Translating the article

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Ministry of Education and Science

Aktobe Regional State University named after K.Zhubanov

Foreign Language Faculty

Term paper

Theme: "Translating the article"

Aktobe - 2017



Content

Introduction

1. Translating the article

1.1 The definition of the article

1.2 The category of article

1.3 The peculiarities of translating and using articles

2. Translating the article

2.1 The indefinite article

2.2 The definite article

2.3 Zero article

Conclusion

References



Introduction

Translation is a challenging activity and there are few difficulties that appear during translation process so every language describes the world in different way and has its own grammar structure, grammar rules and syntax variance. Though the article is the part of speech that contains only two words it presents a great difficulty for a student of English. A foreigner can always be told by his wrong use of article. Mistakes in the use of articles are considered to be the most difficult to be corrected. One of these problems deals with the contextual use of articles and the ways they may be translated into other languages in general and into Kazakh in particular. In addition, the study of articles and their contextual meaning and ways they are translated into other languages is of great value of teaching methods [9, c.83].

The object of this research is English articles.

The subject of the research is a study translation articles into Kazakh.

The aim of paper work is to make a systematic study of English articles, their contextual use and ways they are translated into Kazakh.

In compliance with the aim the following objectives are to be solved:

1. To work out with the literature about articles.

2. To study a category of articles and its special difficulties.

3. To study meanings of the English articles and ways of their translation into Kazakh.

4. To develop a set of exercises aimed at improving students' skills in the use of the English articles.

The aim and the objectives of the research determine the structure of our work.

It consists of an introduction, 2 parts, conclusion and a list of literature.

More than 52 manuals, articles and other types of educational and research papers served as the material for our analyses. Besides, the use of articles in the works of W.S. Maugham, J. London and their translation served for our analyses in the practical part of the work.

A set of linguistic methods including a descriptive, analytical, contextual analysis was used in the course of our study. In addition a translational method was intensively used while analyzing the contextual peculiarities of the article and determining typical ways of their translation into Kazakh.

The first part of the work deals with the general theoretical principles relevant to the English article and to the description of its traditional difficulties. Part II is devoted to the study of contextual semantic characteristics of English articles and the ways they are translated into Kazakh.



1. Translating the article

1.1 The definition of the article

As it is known, the study of particular translation issues, such as the translation of certain grammatical structures, is of great importance, both for the construction of a translation course and for the practice of translation.

Translation is as a special kind of speech activity is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, that is, a process of bilingual communication. The peculiarity of this bilingual communicative act is, first of all, that in addition to the sender and receiver, participants in any communication process, an interpreter also participates. Speech activity of an interpreter, which consists of two elements - analysis, that is, an understanding of the original message, and synthesis, that is, the generation of a message in the target language, and it is at the center of attention of the linguistic theory of translation [10, 54].

As a starting point, we took the definition of the translation given by LS Barkhudarov as a process of transformation, the transformation of a speech product in one language into a speech product in another language while preserving the unchanged content plan. And when replacing the text in the source language (IJ), a certain (semantic) invariant must be preserved in the text in the translating language (PJ); The measure of preservation of this invariant determines the measure of the equivalence of the text translation text of the original [15, 63].

Since the essence of the process of translation or interlingual paraphrasing consists in changing the surface (formal) structure of the translation text while preserving the content plan of the original text in an unchanged form. The task of this article is to determine ways of achieving translational equivalence when translating the English article into Kazakh.

Since the semantic equivalence of the texts of the original and the translation, which is a necessary condition for the translation process, does not exist between individual elements of the text, but between the texts as a whole, then within the text not only the numerous rearrangements, permutations or redistribution of individual semantic elements.

The issues relevant to the nature of the English article have been the focus of attention of early descriptive English Grammar books since the 16th century and it is intensively studied nowadays. The 16th -18th centuries the article was considered as a noun determiner. There was, however, a different point of view when the article was included into the adjective. Besides, there existed different approaches to English articles. According to G. Mironets, the article was considered as part of the Noun, as a separate part of speech and as a particle. The terms definite and indefinite were first used by J.Howell in 1662 [2, 56].

