perspective from which they look at it. A list of more general definitions of the word strategy is given below:

· A strategy is a long-term plan of actions designed to achieve a particular goal [Wikipedia Committee, n. d.].

· A systematic plan, consciously adapted and mentioned, to improve one's learning performance [Instruction Curriculum Reading Glossary, n. d.].

· A strategy is a planned, deliberate, goal-oriented (has an identifiable outcome) procedure achieved with a sequence of steps subject to monitoring and modification [Curriculum Learning Literate-Futures Glossary, n. d.].

· A set of explicit mental and behavioral steps used to achieve a specific outcome.

Clearly, these definitions are general and can be related to different fields of study. This study mainly concerns translation strategies, although the above-mentioned definitions can be narrowed down to this research field, as well. Translation strategies have their own characteristics, through which one can gain an appropriate understanding of them.

Translating in culture specific concepts in general and allusions in particular seem to be one of the most challenging tasks to be performed by a translator; in other words, allusions are potential problems of the translation process due to the fact that allusions have particular connotations and implications in the source language and the foreign culture but not necessarily in the TL and the domestic culture. There are some procedures and strategies for rendering and allusions respectively.

Translation typically has been used to transfer written or spoken SL texts to equivalent written or spoken TL texts. In general, the purpose of translation is to reproduce various kinds of texts--including religious, literary, scientific, and philosophical texts--in another language and thus making them available to wider readers.

If language were just a classification for a set of general or universal concepts, it would be easy to translate from an SL to a TL; furthermore, under the circumstances the process of learning an L2 would be much easier than it actually is. In this regard, Culler (1976) believes that languages are not nomenclatures and the concepts of one language may differ radically from those of another, since each language articulates or organizes the world differently, and languages do not simply name categories; they articulate their own (p.21-2). The conclusion likely to be drawn from what Culler (1976) writes is that one of the troublesome problems of translation is the disparity among languages. The bigger the gap between the SL and the TL, the more difficult the transfer of message from the former to the latter will be.

The difference between an SL and a TL and the variation in their cultures make the process of translating a real challenge. Among the problematic factors involved in translation such as form, meaning, style, proverbs, idioms, etc., the present paper is going to concentrate mainly on the procedures of translating CSCs in general and on the strategies of rendering allusions in particular.

The translating procedures, as depicted by Nida (1964) are as follow:

Technical procedures:

a) analysis of the source and target languages;

b) through study of the source language text before making attempts translate it;

c) Making judgments of the semantic and syntactic approximations.

Organizational procedures:

Constant reevaluation of the attempt made; contrasting it with the existing available translations of the same text done by other translators, and checking the text's communicative effectiveness by asking the target language readers to evaluate its accuracy and effectiveness and studying their reactions.

Krings (1986:18) defines translation strategy as "translator's potentially conscious plans for solving concrete translation problems in the framework of a concrete translation task," and Seguinot (1989) believes that there are at least three global strategies employed by the translators: (i) translating without interruption for as long as possible; (ii) correcting surface errors immediately; (iii) leaving the monitoring for qualitative or stylistic errors in the text to the revision stage.

Moreover, it was defined that the translation strategy as "a potentially conscious procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a text, or any segment of it." As it is stated in this definition, the notion of consciousness is significant in distinguishing strategies which are used by the learners or translators. In this regard, Cohen (1998:4) asserts that "the element of consciousness is what distinguishes strategies from these processes that are not strategic."

Furthermore, Bell (1998:188) differentiates between global (those dealing with whole texts) and local (those dealing with text segments) strategies and confirms that this distinction results from various kinds of translation problems. Venuti (1998:240) indicates that translation strategies "involve the basic tasks of choosing the foreign text to be translated and developing a method to translate it." He employs the concepts of domesticating and foreignizing to refer to translation strategies.

Jaaskelainen (1999:71) considers strategy as, "a series of competencies, a set of steps or processes that favor the acquisition, storage, and/or utilization of information." He maintains that strategies are "heuristic and flexible in nature, and their adoption implies a decision influenced by amendments in the translator's objectives."

