Theoretical grammar

the machine work

What works?

the working machine

The machine does not work.

for the machine to work

The machine did not work, etc.

the machine's working

the machine working

The machine works and hums.

When the machine works it hums.

Working, the machine hums.

When (while) working the machine hums.

I like when the machine works.

If the machine worked!

etc.

The study of the transformational rules will come to the reader in three steps.

First one must study the transformations in simple sentences, then the two-base transformations (compound, semi-compound, complex, semi-complex sentences) and the transformation of nominalization.

Transformations in simple sentences produce such transforms that are also simple sentences: S S.

The transformations of the simple sentences can be divided into two types: obligatory transformations and optional transformations. Obligatory transformations are transformations on the morphemic level, whose application is indispensable for building up a sentence. They generate intra-model transforms within one and the same model.

These transformations are generally designated as T-AUX (AUX stands for the word auxiliary'). T-AUX involves the following changes of the finite V:

the choice of the tense;

the choice of number and person: the addition of the -s suffix if the V is in the present tense, if the NP is singular, 3rd person; the zero-suffix if the NP is plural "John has been laughing"; "The boys have been laughing";

the choice of modality: the addition of a modal verb ("The boys must have been laughing"; "The boys will be laughing"; "They ought to be crying"),

the choice of aspect;

the addition of the discontinuous morpheme 'have -en' ("You have seen that");

the addition of the discontinuous morpheme 'be-ing' ("She was smiling").

We must note that some modern linguists do not extend the term 'tense' to the phrasal constructions (such as 'is writing', 'has written' and others), they reserve the term 'tense' for those expressed in the verb itself, thus recognizing only two tenses in the English verb: present and past. The phrasal constructions are considered to be 'aspects' (with 'have-еn' and with 'be-ing') and modals ('will do', 'shall ask', 'can go', etc.), all these also have two tenses.

The general formula of the grammar of the finite verb reflecting the T-AUX, is:

AUX -+ tense (M) ('have -en' ('be -ing') - { V / BE }

The sign V / BE shows that all these transformations on the morphemic level can be applied to verbs and to the word BE.

The sign M shows that one of the modal verbs can be added: can, may, will, shall, must, ought to.

The sign AUX stands for tense (present or past). Tense applies to whatever follows it in the verbal phrase (only 'must' and 'ought' do not change). It also involves the number and person transformations:

Each grammatical morpheme must be added to the end of the following element. Thus if you choose to construct a sentence in the present with the V, say, 'walk', you will begin it in the following way: The man--you don' t need expressing modality so you discard (M)--and add -s to the element 'have', and so get 'has'; the next element -en should be added to 'be', and you get 'been'; the next element in the diagram is -ing which is added to the V 'walk' yielding 'walking', and the whole form of the V will appear as "The man has been walking."

The same rules can be applied to BE. "He must be here." "I am being polite." "I must have been here before." "He has been absent for a week."

This T-AUX is an obligatory transformation which applies to all kernel sentences.

There is a special rule for the 'N is N' kernel structure which consists in adding -s to both the N in the construction when the V is also plural, i. e. 'are', 'were', 'have been'. E. g. "The girls are friends." "These ladies are actresses."

Optional transformations in simple sentences are transformations on the syntactic level or, on the word class level. An optional transformation may be chosen by the speaker depending on the purpose of communication (question, command, exclamation). An optional transformation results in a transform which is not a kernel sentence any longer.

A kernel sentence is a declarative one, it relates about facts. Such a sentence can be transformed into an affirmative sentence which affirms a statement more intently; it also can be transformed into a negative sentence. Both these transforms can be further transformed into interrogative sentences or questions, so that these may be either affirmative questions or negative question.

In sentences with HAVE the V HAVE is stressed. But there is a tendency to introduce the function 'do' into sentences with HAVE, e. g. "And I did have fun". "He does have a family".

T-NOT designates a negative transformation. The procedure here consists in introducing the function word 'not', or its phonetical variant 'n','t', which put after DO, BE, HAVE or some modal (M) and is sometimes fused with them. E. g. "She did not see him." "The girl didn 't see him." "She was not (wasn 't) happy. " "He has not (hasn 't) come." "Don't you like it? " "Haven't you seen him?"

There are some other ways of constructing negative transforms:

1. With negative substitutes:

"Somebody saw that Nobody saw that"

"I saw a man there I saw none there"

2. By introducing negative function words, such as 'never', 'nowhere':

"You can tell You never can tell" »

"I see him there I see him nowhere"

T-O is the transformation of interrogation, it transforms an affirmative sentence into a question, hence the symbol T-Q.