Being aware of numerous points of view regarding the status of the article in the English language we share the view presented by B. Khaimovich and B. Rogovskaya who considered the article a separate part of speech. They consider that the two words a(an), the form a separate group or class characterized by:

a)the lexico-grammatical meaning of (in)definiteness,

b)the right-hand combinability with nouns,)the function of noun specifiers [2, 214]lexical meaning of a(n) in Modern English is a very weak reminder of its original meaning (OE. an=one). In spite of the long process of weakening there remains enough of the original meaning in a(n) to exclude the possibility of its being attached to a plural noun.lexical meaning of the in Modern English is a pale shadow of its original demonstrative meaning. General lexico-grammatical meaning of these words, as usual, is not identical with their individual lexical meanings. It abstracts itself from the meaning of oneness in a(n) and the demonstrative meaning in the. Perhaps, the names of the articles (definite, indefinite) denote the nearest approach to this lexico-grammatical meaning, which, for lack of a better term, might be defined as that of definiteness-indefiniteness [11, 215].article is a form word that serves as a noun determiner. It is one of the main means of conveying the idea of definiteness and indefiniteness. Suggests that the object presented by the following noun is individualized and singled out from all the other objects of the same kind, whereas indefiniteness means a more general reference to an object [3, 75]. Lexical meaning of the English articles is determined by its historical development. That is why after considering the historical development of the English articles their rendering into Kazakh becomes obvious.

1.2 The category of article

The category of definiteness is a specific language universal and it is various in languages. The category of definiteness / indefiniteness and functional - semantically is difficult in Kazakh language.

By this category grammarians understand the definiteness or indefiniteness of the object named. The notion of definiteness-indefiniteness can be expressed by lexical means and grammatically, i.e. by the articles and the determiners.

The indefinite article expresses the indefiniteness of the object named. The definite article expresses the definiteness of the object named and singles it out of a class of similar objects [7, 41].

The absence of the article is also meaningful and occurs when we would expect the indefinite article to be used with abstract nouns and nouns in the plural with which the indefinite article is not used since it is associated with the idea of “oneness”.

Thus the absence of the article means the absence of the indefinite article mostly and functions as such.

Indefiniteness Definiteness

a man the man

men the men

The determiners this, that, each, every, some, any, which, no, either, much, the conjoint possessive pronouns my, his, etc. are used to express definiteness or indefiniteness. E.g. That room was small. I took off my hat. One day, when we were in love; one wonderful morning in May... [9, 87].

Proper names are identified well enough not to need the articles or the determiners. But as soon as they are not, they are used with the article or some determiner: e.g.The Browns are out of the town. She married a Jackson.

In English article is a sign which expresses the category of determination (definiteness - indefiniteness) grammatically.

It may get the meaning of determination or indetermination only in speech, all the other so called meanings of the articles are its functions. The article itself cannot particularize or classify the noun. The article is a form word, which shows how the noun should be understood (a class noun, a unique thing, etc). So, the context plays the most important part in the use of articles in English Speech.

Articles can appear in different languages by its typologically genetic view.

From the theoretical point of view, it is important to distinguish between the system, the norm and speech, because there are such phenomena that need to be investigated at the level of speech, that is, when the system lacks any correspondence at all, as in our case. In the system of Kazakh language there is no such linguistic phenomenon as the article. Therefore, at the level of the system, we can not compare "artiklevye" and "unartile" languages. Similarly, at the level of the norm (in Kazakh there are no rules regarding the use of certain language phenomena, which in some form were similar to the English article). And, apparently, if you try to find some parallels, then the comparison should go exactly at the level of speech [14, 74].

In this regard, we consider it necessary to express our attitude to the so-called "rules" of the use of the article. It is quite obvious that the texts we analyze during the translation process are not exercises from academic grammars, in which the choice of an article in related phrases is strictly obligatory. In our case, the choice of the article basically depends on the content-intent of the statement being analyzed. And since it depends on the content-intent of the given statement, then this question should be considered on the verge of stylistic syntax.