Taking into account the process and product of translation, Jaaskelainen (2005) divides strategies into two major categories: some strategies relate to what happens to texts, while other strategies relate to what happens in the process.

Product-related strategies, as Jaaskelainen (2005:15) writes, involves the basic tasks of choosing the SL text and developing a method to translate it. However, she maintains that process-related strategies "are a set of (loosely formulated) rules or principles which a translator uses to reach the goals determined by the translating situation" (p.16). Moreover, Jaaskelainen (2005:16) divides this into two types, namely global strategies and local strategies: "global strategies refer to general principles and modes of action and local strategies refer to specific activities in relation to the translator's problem-solving and decision-making."

Newmark (1988b) mentions the difference between translation methods and translation procedures. He writes that, "[w]hile translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of language" (p.81). He goes on to refer to the following methods of translation:

Word-for-word translation: in which the SL word order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context.

Literal translation: in which the SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents, but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context.

Faithful translation: it attempts to produce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures.

Semantic translation: which differs from 'faithful translation' only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text.

Adaptation: which is the freest form of translation, and is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture is converted to the TL culture and the text is rewritten.

Free translation: it produces the TL text without the style, form, or content of the original.

Idiomatic translation: it reproduces the 'message' of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original.

Communicative translation: it attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership (1988b: 45-47).

Newmark (1991:10-12) writes of a continuum existing between "semantic" and "communicative" translation. Any translation can be "more, or less semantic--more, or less, communicative--even a particular section or sentence can be treated more communicatively or less semantically." Both seek an "equivalent effect." Zhongying (1994: 97), who prefers literal translation to free translation, writes that, "[i]n China, it is agreed by many that one should translate literally, if possible, or appeal to free translation."

In order to clarify the distinction between procedure and strategy, the forthcoming section is allotted to discussing the procedures of translating culture-specific terms, and strategies for rendering allusions will be explained in detail.

Graedler (2000:3) puts forth some procedures of translating CSCs:

a) Making up a new word.

b) Explaining the meaning of the SL expression in lieu of translating it.

c) Preserving the SL term intact.

d) Opting for a word in the TL which seems similar to or has the same "relevance" as the SL term.

Defining culture-bound terms (CBTs) as the terms which "refer to concepts, institutions and personnel which are specific to the SL culture" (p.2), Harvey (2000:2-6) puts forward the following four major techniques for translating CBTs:

Functional Equivalence: It means using a referent in the TL culture whose function is similar to that of the source language (SL) referent. As Harvey (2000:2) writes, authors are divided over the merits of this technique: Weston (1991:23) describes it as "the ideal method of translation," while Sarcevic (1985:131) asserts that it is "misleading and should be avoided."

Formal Equivalence or 'linguistic equivalence': It means a 'word-for-word' translation.

Transcription or 'borrowing' (i.e. reproducing or, where necessary, transliterating the original term): It stands at the far end of SL-oriented strategies. If the term is formally transparent or is explained in the context, it may be used alone. In other cases, particularly where no knowledge of the SL by the reader is presumed, transcription is accompanied by an explanation or a translator's note.

Descriptive or self-explanatory translation: It uses generic terms (not CBTs) to convey the meaning. It is appropriate in a wide variety of contexts where formal equivalence is considered insufficiently clear. In a text aimed at a specialized reader, it can be helpful to add the original SL term to avoid ambiguity.

The following are the different translation procedures that Newmark (1988b) proposes:

Transference: it is the process of transferring an SL word to a TL text. It includes transliteration and is the same as what Harvey (2000:5) named "transcription."

Naturalization: it adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology of the TL.

Cultural equivalent: it means replacing a cultural word in the SL with a TL one. however, "they are not accurate"

Functional equivalent: it requires the use of a culture-neutral word.

Descriptive equivalent: in this procedure the meaning of the CBT is explained in several words.