A question is easier derived from the T-A. The operation of transforming it into a T-Q consists in changing the arrangement of the units in the underlying sentence. The function word 'do' changes positions with the NP, standing now before it, thus the product will be the transform: "Do you love summer?" "Do you know it?" "Did he say it?" "Does she love sweets?"

Thus the contour of the sentence changes.

The operation used in this transformation, is called permutation.

There are several colloquial variants of questions which are the products of different operations:

(1) the change of the intonation contour of the statement, "You know it?"

the change of the intonation contour and the addition of the interjection. "You know it, eh?"

the adding of a disjunctive question to the statement, which repeats the T-AUX elements of the statement. "You met my people, didn't you?" "She loves sweets, does she not?"

(4) the adding of some modal expression. "You are waiting for her, I suppose?"

The word BE has a special rule here, and also the verb HAVE: they are put before the NP in the same way as 'do'. In American English 'do' is used in T-Q transforms of kernel sentences with V-HAV'E. "Do you have any more questions?" "Does he have any friends?"

T-W is the sign of the transformation of a sentence into a special question. Special questions are introduced with special interrogative words, most of which begin with Wh; hence the sign T-W. The interrogative function word substitutes one of the form-words in the kernel sentence, thus in the transform the word does not appear.

There are two cases to distinguish:

(1) The form-word Wh- substitutes the NP the subject to the V, then the other function word 'do' is not needed. "Peter has come." "Who has come?"

"I know it." "Who knows it?" The wind is singing in the trees." "What is singing in the trees?" '

(2) The interrogative function word substitutes any element of the underlying sentence other than the subject. The underlying sentence must be the T-Q. "Do you know the song?" The NP standing after V, that is the object to the V, is replaced by 'what'. The product of the transformation is: "What do you know?" "Do you live in the country?" " Where do you live?" ('in the country' is substituted by 'where').

"He is a teacher." "What is he?"

In both cases the intonation contour of the transform is the same as that of the kernel sentence.

The interrogative function words are simple and compound, such as: 'how old', 'how many', 'how much', 'what time', 'what size', 'what number', 'where from', and others. T-EX Any sentence may be exclamatory if it is pronounced with an emphatic intonation. However there are special transformations which produce exclamatory sentences.

To my mind there will be exclamatory transforms.

"The girl is pretty". "How pretty the girl is!" Here A is put after the introductory 'how' (a function word).

"He is a boy." " What a boy he is!"

"The man is genius." " What at a genius the man is!" Here the second N is put after the introductory word 'what'.

(3) "The rain is beautiful. " " How beautiful is the rain!" This is transformed from the first exclamatory structure by permutating NP and 'is'. This structure is very emphatic.

There is still another type of T-EX produced on the morphemic level by the change of the finite V into V-to. "He marry her!" "You tell such lies!" "A man not know it!"

The T-Q and T-W transformations are based on the T-A and T-not transforms but not on the kernel sentence directly.

Thus the optional (syntactic) transformations on the word class level may be represented by the following diagram:

T-W may again be made more affirmative by embedding the function 'do'. "Why do I love summer?"

Some transformations can be applied only to sentence containing certain subclasses of V. To such belongs the transformation of the passive. It can be applied to sentences with four transitive subclasses: TAKE-type, GIVE-type, LOOK AT-type, PUT-type.

T-PASSIVE The passive transformation as presented on the level of the classes of words ( NP₁ vV NP₂) has the following procedures: NP₂ takes the position before V, the V is expanded into 'be -en', the V is followed by a 'by-phrase' which is optional and so put into parentheses, the final formula of the transform is:

NP₁ tense (be -en) (by N₁)

The 'by-phrase' is generally deleted according to whether the NP, is indefinite or general personal.

1. V-TAKE

"He took the lottery ticket hesitantly." "The lottery ticket was taken hesitantly."

"People always admire his pictures." "His pictures are always admired."

"We must teach children to cross the street." "Children must be taught to cross the street."

2. V-GIVE "This gave me good advice." "I was given good advice." "Good advice was given me."

"They gave the student a prize." "The student was given a prize." "A prize was given the student."

3. V-LOOK AT "Everybody looked at the flyer." "The flyer was looked at."

"They listened to him." "He was listened to."

4. V-PUT "The man put the book aside." "The book was put aside." "The girl threw her coat on the sofa." "The coat was thrown on the sofa (by the girl)." T-SEP This transformation can be applied only to the V having a postpositional element called 'particle' (prt). The particle can be separated from the V and put after the second NP.

"They brought in the prisoner." " They brought the prisoner in."

"He turned off the radio. " " He turned the radio off."

T-TO This transformation can be applied to the V of the GIVE-type. The operation consists in permutating the second and the third N, introducing the preposition 'to' between them.

"He gave his mother some money." "He gave some money to his mother."