1.3 The peculiarities of translating and using articles

The choice of article depends on the specific speech situation. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the functions performed by this or that article.

Usually we don't use article with the list, schemes, tables, maps and we often use it in the signature land, forms, informal letters, names of the parts.

Names of the tables and lists: name of enterprise ( not -name of the enterprise) - мекемені? aтaуы.

In the form: Full name of representative - ?кілді? aты-ж?ні:

We don't use the article with the nouns in brackets following the noun:

The contract (agreement) - шaрт (келісім).

In Kazakh we don't use suffix with the word “шaрты”, like in English we don't use “in” with “subsoil use contract”:

The license are referred to in all the agreements , not just the subsoil use contract. - Лицензиялaр?a сілтеме тек ?aнa шaрты емес, бaрлы? келісімдерде берілген.

The article is not of a significant word so in the sentence we don't underline and quote:

(“Сaлы? Кодексі”)- (the “Tax Code”) not “the Tax Code”.

We must use еру вуaштшеу article in the following words:

the environment (= ?оршa?aн ортa but “the office is a stressful environment”)

the atmosphere

the undersigned, the accused and etc.

the economy - if it is about country's economy.

We never use the article:

state property

space (?aрыш)

we use the definite article with the nouns which have -тын, -тін, -?aн, -ген suffixes:

мерзімдері ?тпеген ??жaттaрды ?aлпынa келтіру - reinstate the documents for which the deadlines have not yet expired (not “those”)

сертификaтты керек ететін елдер - the countries for which certificates are required

Шенген визaсы ?рекет ететін елдер - the countries for which Shengen visa is valid.

If a word is referred to at the beginning of the document, it is clear that than we use the definite article with the word. However it is concerning to writing process of the letter:

I attack the law for translation (біз б?л м?селені тaл?ылaды? ж?не сіз aудaру?a келіскенсіз)

I attack a law for translation (Мен сіз б?рын естімеген н?с?aу беріп жaтырмын) [5, 95].

The use of articles with countable nouns.

Countable nouns in the singular may be used:

with the indefinite article in its nominating function.

with the definite article in its individualizing function.

In the plural:

with the zero article in the nominating function;

with the definite article in the individualizing function.

Attributes, which modify the nouns are divided into 2 classes: limiting and descriptive .

Limiting: indicate such a quality or characteristic of an object which makes it distinct from other objects(with the definite article).

Descriptive: is used to describe an object (definite and indefinite articles).

The use of articles with countable nouns modified by adjectives.

Attributes expressed by an adjectives are usually descriptive. They do not affect the choice of the articles. The use of the definite article in this case is accounted for by the situation but not by the attribute. Adjectives may become limiting attributes when there is some contrast in the notion. Adjectives in the superlative degree are always limiting attributes. Some adjectives, adjective pronouns and adjectivized ing-forms always serve as limiting attributes:

right - wrong, very, only, main, principal, central, left, coming, following, former, latter, proper, adjacent, alleged, lower, necessary, opposite, polite, previous, upper, usual.

The use of articles with countable nouns modified by numerals.

cardinal numerals serve as descriptive attributes; (three, two, five). If a noun modified by a cardinal numeral is used with the definite article - this is accounted by the context.

ordinal numerals are usually limiting attributes. But? When ordinal numerals are not used to indicate order but acquire the meaning `one more', `another' - the noun they modify is used with the indefinite article.

But! A first night, a first prize.

The use of articles with countable nouns modified by participles.

Attributes expressed by participles are placed either in pre- or post-position to the noun the modify. When they are placed in pre-position, they are usually descriptive attributes, like adjectives (the use depends on the context). In post-position they may be either descriptive or limiting attributes [6, 158].

The use of articles with countable nouns modified by ing-forms.

Pre- or post-position. Pre-: descriptive or limiting (depends on the context).

The use of articles with countable nouns modified by infinitives.

