Theoretical grammar

I heard of his six more years of study.

J. In the NP position after BE.

E.g. They are lovers of books.

This was their love for children that made them take the risk.

This was the killed bear.

* * *

VIII. The study of the mechanism of nominalising transformations shows that the main procedures applied on the syntactic level are:

(1) deletion of BE and HAVE and of the verbs of the same groups such as 'contain', 'consist', 'lie', 'stretch'; (2) the introduction of prepositions (mostly 'of) between the two NP; (3) permutation of NP₁ and NP₂;

on the morphemic level:

(1) the derivation of the corresponding N from V (N/V):

'compose - composition', 'remove - removal', govern government', etc.; the derivation of N-er (manage - the one who manages - manager) denoting 'action - actor'; the derivation of the corresponding N from A;

(2) transformation of V-finite into V-ing with a possessive subject, or embedding it between the determiner and N;

(3) transforming V-finite into V-to preceded by 'for N' as subject

Passive transforms of sentences with VT can also produce nominal transforms, the operations applied are: (1) deletion of BE, (2) embedding V-en between the determiner and the N.

* * *

IX. The study of nominalisation also shows that nominalised transforms may be classed into three groups: (I) NP fully (perfectly, wholly) nominalised, that is consisting of two N, without any V; (2) those containing a V as V-ing, V-to or V-en; the third type must be added here, it is a clause with a finite V capable of standing in an NP positions in some other sentences. "What he brought is here," but more appropriately this transformation is included into ,sentence-sequence' T-grammar.

Thus we may also distinguish three degrees of nominalisation.

(1) The slightest degree when the only trait of nominalisation is the capability of standing in the NP position (N-clauses).

The lower degree when the transform capable of standing in the NP position still have a V, but it is non-finite (semiclauses).

The higher degree of nominalisation, N structures without V.

X. The grammar of nominalising transformations has not only got a practical significance, it is of considerable theoretical value as it solves the problem of the concept of' word-group' which could hardly be solved by non-transformational grammar, because the grammars of' word-groups' and that of 'parts of the sentence' are neither differentiated, nor anyhow connected into one system.

Transformational grammar approaches with the same criterion all types of sentences, stating whether they are kernel sentences or transforms and then sets out transformational rules which are essentially the same in all the parts of syntax (deletion, permutation, substitution, function words).

II. Practical tasks

1. Answer the following questions.

What is the nominalising transformation?

What is the product of the nominalising transformation?

What positions can the N-transform fill?

What relations are mirrored in the N-transform?

Is Harris's definition of the N-transform complete or not and what should be added to it?

What makes the S NP transformation necessary?

What structures does the S NP transformation apply to?

Are the relations of the underlying structures retained in the N-transform?

Could you recall into what subgroups the kernel sentences are divided?

On what level is the N-transformation performed?

Is there word-for-word correspondence between a kernel sentence and N-transform?

If not, with what classes of words can the positions of N-transform fill?

How many N-transformations of sentences with BE do you know?

How does the uniqueness of BE manifest itself in the domain of N-transformations?

What kernel sentences with BE do you know?

How do you transform the 'NP is A' into (T) A N?

What becomes of the nominalised constructions when they function as regular names of all the objects of the same class?

Are these N-transforms easily generalised?

How is generalisation signalled?

What are the operations applied in this transformation?

* * *

How are the 'N is A' sentence structures differentiated?

Can sentences which state A undergo N-transformations?

Is the ability/inability of' N is A' structure to undergo the N transformation a signal of discriminating the two A subgroups?

Could non-transformational grammar find a solution for the discrimination of state A and quality A?

How do you nominalise the structure NP is NP?

What is the operation applied?

Is this operation on the morphological or syntactical level?

What does the choice of the determiner in NP₂ signal?

How do you nominalise the structure NP is of NP?

What operation is applied?

What level transformation is it?

Is the N-transform easily generalised?

Which is oftener used: the kernel sentence or the N-transform?

How do you nominalise ' N is D ' kernel structure?

What operation do you apply?

What N-transform do you produce nominalising NP is like NP?

What are the operations applied?

How do you know that 'like' is a preposition?

Has this N-transform any stylistic value?

Are these N-transforms used in emotional speech?

Have they got any portraying value?