The transform seems to lay emphasis on the NP introduced by 'to'. Its use may also depend on the sequential parts. "He gave some money to his mother who immediately went to the shops."

As has been shown above, the same transformations are applied to BE as to the V.

The differences in transformations between V and BE sentences have been shown in the domain of each transformation.

There are some special transformations applied to BE and hardly ever applied to V.

T-ART The kernel construction NP is NP with the indefinite determiner in the second NP bears the structural meaning 'person (or thing) as belonging to a class'. "Mr. West is an artist." "This is a lizzard." "A lizzard is a reptile." The substitution of the definite determiner in the second NP transforms the 'Class of things' sentence-structure into the 'Identity' sentence-structure. "This is the teacher." "Mr. Brown is the monitor in our group."

Besides the T-ART we can observe some other substitutions in the BE sentences.

The kernel construction NP is A bears the meaning "person (or thing) and his (its) quality". "The voice is soft." "The man is kind." "The car is powerful." "The girl is pretty."

The word BE can be substituted by 'become', 'grow', 'turn'. This kind of transformation changes the meaning of the sentence. It now expresses that the 'person or thing' changes his (its) quality for that indicated by the A. "The girl grew pretty." "The voice became soft."

The substitution of BE for 'seem', 'look', 'appear', 'smell', 'sound', 'taste' expresses a degree of certainty of the existence of the quality.

The substitution of these V is sometimes possible in the N is N structure but with certain restrictions, that is, the introduction of the .function word 'like' or 'as'.

"She sounded as a teacher."

"She was a teacher."

"She looked like a teacher."

"This is milk." "This looks like milk."

After 'seem' the word BE may be retained: "This seems to be milk." "The man seems to be busy."

T-INTRODUCER Sentence structures with BE more readily than the V constructions are transformed by means of introducers 'there' and 'it'. Harris writes the following: "There are a number of individual words or word sequences which occur before any sentence, so that we have a transformation S Introducer + S." And then "Examples: for V which do not occur with objects, N vV There vV N ("A boy came "" There came a boy.")

A sentence like "A cup is on the table" cannot be regarded as a regular English sentence. It must undergo the transformation with the introducer 'there' and permutation to become grammatical. "There is a cup on the table."

The introducer can rather be viewed as a grammatical element transforming an NP into an S: "A lecture " "There will be a lecture". "A cup on the table" "There is a cup on the table." Thus the second introducer is 'it'. "A lecture" "It's a lecture." "Winter" "It's winter." "Fine" "It's fine."

This introducer is also extensively used to transform two sentences into a sequence: "It's me speaking." "It's the boy who has done it." "It's here that we parted.", etc. T-REDUCTION This transformation may be applied to the commands and requests. "Open your books." But the 'command' with the NP (you) also exists, and is more intent than the VP command. The V in the VP may further be reduced, and we have the following scheme of the imperative sentence structures:



You give me your hand!	You come here!
Give me your hand!	Come here!
Your hand!	Here!

The transform "Give me your hand!" can be further transformed-into T-A: "Do give me your hand!" - into T-NOT: "Don't give me your hand!"

- into T-NOT with a different aspect: "Don't be giving me your hand!"

There are two function words 'please' and 'lets' which are used as introducers to 'commands' and 'requests'. "Ship sails today" ceases to be ambiguous when introduced by 'please': "Please ship sails today;" by 'lets': "Lets ship sails today." The construction with the introducer 'Lets' can be transformed into T-NOT, as "Don't lets ship sails today," "Don't lets do it," "Don't lets speak about that," and further with the application of T-A: "Do don't lets say it."

Some T-W expressing suggestion or asking for instruction can also be reduced.

What am I to do? What to do?

Where are we to go? Where to go?

Why should I say it? Why say it?

The outline of the transformations of the simple sentences gives the whole syntax of simple independent sentences in a nutshell. Brevity is one of the merits of the T-grammar.

II. Practical tasks

1. Answer the following question.

What are the two fundamental problems of the T-grammar?

How does the T-grammar classify all the sentences?

What is the problem of the kernel?

Whose lists of kernel sentence structures do you know?

Why was it necessary for some authors to enlarge Harris' list of kernel sentences?

Does a different estimation of the kernel set mar the general idea of the T-grammar?

How are the sentences grouped within the kernel set?

Why is BE considered to be unique?

What is the criterion of choosing kernel sentences?

What is a transformational rule?

What does a transformational rule tell us?

What is the product of a transformation?

What are the relations between a kernel sentence and its transform?

Are there any sentences underlying such sentences as "John went" and "Mary has come home"?

What else can you call the transformational rule?

What is there in common between the morphological derivation and the syntactic derivation?

What main types of transformations do you know?

What is the product of transformations in simple sentences?