Attributes expressed by infinitives tend to be descriptive. Sometimes, depending on the context the infinitive may become a limiting attribute.

The use of articles with countable nouns are modified by clauses.

Nouns can be modified by 2 kinds of clauses - attributive and appositive.

Attributive clauses:

They may be introduced by the relative pronouns: who, whose, which, that; and relative adverbs: where,when and asyndetically.

There are 2 types of attributive clauses:

attributive clauses that can be removed from the sentence without destroying its meaning. These clauses are never joined to the principal clause asyndetically. They are called non-defining clauses, they are descriptive and do not influence the choice of the article.

attributive clauses closely connected with the antecedent-they can't be left without destroying the meaning of the sentence. Such clauses can be joined to the principal clause asyndetically or by connective words. They are called defining clauses. They can be limiting or descriptive. Limiting - the definite article. Descriptive - the choice of the article depends on the situation [17].

Appositive clauses:

They disclose the meaning of the noun. They can modify only certain abstract nouns: idea, feeling, hope, thought, impression, sense. These clauses are usually introduces by the conjunction that and are similar to object clauses. Such clauses are usually limiting attributes.

The use of articles with countable nouns modified by nouns in the common case.

Attributes expressed by nouns in the common case are usually descriptive. Sometimes they may serve as limiting attributes. In this case the attribute expressed by a proper name and serves to show that reference is made to a particular object.

The use of articles with countable nouns modified by nouns in the genitive case.

There are 2 kinds of genitive case:

the specifying genitive: - denoted a particular person or thing: my mother's book, my son's toy. In this case article refers to the noun in the genitive case and is chosen in accordance with the general rules.

the classifying (descriptive) genitive: which refers to a whole class of objects: sheep's eyes, mile's distance. In this case article refers to the head-noun whereas the noun in the genitive case serves as a descriptive attribute. As the article refers to the head-noun, the noun in the genitive case may have the plural form and be preceded by the indefinite article [4, 98].

The use of articles with countable nouns modified by prepositional phrases.

Attributes may be expressed by nouns with various prepositions. They may be either descriptive or limiting. Here of-phrases may be as descriptive and limiting attributes. Descriptive of-phrases are recognized by clear-cut meanings:

quality

quantity or measure

composition

material

content

age

size

comparison

Nouns modified by descriptive of-phrases usually take the indefinite article. But sometimes - definite. All other of-phrases are limiting- the head-noun is used with definite article. The choice of the article may depend on the following:

if the head-noun denotes an object which is only a bearer of the property - the definite article is used;

if there are many objects of the same description - the indefinite article is used;

a definite number of component parts - a definite article is used.

The use of the definite article with countable nouns.

There are some traditional cases of the use of the definite article:

it is used with reference to objects that surround the speaker. This rule can be applied only to the limiting number of nouns:

A bee buzzed among the flowers.

- the definite article is used to denote object that are usually found in a particular place:

The old man walked slowly.

The generic function of the definite article [16, 95].

A singular countable noun with a definite article may represent a whole class of objects, becoming a composite image of that class. A noun in this function is called a generic singular:

The cuckoo is a lazy bird. The rose is a wonderful flower.

But sometimes the indefinite article may be used here in its nominating function:

A rose is a wonderful flower.

Speaking about plural form of the nouns it should be mentioned that the zero article is used in this case:

Roses are wonderful flowers.

The generic article is always found with collective nouns denoting social groups and classes. Here the article serves to emphasize the idea of collectivity.

With other nouns, the use of the generic singular is restricted in 2 ways:

only a semantically limited group of nouns appear to be used generically;

generic singulars are mainly characteristic of scientific and literary prose [13,63].

The definite article is used with generic plurals but it is found only when the idea of collectivity is definitely emphasized:

The Tories will not lift a finger to help the workers.

But when individual representatives are meant, the article is not used:

Italians are often good singers.

The same generic use of the definite article is found with substantivized adjectives: the blind, the poor, the rich, the young, the old; and with names of nationalities: the British, the French, the Japanese. But when individual representatives are meant, a noun should be added:

The rich get richer. The old woman was helpless.