Could you give the positional characteristics of the NP derived from BE-sentences?

Could you enumerate all the procedures applied to BE-sentences when they are nominalised?

* * *

What do you know about the uniqueness of the verb HAVE?

How is this uniqueness displayed in nominalising?

How are sentences with HAVE divided?

How is the sentence NP₁ HAVE (HAS) NP₂, nominalised?

What are the procedures to produce the transform NP₁'s NP₂ ?

What are the procedures producing NP₂ of NP₂?

What is the grammatical meaning of this transform?

Do the two N-transforms retain this meaning?

How are these transformations restricted?

What is the transform produced by nominalising NP₂ HAVE (HAS) NP₂ D?

What intermediate structure lies between the kernel sentence and the nominal transform?

What preposition is used in the N-transform in this case?

What preposition is used if the sentence is negative?

What procedures are used in nominalising these sentences?

What do you get nominalising the kernel sentence NP₁ HAVE (HAS) NP₂ with the context restricted D (' in it', 'in them')?

What verb can substitute HAVE in these sentences?

How do you nominalise these sentences?

What procedures are applied?

Do the transforms retain the relations of the kernel sentences?

Are these transforms easily generalised?

If the preposition in the N-transform is 'for' (not 'of), how' does it change the structural meaning of the N-transform?

* * *

How is the NP with 'for' further transformed?

What are the underlying constructions of' a cup of tea'?

What are the underlying constructions of' a tea-cup'?

What N-transforms may seem to be ambiguous?

What different constructions express different relations?

What other nominalising transformations may be applied to sentences with HAVE?

What is the N-transform with HAVE-ing?

How is NP₁ transformed?

What is the function of NP₁'s in the N-transform?

What operations are used in this transformation?

Does the N-transform mirror the relations of the kernel sentence from which it is derived?

What is the other transformation which can be applied to V-Have sentences?

How is V-Have transformed on the morphological level?

What is the NP₁ preceded by 'for' in this transform?

What is the N-transform derived from NP VI (D)?

How is N/V derived from a V on the morphological level?

What procedures are applied on the syntactic level?

What relations characterise the N-transform?

* * *

Can the N-transform be generalised or not?

What is the transformation with V-ing of these sentences?

Are the 'actor--action' relations preserved in this transform?

What other transforms may be derived from the same sentences?

What restrictions are there for these nominalising transformations?

How are these sentences transformed into NP with V-to?

When is 'for--NP' not used before the infinitive?

What positions can these transforms fill in?

How do you produce the N-transforms of the following type: TN/V(er)of NP₂?

What relations are expressed in this transform?

Can the same kernel sentences be nominalised with V-ing?

What are the operations used in this transformation?

Can the same sentences be nominalised with V-to?

Can the same sentences and some others be nominalised into TN/V of NP₂?

What procedures are applied here?

What is the intermediary transformation or 'smoked fish', 'the killed bear' and the like?

How do you nominalise sentences with the verbs 'to form' and 'to make' ?

What are the intermediary constructions?

Can adverb relations of time and place be rendered in N-transforms?

Lecture № 9

Two base transformations

S₁+S₂ SSS

S₁ + S₂ S₃

An utterance may consist of two or more sentences.

In any sentence sequence in a super-sentencial structure the first sentence is a situation or a leading one, the second is a sequential sentence:

He's just been over there (situation sentence)	So have I. (sequential sentence)

The sequential sentence has a special form which signals its connection with the situation sentence. The connection may be made clear through the use of the following means:

(1) A substitute:

The boy has just brought the papers. They are at the door.

(2) The addition of a functional word (and a substitute):

(a) co-ordinator.

I did everything for Angela. And she didn't even thank me.

(b) a sentence-connector.

John had not done his work regularly. Consequently he got a low mark.

(3) Permutation:

He decided on a letter. This letter he addressed to his friend.

(4) Permutation, a substitute and a function word:

Peter left. So did I.

"Many sentences which have what might be called complex structures can be analysed as containing a sequence of two or more sentences or sentence structures, some or all of which have special forms: 'I met him coming back'. In all these cases the sections with special forms can be shown to be transforms of ordinary independent sentences..."

In other words, any compound or any complex sentence is also a sentence sequence.