* * *

What are the two types of transformations in simple sentences?

Which of them are the transformations on the morphemic level?

What is the product of the obligatory transformations?

What does the term 'intramodei transform' mean?

On what level are optional transformations performed or applied?

What do you call the transformations for the finite V?

How many changes of the finite V does the T-AUX involve and what are they? To which particular forms of the finite verb does the T-grammar apply the term 'tense'?

How many tenses of the finite verb does the T-grammar recognise?

What are the other verbal phrasal constructions considered to be?

What is the general formula for the grammar of the finite verb?

What does the sign V / BE in the formula show?

What does the sign M show?

What does the sign AUX stand for?

What elements in the formula does 'tense' apply to?

What transformations does the application of tense involve?

What are the points of difference between the number and person transformations for a V and BE?

How does this formula work?

* * *

What kind of sentences does the T-AUX apply to?

What is the special rule for the NP is NP kernel sentences?

What is the product of an optional transformation?

By what factor is the choice of an optional transformation controlled?

How many transforms are produced by optional transformations S S?

What is T-A and why is it so designated?

What is the underlying sentence for T-A?

What operation does the T-A consist in?

What transformations on the morphological level does the introduction of the function word 'do' involve?

What is T-Q and why is it so designated?

What is the product of T-Q?

What is the underlying sentence to which T-Q is applied?

What operation does T-Q consist in?

How is this operation performed?

What do you call the change in the arrangement of the class words?

Does T- Q leave the intonation contour of the underlying sentence intact?

How many colloquial variants of questions do you know and what are they?

* * *

What is the special rule for BE and HAVE?

What transformation is designated by T-W?

Why is the special question transformation designated as T-W?

What does the interrogative function word substitute in the kernel sentence and what is the result of the substitution?

How many cases are there to distinguish in the substitution and what are they?

Does the T-W change the intonation contour of the kernel sentence?

What groups are the interrogative function words classified into?

What does T-NOT produce?

What are the underlying sentences for the T-NOT?

Why does the negative sentence always contain the function word 'do' ?

Are there any exceptions to this rule?

What does the procedure of the T-NOT consist in?

What are the other ways of constructing negative transforms?

What is the product of T-EX and why is it so designated?

* * *

How many exclamatory transforms do you know?

What procedures are applied to produce them?

What are the transformations on the V-subclass level?

How many transformations of the kind do you know?

What sentences can the T-PASSIVE be applied to?

What procedures does the T-PASSIVE consist in?

Which of the procedures applied is optional?

How is it marked?

What is the final formula of the passive transform?

When and why is the by-phrase deleted?

How many types of the passive transforms can you distinguish?

What does their number depend on?

Which kernel sentences admit of two passive transforms?

What verbs does the separation transformation apply to?

What procedures does the T-SEP consist in?

Which V-siibclasses can the T-TO be applied to?

What does the T-TO operation consist in?

What is the effect of the transform?

What does the use of the T-TO sometimes depend on?

* * *

Does there exist any difference in the set of the obligatory transformations for the V- and the BE-sentences'?

What are the differences between the V- and the BE-sentences in the set of optional transformations?

What and how many are the special transformations which are almost exclusively applied to BE ?

What kernel construction is the T-ART applied to?

What is the structural meaning of the construction NP is NP with the indefinite determiner in the second NP ?

What operation does the T-ART consist in?

* * *

What change in the structural meaning of the construction does the T-ART entail?

What is the meaning of the kernel construction NP is A?

What verbs can substitute for BE in this kernel construction?

How does the substitution of BE for other link-verbs affect the meaning of the construction?

In what other construction is this substitution also possible?

What additional operations does the substitution involve?

What kind of sentence structures is the T-INTRODUCER generally applied to?

What function words are used as the introducers in this transformation?

How does Harris describe this transformation?

What can you say about a sentence like: "A book is on the table"?

What must it undergo to become a grammatical sentence?

What definition of the introducer can you now give?

What is the product of the use of the introducer 'it' ?

What sentence structures are the product of the T-REDUCTION?

* * *

What is the favourite English sentence structure?

What element in this sentence structure is reduced to make it a request?

What does the command / request sentence structure contain?

Can this sentence structure contain an NP and how does it differ from the VP command?

What is the general scheme of the imperative sentence structure produced by T-REDUCTION?

What other transformations can the T-REDUCTION combine with?

How does the T-REDUCTION combine with the T-A and the T?

What function words can be used as introducers in the command / request sentence structure?

In what way can the introducers 'please' and 'lets' be used to overcome structural ambiguity?

What transformations does the construction with the introducer 'lets' admit of?

What is one of the merits of the T-grammar?