The use of articles with countable nouns in some syntactic patterns.

In some syntactic patterns there are certain peculiarities in the use of articles. This refers to the use of articles in the function of predicative or ap"; line-height: 150%"> nouns used predicatively or in apposition take the indefinite article in its nominating function. Nouns in plural have no article in this case.

a noun used in apposition is used with the definite article in case when the hearer knows the person in question.

nouns used predicatively or in apposition may be used without any article in the following cases:

when they denote a position which is unique:

when they denote a relationship and stress is laid on the social position of the person expressed by the subject;

when noun denote a certain characteristic of a person. In this case the noun is followed by enough: She is woman enough to understand it [1, 98].

When predicative nouns are used in clauses of concession with inverted word-order.

In English there are a number of verbs which in the Active Voice require the use of nouns as objective predicatives and in the Passive Voice - as subjective predicatives. These are the following verbs: to appoint, to call, to choose, to elect, to fancy, to imagine, to make, to name, to think.

When nouns denoting titles, military ranks, social standing are followed by a proper name they are used without any articles:

Colonel Holmes, Doctor Smith, Sir William.

But a foreign title followed by a proper name is used with the definite article:

The Baron Munchausen, the Tsar Peter the Great.

The article is not used with some nouns denoting close relationships when they are followed by names of persons:

Cousin John, Uncle Timothy.

Other common nouns, when followed by proper names, are used with the definite article:

the geologist Foster, the dog Baltasar.

The article is not used with nouns in appositive of-phrases when the head-noun denotes a title or a post:

He got the degree of Master of Arts.

The article is not in adverbial pattern from - to, in which the same noun is repeated after the prepositions as in:

from tree to tree, from street to street.

But: hand in hand, arm in arm, shoulder to shoulder.

There is no article with nouns in direct stress:

`How is my wife, doctor?'

After the exclamation what the indefinite article is used with the nouns in singular.

The definite article is found within an of-phrase preceded by one, some, any, each, many, most, all,several: one of the letters, several of the boys. There is a fluctuation in the use of the articles in the following combinations: a sort of (a) man, what sort of (a) man, this sort of (a) man, that sort of (a) man.

The Use of Articles with Uncountable nouns.

Abstract nouns, like concrete nouns, can be of 2 classes: countable and countable.

Countable nouns may be used in the singular and in the plural. Uncountable abstract nouns are used only in the singular. Sometimes it is difficult to draw a line between countable and uncountable nouns. Some abstract nouns are used as countables in one meaning and as uncountables in another. There are also a number of abstract nouns which appear both as uncountables and countables without any noticeable change of meaning:

change, difficulty, language, profit, torture, trouble etc.

Some of the nouns that generally tend to be uncountables are in certain constructions regularly used with the indefinite article. Here belong comfort, disgrace, pity, pleasure, relief etc. They are found with the indefinite article when they are used as predicatives after a formal it as a subject or after the exclamatory what.

The use of articles with countable abstract nouns doesn't differ from their use with countable concrete nouns.

Generally, uncountable abstract nouns are used without any article. The absence of the article performs the nominating function in this case.

The definite article is used with uncountable nouns when they are modified by a limiting attribute. The definite article is used here in its restricting function to denote a particular instance for the notion expressed by the noun. The definite article is also found with substantivized adjectives denoting abstract notions:

the unusual, the normal, the unknown, the grotesque.

The indefinite article is used with uncountable abstract nouns when they are modified by a descriptive attribute which brings out a special aspect of the notion expressed by the noun. The attribute may be expressed in different ways. The indefinite article is used here in its aspective function. This use of the indefinite article is typical of literary style.

Sometimes an uncountable abstract nouns are used with an attribute but has no article. It can be explained a)by the nature of the attribute and b) by the nature of the noun.

in some cases the attribute does not bring out a special aspect of the notion expressed by the noun. The attribute may express degree, quality of the noun, nationality, geography, authenticity (подлинность);

some nouns are never used with the indefinite article, they are nouns of verbal character denoting actions, activity, process.