* * *

Transformations in sentence sequences reveal the mechanism by which two or more sentences can be joined into one larger structural pattern: S₁+S₂ S₃, where S₁ is a matrix sentence; S₂ is an insert sentence.

Transformations in sequences are carried out through the following process:

(1) conjunction which consists in co-ordinating two sentences by means of co-ordinators: 'and', 'but', 'or', 'nor', discontinuous or correlative conjunctions 'either... or', 'neither... nor' and pauses (asyndetic connection);

(2) the addition of function words:

(a) sentence-connectors which unlike conjunctions can shift their position by moving around the sentence. They are: 'so', 'thus', 'however', 'consequently', etc.:

(b) conjunctives, function words which are unspecified in the sense that they are selected freely without referring to any antecedent. The conjunctives are: 'what', 'who', 'which', 'whatever', etc.;

(c) subordinators which like sentence-connectors do not replace any element, but are merely added to the insert sentence to transform it into a clause: subordinators signal subordination of one clause to the other. They are: 'that', 'than', 'because', 'as if ', 'if, 'even though', the discontinuous 'so... that', 'as... as', etc.;

embedding is the insertion into a certain position in the matrix sentence;

substitution which consists in replacing elements of the insert sentence by their nounal, verbal, adverbial or adjectival.

The substitutes are subdivided into:

(a) N-substitutes: 'she', 'he', 'if ', 'they', 'that', 'another', 'other', 'none', 'both', and the relatives 'who', 'which', 'where', 'that', 'as', etc.

V-substitutes: 'do', 'will', 'shall', 'to', 'have', 'can', etc.

D-substitutes: 'so', 'that way', 'like that', etc.

A-substitutes: 'such', 'like this', etc.;

zeroing or deletion of a word characterized by a zero-filled position
with a neatly specified antecedent;

adjustment which consists in transforming an element of the sequential sentence on the morphological level (see T-AUX in simple sentences);

permutation consists in any rearrangement of linguistic elements
(words or segments of speech);

word-sharing which consists in two sentences overlapping round a common or a shared word.

These procedures are generally not applied singly, but more often than not combine with one another. They are applied to change the structure of the insert sentence which is then embedded or attached to the first matrix sentence.

In non-transformational grammars the matrix sentence is termed 'a main clause'.

Compound Sentence Sequences

S₁+S₂ Compound S₃

Sentences very often do not follow one another in succession, but one kernel sentence may be joined to another.

Two main sentences may be joined together into a compound sentence by applying the procedure of conjunction:

(1) The two sentences have different subjects (NP₁):

The man came to the window. The man came to.

The detective saw him. the window, and the detective saw him.

(2) If there occurs any identical element other than the NP₁, the connection involves substitution and, sometimes, permutation in the second sentence:

1. We asked for his slides. He showed us them. He showed them to us.

2. He showed us his slides.

The product is:

We asked for his slides, and he showed them to us.

(3) If the VP in the two sentences are identical, the connection involves besides the conjunction also V-substitutes, permutation and the addition of the function word ('so', 'neither').

I shall make a fair copy of the dictation.

He will make a fair copy of the dictation. I shall make a fair copy of the dictation and so will he.

(4) If the conjunctions are discontinuous, permutation is not used in the sequential part:

Either Ben does it or I shall.

Semi-compound Sentence Sequences

S₁+S₂ Semi-compound S₃

If NP₁(subject) or the V in the two sentences are identical, the identical element in the second sentence is zeroed (the antecedent stands in the leading part); the operation is conjunction.

1. John smiled.

2. John paid the money

1. John laughed.

2. Edna laughed.

Complex Sentence Sequence

S₁+S₂ Complex S₃

Two sentences can be joined into a complex sentence:

(1) by means of substitutes conventionally termed wh-substitutes: 'who (whom)', 'which', 'where', 'when', 'whose', etc. They are called relatives because they relate, refer back to their antecedents.

Of the two sentences to be connected the first is called a matrix one and the second is called an insert sentence. The relatives appear in the initial position in the insert clause which loses a constituent and the relative replaces it, the substitute having the status of the substituted constituent. The insert sentence immediately follows the antecedent. The matrix sentence is: "The man is arriving today." The insert sentence is: "The man wished to see you."

The matrix and the insert sentences have a common word. The product of the substitution and attachment is: "The man who wished to see you is arriving today."