Lecture № 8

Transformations of nominalization

S NP

I. Definition. There is a very ramified set of nominalising transformations in English.

The general definition of this transformation reads as follows: the nominalising transformations are such transformations as "nominalise a sentence, i. e. change to a form that can appear in one of the N-phrases positions of another sentence."

The seagull shrieked the shriek(ing) of the seagull

He loves pictures his love for pictures

The man has a son the man's son

The N-transforms show that the relations of the sentences from which they are derived are preserved in the N-phrases: in the first sentence these were the relations of 'actor -- action,' in the second 'actor--action--thing acted upon,' and in the third -- the relations of possession. These relations constitute the meaning of the N-transforms.

Thus we must conclude that the definition of nominalisation given above is not exhaustive, and we must add to it the following "...and keep the same relations between their form classes that characterise the sentences from which they are derived."

II. The necessity of the S NP transformation It will be of interest

to seek out the reason why native speakers of English generate N-transforms and extensively use them. The first reason is that no lexicon can be large enough to contain names for all the things about which at some time or other we shall speak and for which we must have distinct names, e. g. not "the shriek of a seagull" but "the shriek of an engine," and the like. The second reason for using N-transforms, especially those with V-to, V-ing, and V-en, is that they make English sentences more compact as compared with the complex sentences. This fact has been mentioned by many English and American grammarians

III. The transformation of nominalisation is mostly applied to kernel sentences, and more rarely to their passive transforms; in each case the relations of the units of the underlying construction being retained by the N-transform.

The kernel sentences are of several types: verbal and with BE. The sentences with V are distinguished in accord with the valence of the V (transitive, intransitive, etc.); the sentences with BE are also subdivided into such as express characteristics of the NP₁, (subject), and such as express the place of the subject.

The N-transform may be filled in with class words capable to fill a certain position in the N-structure.

He owned the shop the owner of the shop

the landlord of the shop

In the first N-transform we observe a regular transformation, in the second--only the substitution of the positions with the suitable words.

IV. Transformations of sentences with BE. The word BE is a unique word. The transformational procedures of these sentences differ from those of verbal sentences in many ways, e. g. the function word 'do¹ is not used in T-A, T-Q, T-W, T-NOT, it has special forms for the singular and the plural in the past, and special forms in the singular for persons in the present tense.

In the domain of nominalising transformation the uniqueness of BE tells in its being very easily deleted.

A. (1) NP is A TAN (T is a determiner)

The operations applied to the sentence are: (a) deletion of BE, (b) embedding A into NP between T and N, e. g.

The girl is pretty the pretty girl

The man is kind the kind man

The sea is rough the rough sea

The N is A sentence structure is differentiated into two subtypes:

(1) with A that express quality and

(2) with A that express state.

The second type doesn't lend itself to the nominalising transformation, it has no corresponding N-structure which can express 'actor--state' relations, since TAN transform expresses 'thing--its quality' relations and not 'actor-- state' relations. Thus we nominalise:

His smile was cold a cold smile (generalised)

Her voice is fine fine voice

but we do not nominalise:

"The baby is cold," "The baby is asleep,"

"The man is right," "Mother is angry," and the like.

Some A are quality and state A, just as well as some V are transitive and intransitive. The nominalising transformation (the possibility or the impossibility of its application) is a formal way of discriminating these two subgroups of A. Non-transformational grammar could not find the solution of the problem of 'state adjectives' although the intuition of the scientist told about the difference. Tyhus we nominalise:

His looks were angry the angry looks

The answer was right a right answer

The answer is wrong a wrong answer

But we cannot nominalise in this way the following sentences:

"The mother was angry,"

"The man was right,"

"You are wrong,"" The boy is ill,"

"The children are awake,"

"The field was a froth with cowslips," etc.

(2) Kernel sentences of the same type 'NP is A' may be transformed in an other way:

NP is

A TN / A of NP where N / A is an N derived from A.

The task was difficult the difficulty of the task

The expedition was dangerous the danger of the expedition.

The day was lovely the loveliness of the day

The man is wise the wisdom of the man.

* * *

The perations applied to the sentence are performed on two levels: on the morphemic level the N is derived from the A by means of certain suffix transformations; on the syntactic level the NP of the kernel sentence is connected with TN / A by means of the preposition 'of'.

B. NP is NP NP NP

The operation applied is the deletion of the word BE. The two NP stand in opposition to one another after this operation.

Mr. West is a teacher Mr. West a teacher

Spot is a dog Spot a (the ) dog

The determiner depends on the underlying sentence, whether it is kernel or the T of identification.

С. (1) NP is of NP NP of NP

Here the operation applied is also the deletion of BE.

The book is of importance the book of importance

The information is of some value the information of some value.

The speech was of great power a speech of great power.