Componential analysis: it means "comparing an SL word with a TL word which has a similar meaning but is not an obvious one-to-one equivalent, by demonstrating first their common and then their differing sense components.".

Synonymy: it is a "near TL equivalent." Here economy trumps accuracy.

Through-translation: it is the literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations and components of compounds. It can also be called: calque or loan translation. [P. Newmark, “Textbook of translation” 1988bp.84].

Shifts or transpositions: it involves a change in the grammar from SL to TL, for instance, (i) change from singular to plural, (ii) the change required when a specific SL structure does not exist in the TL, (iii) change of an SL verb to a TL word, change of an SL noun group to a TL noun and so forth.

Modulation: it occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the original text in the TL text in conformity with the current norms of the TL, since the SL and the TL may appear dissimilar in terms of perspective.

Recognized translation: it occurs when the translator "normally uses the official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term."

Compensation: it occurs when loss of meaning in one part of a sentence is compensated in another part.

Paraphrase: in this procedure the meaning of the CBT is explained. Here the explanation is much more detailed than that of descriptive equivalent. (Newmark, 1988b:91)

Couplets: it occurs when the translator combines two different procedures.

Notes: notes are additional information in a translation. (Newmark, 1988b:91)

Notes can appear in the form of 'footnotes.' Although some stylists consider a translation sprinkled with footnotes terrible with regard to appearance, nonetheless, their use can assist the TT readers to make better judgments of the ST contents. Nida advocates the use of footnotes to fulfill at least the two following functions: (i) to provide supplementary information, and (ii) to call attention to the original's discrepancies.

A really troublesome area in the field of translation appears to be the occurrence of allusions, which seem to be culture-specific portions of a SL. All kinds of allusions, especially cultural and historical allusions, bestow a specific density on the original language and need to be explicated in the translation to bring forth the richness of the SL text for the TL audience.

Strategies of translating allusions

Proper names, which are defined by Richards (1985:68) as "names of a particular person, place or thing" and are spelled "with a capital letter," play an essential role in a literary work. For instance let us consider personal PNs. They may refer to the setting, social status and nationality of characters, and really demand attention when rendered into a foreign language.

There are some models for rendering PNs in translations. One of these models is presented by Hervey and Higgins (1986) who believe that there exist two strategies for translating PNs. They point out: "either the name can be taken over unchanged from the ST to the TT, or it can be adopted to conform to the phonic/graphic conventions of the TL".

Hervey and Higgins (1986) refer to the former as exotism which "is tantamount to literal translation, and involves no cultural transposition" (p.29), and the latter as transliteration. However, they propose another procedure or alternative, as they put it, namely cultural transplantation. Being considered as "the extreme degree of cultural transposition," cultural transplantation is considered to be a procedure in which "SL names are replaced by indigenous TL names that are not their literal equivalents, but have similar cultural connotations".

Regarding the translation of PNs, Newmark (1988a:214) asserts that, "normally, people's first and sure names are transferred, thus preserving nationality and assuming that their names have no connotations in the text."

The procedure of transference cannot be asserted to be effective where connotations and implied meanings are significant. Indeed, there are some names in the Persian poet Sa'di's work Gulestan, which bear connotations and require a specific strategy for being translated. Newmark's (1988a:215) solution of the mentioned problem is as follows: "first translate the word that underlies the SL proper name into the TL, and then naturalize the translated word back into a new SL proper name." However, there is a shortcoming in the strategy in question. As it seems it is only useful for personal PNs, since as Newmark (1988a:215), ignoring the right of not educated readers to enjoy a translated text, states, it can be utilized merely "when the character's name is not yet current amongst an educated TL readership."

Leppihalme (1997:79) proposes another set of strategies for translating the proper name allusions:

Retention of the name:

· using the name as such.

· using the name, adding some guidance.

· using the name, adding a detailed explanation, for instance, a footnote.

Replacement of the name by another:

· replacing the name by another SL name.