He picked up a flower. Не picked up the flower

The flower had dropped. which had dropped.

This is the place. This is the place where

They met last in this place. they last met.

1. The time has come. The time has come when

2. Birds of passage flybirds of passage fly South.

South at this time.

Possessive nouns are substituted for 'whose':

1. That man seems very lonely. That man whose wife

2. That man's wife and family and family are away

are away. seems very lonely.

Zeroing and permutation can be applied when the relative has a function) in the insert sentence other than that of NP₁.

The man is asking for you. The man whom you

You saw the man yesterday. saw yesterday is asking for you.

The zeroing of 'whom issues: The man you saw yesterday is asking for you.

(2) sentences may be connected into a complex sentence by means of embedding, which is accompanied by introducing a conjunctive.

The insert sentence: "I know it what I know". The newly derived insert clause: "What I know" may be embedded in the NP position of any matrix sentence:

NP--isn't important. What I know isn't important.

He explained to me -- NP. He explained to me what I know.

This is --NP. This is what I know.

Another transformational rule, adjustment, may be applied along with embedding.

The insert sentence is: "I live here" "where I live."

The matrix sentence is: "He asked me" -- NP. Before the insert sentence is embedded the procedure of adjustment is applied to its V: "where I lived."

The product is: "He asked me where I lived." Note the absence of this rule with relatives.

(3) sentences may be connected into a complex sentence by the addition of subordinators. The subordinator changes the insert sentence in a way as to enable it to fill in D positions in the matrix sentence.

The D-subordinators are: 'when', 'while', 'as', 'since', 'for' 'because', 'so that', 'as if, 'even if ', etc.

Matrix sentences	Insert sentences	Products
We do not hear from him.	He left.	We have not heard from him since he left
He did not come.	He was ill.	He did not come because he was ill.
He spoke--D	He was relating a story of no importance	He spoke as if he was were relating of no importance.
They were discussing the play--D	They rode home	They were discussing the play while they were riding (rode) home.

It should be borne in mind that such words as 'that' and 'as' may function as relatives which will be seen from the following sequences:

I have never heard such stories as he tells.

This white spot is the part of the egg that is going to grow into a chick.

Semi-complex Sentence Sequences

S₁+S₂ Semi-complex S₃

Two sentences may be joined into a semi-complex one by means of word-sharing if they contain a word in common. Thus the shared word occurs only once in the semi-complex sentence and the two sentences overlap round it.

Word-sharing often involves the absorption of two functions by one element. Word-sharing is typical of modern English and is widely used.

The Shared Word is in the Different Status

1.I saw him.

I saw him walking.

2. He was walking.

The shared NP in these sentences is in the different grammatical status. The sentences overlap round it: BE is deleted, the comma is never used here. (In the non-transformational grammar the structure is called Complex Object.)

Another way of connecting the same sentences will be the addition of the subordinator 'as' to the second sentence, thus transforming it into an insert clause, and attaching it to the matrix one: "I saw him as he was walking. »

This is also seen in the example below:

We finally found it. We finally found it lying in

It lay in a corner. a corner.

or:

We finally found it as it lay in a corner.

If there occurs BE in the insert sentence, it is deleted and the two sentences overlap round the shared word which absorbs two functions, usually those of an NP-object and an NP-subject as is seen in the connection below:

1. We saw it.

2. It was high above us.

The same procedures are applied to connect the following into semi-complex sentences:

1. I like my coffee.

2. My coffee is white.

1. He painted the door.

2. The door is light blue.

1. I have a bad tooth.

2. My tooth is filled.

The Shared Word is in the Similar Status

1. I was there.

2. I was working.

The shared word is in the similar status in both sentences: it is the subject to the V. NP in the second sentence is zeroed and BE are fused into one. The product is: "I was there (,) working."

We waited.

We were breathless.

These sentences share a word (N₁) in the status of the subject. The finite V in the first sentence belongs to the subclass of verbs which admit of combining with adjectives. The word sharing issues: "We waited (,) breathless."

The less widely spread case is when word-sharing may leave the finite V of the insert sentence finite:

There is a bus.

The bus goes in this direction.

1. It was a Plant.

2. Plant made some of the clocks for Nelson's fleet.

The finite V in the insert clause can be transformed into V-to as is seen in the following product:

1. There were no birds.

2. The birds could sing.

In the following pair of sentences:

1.1 found the letter.