The N-structure can be generalised as ' a book of importance.'

(2) The same type of kernel sentence can have other prepositions than 'of'.

The cup is for coffee	the cup for coffee	the coffee cup	a coffee cup
The bowl is for sugar	the bowl for sugar	the sugar bowl	a sugar bowl
The bottle is for milk	the bottle for milk	the milk bottle	a milk bottle



The operations are applied on the syntactic level, they are the deletion of BE, the following deletion of the preposition, permutation, and at last generalisation.

* * *

The same operations are applied to sentences with N / V with the suffix -ing.

The hall is for dancing the (a) hall for dancing a dancing hall

The stick is for walking (with) the (a) stick for walking a walking stick, and the like

D. NP is D NP D

The operation applied is also the deletion of BE,

e.g.: The boy is here the boy here

The man is in the garden the man in the garden

The girl is near the window the girl near the window

E. NP₁ is like NP₂ NP₂ of NP₁

This transformation is applied to sentences with the preposition 'like.' The operations are: deletion of BE, and after in the permutation of the two NP and the introduction of the preposition' of instead of 'like'.

The woman is like a sparrow sparrow of a woman.

She is like a terrifying mountain a terrifying mountain of a woman.

That plumber is (like) a scoundrel a scoundrel of a plumber.

My wife is like an angel my angel of a wife.

These N transforms have a stylistic value, they are used by writers to portray people, and also in emotional speech.

F. There are two nominalising transformations that can be applied to all kinds of kernel sentences: with BE, with HAVE and with V.

The first, on the morphemic level changes the finite V into V-ing, and NP into a possessive (NP's or a possessive pronoun), which is not obligatory.

This transformation is also applied to sentences with BE:

I remember his (him) being a teacher.

The document being of importance made me lock the drawer very carefully.

The second transformation which can be applied to all kinds of kernel sentences involves on the morphemic level the change of the finite V into V-to, and on the syntactic level the introduction of the functional word ' for' before NP. If NP is a personal pronoun, it is changed into the objective case (morphemic level):

It's important for the man to be wise.

I arranged for the woman to be there at seven.

It's essential/or a book to be of interest.

It's so good for him to be married.

* * *

Not only these transforms but all N-transforms of the sentences with BE can be used in NP positions of other sentences.

1. In the position of NP₁ (subject).

E.g. The kind man helped the child.

Mr. West, a teacher, lived on the same floor.

The information of some value was received on the following day.

The man in the garden continued to watch the door.

The road ahead was winding up the hill.

Where is my angel of a wife?

The terrifying mountain of a woman was seen coming in.

There was a sugar bowl on the top shelf.

(2) In the position of NP₂ (object).

E.g. I saw a pretty girl there!

Will you meet Mr. West, our teacher?

We received information of great value.

We watched the man in the garden narrowly.

He looked at the road ahead.

He called her his angel of a wife.

He saw a terrifying mountain of a woman

He was quite aware of the danger of the expedition.

(3) In the N position after BE.

E.g. He is a very kind man.

This is Mr. West, the teacher.

That was information of great value.

That is the man in the garden.

That was the road ahead of us.

This is my angel of a wife.

Is this that terrifying mountain of a woman?

This is the difficulty of the task.

* * *

V. Transformations of sentences with V-HAVE. The V-HAVE is also rather unique, it is associated with some rules different from those applied to other V.

In the domain of the nominalising rules V-HAVE in characterised by the ease with which it is deleted.

Sentences with HAVE must be divided into these classes:

Sentences expressing possession

"The man has a son",

"A dog has four legs".

Sentences rendering the same information as the transforms with the introducer 'there:

"The room has three windows,"

"There are three windows in the room,"

"The boy has a book in his hand," "There is a book in the boy's hand."

Sentences that give the same information as sentences with 'contain':

"The cup has tea in it,"

"The cup contains tea."

A. Transformation of sentences expressing possession.

NP₁ have (has) NP₁ NP₁'s NP₂

NP₂ of NP₁

Sentences expressing possession can produce two N-transforms rendering the same information.

The procedures used to produce the first transform are deletion of HAVE, introduction of the -'s element between the two NP:

E.g. The man has a stepson the man's stepson

Mary has a brother Mary's brother

To produce the second transform HAVE is deleted, the two NP permutated, and the preposition 'of embedded between them.

E.g. The man has a stepson the stepson of the man

The girl has a brother the brother of the girl

The table has three legs the legs of the table

Both transformations are restricted in the sense that the structure with -'s is applied if the NP, is animate, and the preposition 'of is applied if NP₁ is inanimate or there are certain conditions of sequential sentences.