· replacing the name by a TL name

Omission of the name:

· omitting the name, but transferring the sense by other means, for instance by a common noun.

· omitting the name and the allusion together.

Moreover, nine strategies for the translation of key-phrase allusions are proposed by Leppihalme (1997: 82) as follows:

1. Use of a standard translation,

2. Minimum change, that is, a literal translation, without regard to connotative or contextual meaning,

3. Extra allusive guidance added in the text,

4. The use of footnotes, endnotes, translator's notes and other explicit explanations not supplied in the text but explicitly given as additional information,

5. Stimulated familiarity or internal marking, that is, the addition of intra-allusive allusion,

6. Replacement by a TL item,

7. Reduction of the allusion to sense by rephrasing,

8. Re-creation, using a fusion of techniques: creative construction of a passage which hints at the connotations of the allusion or other special effects created by it,

9. Omission of the allusion.

The role of culture in translation

The definition of "culture" as given in the Concise Oxford Dictionary varies from descriptions of the "Arts" to plant and bacteria cultivation and includes a wide range of intermediary aspects. More specifically concerned with language and translation, Newmark defines culture as "the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression" (1988:94), thus acknowledging that each language group has its own culturally specific features. He further clearly states that operationally he does "not regard language as a component or feature of culture" (Newmark 1988:95) in direct opposition to the view taken by Vermeer who states that "language is part of a culture" (1989:222). According to Newmark, Vermeer's stance would imply the impossibility to translate whereas for the latter, translating the source language (SL) into a suitable form of TL is part of the translator's role in transcultural communication.

The notion of culture is essential to considering the implications for translation and, despite the differences in opinion as to whether language is part of culture or not, the two notions appear to be inseparable. Discussing the problems of correspondence in translation, Nida confers equal importance to both linguistic and cultural differences between the SL and the TL and concludes that "differences between cultures may cause more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure" (Nida, 1964:130). It is further explained that parallels in culture often provide a common understanding despite significant formal shifts in the translation. The cultural implications for translation are thus of significant importance as well as lexical concerns.

Lotman's theory states that "no language can exist unless it is steeped in the context of culture; and no culture can exist which does not have at its centre, the structure of natural language" (Lotman, 1978:211-32). Bassnett (1980: 13-14) underlines the importance of this double consideration when translating by stating that language is "the heart within the body of culture," the survival of both aspects being interdependent. Linguistic notions of transferring meaning are seen as being only part of the translation process; "a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria" must also be considered. As Bassnett further points out, "the translator must tackle the SL text in such a way that the TL version will correspond to the SL version... To attempt to impose the value system of the SL culture onto the TL culture is dangerous ground" (Bassnett, 1980:23). Thus, when translating, it is important to consider not only the lexical impact on the TL reader, but also the manner in which cultural aspects may be perceived and make translating decisions accordingly.

Language and culture may thus be seen as being closely related and both aspects must be considered for translation. When considering the translation of cultural words and notions, Newmark proposes two opposing methods: transference and componential analysis (Newmark, 1988:96). As Newmark mentions, transference gives "local colour," keeping cultural names and concepts. Although placing the emphasis on culture, meaningful to initiated readers, he claims this method may cause problems for the general readership and limit the comprehension of certain aspects. The importance of the translation process in communication leads Newmark to propose componential analysis which he describes as being "the most accurate translation procedure, which excludes the culture and highlights the message" [P. Newmark, “Textbook of translation”1988 p.96].

Nida's definitions of formal and dynamic equivalence [E. Nida, “Translation theory” 1964:129] may also be seen to apply when considering cultural implications for translation. According to Nida, a "gloss translation" mostly typifies formal equivalence where form and content are reproduced as faithfully as possible and the TL reader is able to "understand as much as he can of the customs, manner of thought, and means of expression" of the SL context [E. Nida, “Translation theory”1964 p.129]. Contrasting with this idea, dynamic equivalence "tries to relate the receptor to modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture" without insisting that he "understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context" (idem).

The nature of the source text.

...