2. You lost the letter.

in which the shared word is in the status of the object to the V, the connection can be made in two ways:

(1) through substitution (or zeroing) and adjustment. "The product is: "I found the letter (which) you had lost."

(2) through word-sharing and the intermediary T-PASSIVE: "the letter lost by you" (the shared word acquires a different status). The final product is: "I found the letter lost by you."

Word-sharing is present in semi-complex sentences with the verb 'make'. The matrix sentence is:

The insert sentences are:

1. I went there I go there

2. I am a teacher I a teacher

3. I am angry I angry

The derived transforms fill in VP, NP, A positions accordingly and the filial products are (the sentences overlap round the shared word).

He made me go there.

He made me a teacher.

He made me angry.

* * *

There exist pairs of sentences which admit of a certain variety of connections. The following pair will illustrate the point:

Water boils. Water changes into steam.

(1) The first sentence (NV) can be nominalised into an NP.

Water boils boiling water

The newly derived NP may fill in the NP position in the matrix sentence and the procedure yields:

Boiling water changes into steam.

(2) By zeroing the identical NP in the second sentence and by applying the conjunction 'and' we can join the two sentences into a semi-compound one:

Water boils and changes into steam.

(3) By addition of the subordinator 'when' we can derive a temporal clause from the first sentence: 'when water boils'. We then replace the identical NP in the insert sentence by its substitute 'it': 'when it boils'. The derived clause is attached to the matrix one:

Water changes into steam when it boils.

Using permutation we can get:

When water boils it changes into steam.

The NP in the insert clause may further be deleted:

When boils water changes into steam.

The sentence, however, is ungrammatical. The deletion of the NP involves the transformation V, V-ing.

When boiling water changes into steam.

'When' may be further reduced and the V-ing is separated by a comma:

Boiling, water changes into steam.

Such set of constructions with V-ing, V-en ("When boiled water can be used for drinking"), V-to ("She raised her eyes to see a stranger") are used to compress the insert structures. Nominalisation is also a means of compression. Compression reflects a growing tendency in English speech towards economy. The products of the connections carrying the same information (expanded or compressed) are syntactic synonyms.

II. Practical tasks

1. Answer the following question.

What is a situation sentence?

What is a sequential sentence?

What is the formal difference between them?

What formal signs signal the connection between them?

What is a series of sequential sentences?

Are there any sequences in dialogues?

Can you consider complex and compound sentences as sequences?

Have sequential sentences any particular structure?

What do transformations in sentence sequences reveal?

What are the procedures used in connecting sentences into sequences?

What is a matrix sentence?

What is a leading sentence?

What is an insert sentence?

What is a sequential sentence?

What is the procedure of conjunction?

What procedure do you call substitution?

* * *

What is the procedure of embedding?

What is the procedure of addition? *

What is the procedure of zeroing?

Is there any difference between deletion and zeroing?

Js there any difference between substitution and addition?

What is the procedure of permutation?

What is the procedure of adjustment?

What is an antecedent?

What is the procedure that yields compound sentence sequences?

What are the underlying sentences for this transform?

What are the additional procedures that accompany the procedure of conjunction?

What are the conditions under which the procedure of conjunction yields semi-compound sentence sequences?

What are the three subgroups of function words used in the procedure yielding complex sentences?

Why are the function words of the first subgroup called relatives?

What relatives do you know? What do the relatives refer to?

What position do the relative-introduced clauses fill in the matrix sentence?

* * *

Under what conditions are relatives zeroed?

Do conjunctive function words relate on any antecedent?

Why do we call conjunctives unspecified?

Where is the place of a conjunctive in the insert clause?

How are syntactic structures with conjunctives connected with a matrix sentence?

What is the underlying matrix sentence

What is the underlying sentence of the embedded construction?

What subordinators do you know?

What is the procedure employing subordinators?

What position do the subordinator-introduced clauses fill in the matrix sentence?

Which function words are polyfunctional?

What procedure yields a semi-complex sentence sequence?

What is the necessary condition for the production of a semi-complex sentence?

What are the particular cases and underlying sentences in them?

What is a semi-complex sentence with finite verbs in both parts?

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