B. NP₁ HAVE (HAS) NP₂ (D)

E.g. The room has three windows (in it) The room with three windows

The boy has a pencil (in his right hand) The boy with a pencil

The man has a straw hat (on) The man with a straw hat.

There seems to be an intermediate structure with the functions words 'who ' or ' which "

The room which has three windows,"

"The boy who has a pencil in his right hand,"

"The man who has a straw that (on)."

The negative transform of this sentence structure will be nominalised with the preposition 'without':

E.g. The man has no hat on the man without a hat

The room has no windows the (a) room without windows

The procedures used are:

(1) deletion of 'have',

(2) introducing the prepositions 'with' or 'without'.

С NP, HAVE NP₂ (in it) (D is restricted here to 'in it', 'in them').

The V HAVE in such sentences can be substituted with the V 'contain' which makes these sentences a special type:

E.g. The bottle has (contains) milk (in it) a bottle of milk

The cup has (contains) tea a cup of tea

The bowls has (contains) sugar a bowl of sugar

The procedures applied are:

(1) deletion of HAVE.

(2) introduction of the preposition.

The transforms retain the relations of the kernel sentence or the underlying sentence. The change of the determiner shows that the N-transforms are easily generalised.

The origin of these transforms from sentences with HAVE or 'contain' show that they are different from the transforms originated from kernel sentences with BE:

"the bottle is for milk" "the bottle for milk" "the milk bottle."

Both transforms retain the relations and the semantics of the kernel sentences "the bottle is for milk" and "The bottle has (contains) milk in it."

When the meaning of an N-transform is not quite clear, the NP must be traced back to the kernel sentence it is derived from, and the meaning of the N-transform becomes quite clear.

There are some N-constructions that seem to be ambiguous. Thus Robert Lees writes that "John's picture" may be derived from two kernel sentences with HAVE and with BE: "John has a picture (of Mary)" and "The picture was of John."

It is more likely that the kernel sentence here is that with BE only, because there is a series of analogous sentences and their N-transforms that admit of only one understanding:

E.g. The figure was of Samson the figure of Samson

The picture was of everyday life the picture of everyday life

The picture was of a young man the (a) picture of a young man

Two N-transforms may seem to be generated from the same kernel sentence: "the (a) picture of a young man" and "a young man's picture," but they render different information; the second NP does not express possession, but only the kind of picture, corresponding to the Russian nominal phrase with an A: " мужской портрет", "женский портрет", etc.

There is also a special construction corresponding to the sentence "The young man painted the picture," "Rembrandt painted the portrait," that is "a portrait of Rembrandt's" "a portrait of the young man's."

D. Sentences with HAVE are nominalised when we change the V into V-ing or V-to. This change is done on the morphological level.

NP₁ is transformed into a possessive determiner before V-ing or it is preceded by the preposition 'for', if the V is transformed into V-to. NP - a personal pronoun - is changed to the object case. All these transformations are done on the morphological level.

(1) E.g. The man has a son the man's having a son

The man's having a grown up son surprised her

An artist has a sense of beauty the artist's having a sense of beauty.

He spoke about the artist('s) having a sense of beauty.

He has a taste for literature his having a taste for literature.

We spoke of his (him) having a taste for literature.

(2) The man had much experience in teaching for the man to have much experience in teaching.

It's important for the man to have much experience in teaching.

She has a talent for paiting for her to have a talent for painting.

It was good luck for her to have a talent for painting.

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VI. Transformations of sentences with VI (Intransitive)

A. NP VI ( D ) TN / V of NP ( N / V is an N derived from V)

E.g. The seagull shrieked the shriek of the seagull

Little Nell died the death of little Nell

Lucifer fell the fall of Lucifer

The bird sang the song of the bird.

The procedures applied belong to two levels, morphemic and syntactic. On the morphemic level the V is substituted by the derivative N, on the syntactic level the two NP are permutated and the preposition 'of is introduced between them.

The N-transform retains the relations of 'actor action', it represents concrete events, and is not so easily generalised since the determiner is definite.

B. Some other nominalising transformations may be applied to sentences with VI (intransitive): VT-ing of NP; NP's V-ing.

On the morphemic level the V changes into V-ing on the syntactic level the two N are permutated with the insertion of the preposition 'of between them, or -'s:

E.g. The bird sings the singing of the bird, the bird's singing

The dog barks the barking of the dog, the dog's barking

The chimney smokes the smoking of the chimney, the chimney's smoking.

The girl dances the dancing of the girl, the girl's dancing

The 'actor - action' relations are preserved in the N-transforms

Another transform may be derived from the same sentences with VI: "the singing bird," "the barking dog," "the smoking chimney," "the dancing girl".

There are restrictions for these nominalising transformations thus "the chimney's smoking" is not acceptable because 'chimney' is an inanimate N; "the smoking girl" is not acceptable because 'smoking' is a VT, not a VI The NP "the dancing hall" is the product of the sentence with BE “The hall is for dancing."

C. On the morphemic level the V is changed into V-to, on the syntactic level it is preceded by N with the function word 'for':

E.g. The bird sings for the bird to sing

The man drinks for the man to drink

The dog barks for the og to bark

When the NP of the kernel sentence is general personal, as 'one' 'people', 'everybody', and the like, the 'for NP' is zeroed. "It's pleasant to read a good book." "It's a pleasure to hear a good song."

D. The N-transform may express 'thing-place' relation.

"The road was (lay, lead, stretched) ahead (to the station) the road to the station.

The V synonymous to BE are deleted.

E. All these transforms can be used in NP positions.

(1) The position of the first NP (subject).

E.g. The death of the man changed everything.

The barking of the dogs became louder.

The girl's dancing was beautiful.

A smoking chimney loomed in the distance.

For the bird to sing is natural.

For the driver to drink is dangerous.

(2) In the position of the second NP (object).

E.g. She heard about the death of the man.

I suggest for us to sing a song.

We admired the girl's dancing.

I heard a barking dog.

We must avoids/or the baby to fall.

(3) In the position of NP after BE.

E.g. This is the barking of the dog.

That was a smoking chimney.

The best thing was the dancing of the Polovetz girls.

It was the fall of the man that frightened me.

(4) After A.

E.g. It is harmful for a man to drink much.

It is natural for a dog to bark.

It is for a baby to have a fall.

VII. Nominalisations of sentences with VT (Transitive), in the N-transforms of these sentences different relations can be rendered repeating the relations of the underlying structures: 'actor - action' relations, 'action - object' relations, 'action - place of action' or 'action - time of action' relations.

A. NP₁ V₁ Т NP₂ TN / V (er) of N₂

E.g. They lead the party the leaders of the party

He manages the bank the manager of the bank

He lives books the lover of books.

The operations applied are: (1) on the morphemic level the noun is derived from the V, (2) on the syntactic level the NP₂ is connected with N/V by the preposition 'of'.

B. The same kernel sentences may produce different N-transforms: on the morphemic level the V is transformed into V-ing and NP₁ is transformed into NP's:

their leading the party

his managing the bank

his loving books

This transformation can be applied to all structures with VT.

NP₁ VT NP₂ NP₁'s V-ing NP₂

E.g. The girl read the poem the girl's reading poem

The man said it the man's saying it.

We saw them off our seeing them off

The boy met us the boy's meeting us.

In these two kinds of transforms 'actor - action object' relations are rendered.

In the next nominalising transformation - action - relations are rendered. The transformation involves two levels. On the morphemic level the N/V by the preposition 'of'.

С. The formula here is as follows:

NP₁ VT NP₂ NP₁'s (or some other determiner) TN/V of NP₂

E.g. They loved the beautiful their love of (for) the beautiful.

He composed his stories the composition of his stories

They treated the children cruelly their cruel treatment of the children.

D. The active construction can be first transformed into passive and then nominalised.

They smoke fish fish is smoked smoked fish

He wrote a poem the poem was written the written poem.

The hunter killed a bear the bear was killed the killed bear

She finished the letter the letter was finished the finished letter

E. Sentences with 'make (up)', 'form' have a special way of being nominalised.

E.g. The ice made a film on the pond a film was made by ice (on the pond) a film was made of ice a film of ice.

The (sparkling) drops made a fountain a fountain was made by drops a fountain was made of drops a fountain of (sparkling) drops.

The foam formed a line a line was formed of foam a line of foam.

The kernel sentence is first transformed into a passive construction, then the preposition is changed into 'of ', and at last the V 'make' or 'form' is crossed out.

Such N-transforms are very much used in English, "a streak of yellow," "a cloud of dust," "a heap of grain," "a line of snowy mountain peaks," "a pool of water," etc.

F. Adverbial relations of place and time are rendered in the following N-transforms:

E.g. He studies six more years his six more years of study.

The man came from the East the man from the East.

G. The transforms with V-to.

E.g. They loved the beautiful for them to love the beautiful

They lead the soldiers for them to lead the soldiers

She read several poems for her to read several poems.

All these N-transforms can be used in the NP positions in other sentences.

H. In the position of NP₁ (subject).

E.g. Lowers of books often visit second-hand book shops.

His managing the bank was a success.

The man's saying it put me on my guard.

Their love for children was genuine.

For them to love the beautiful was essential.

The killed bear was enormous.

I. In the position of NP₂ (object).

E.g. We admired the girl's reciting that poem.

I was afraid of his seeing us.

I love smoked fish.

We were disgusted with their cruel treatment of the children.

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