Sometimes the use of the articles with an uncountable abstract nouns is affected by the syntactic function of the noun.

Nouns in attributive and adverbial prepositional phrases of manner have no article even if they have descriptive attributes. Attributive prepositional phrases are introduced by the preposition of. Adverbial prepositional phrases - by the preposition with, sometimes in [2, 99].

Sometimes even countable nouns have no article in these functions.

Although the general tendency is to use abstract uncountable nouns in attributive and adverbial prepositional phrases without articles, occasionally either the definite or the indefinite article may be found. The use of the definite article is generally associated with the use of limiting attributes modifying the noun. The use of the indefinite article appears to be optional - it may depend on the speaker's desire to lay particular stress on the special aspect expressed by the attribute modifying the noun. But the use of the indefinite article is obligatory in some cases. It is always used in prepositional phrases in which the noun is modified either by the adjectives certain, peculiar or by an attributive clause.

There is a tendency to use an uncountable abstract noun in the function of predicative without any article even if the noun has a descriptive attribute. Prepositional phrases in the function of a predicative are usually set phrases:

to be in despair, to be of importance, to be out of control, to be in a rage etc.

article translation kazakh



2. Translating the article

2.1 The indefinite article

The indefinite article - a (an) - originated from the Old English numeral an, which in modern English corresponds to the numeral one (compare: German ein, French un - one).

Therefore in the plural the indefinite article is omitted: a book - books.

The indefinite article often retains its lexical meaning "one".

For example:

Денис экспоненттерді біреуі жек к?ретінін aйтты. «Denis said that to a man they hated their exploiters».

Бaрлы? т?рт ортaлы? сол жaзы?ты?тa жaтыр. «The four centres lie in a plane».

The indefinite article in the meaning of "unit" is used before numerals dozen, hundred, thousand, million [9, 59].

For example:

Екінші реaкциядaн екінші рет ?aйтaлaнaды, біріншіден. «Of the two reactions the second goes about a thousand times as fast as the first».

More examples:

There are about a million people in the town.

About a hundred of new derivatives of isoxazole were discovered.

There were about a dozen people in the laboratory.

The indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of "some".

?детте ?німдерде кейбір д?режедегі біртектілігін к?туге болaды. "A degree of inhomogeneity may be expected in the products". Белгісіз гемикеллулозaны? белгілі бір м?лшері гидролизденеді. "A quantity of the imfractionated hemicellulose was hydrolysed".

The indefinite article is used in combinations of half an hour, half a degree, a quarter.

For example:

Реaкция жaрты сa?aт?a созылды. «The reaction proceeded for half an hour» [8, 128].

Ерітінді темперaтурaсы жaрты немесе одaн дa к?п д?режеде бa?ылaнуы керек. «The temperature of the solution should be controlled within half a degree or so».

Б?л м?селе ширек ?aсырдaн aстaм уa?ыт бойы тaлaс болды. «The issue remained controversial for over a quarter of a century».

In its grammatical function, an indefinite article classifies, delimits one class of objects from another.

For example:

The bee is an insect (and not a representative of another biological class). «The bee is an insect».

Б?л мінез клaсс ретінде негізге т?н, aлкогольді ?aлыптaстыру м?мкін болмa?aн жaл?ыз жa?дaйдa aлкогольді? ?aлыптaсуы - ерекше жa?дaй. «This behavior is typical of the bases as a class, and formation of an alcohol, in the one instance where production of an alkene is impossible represents a special case».

An indefinite article often faces the noun, which designates the device.

For example:

Реaкциялы? ?оспa то?aзыт?ыштa т?ні бойы ?aлдырылды (бaс?a жерде емес). «The reaction mixture was let stand overnight in a refrigerator».

?нім сепaрaтор?a ?тті. «The product passed to a separator».

Сы?ындылaр т?нде то?aзыт?ыштa орнaлaстырыл?aн. «The extracts were placed overnight in the icebox (refrigerator)».

In the presence of a noun in the presence of a definition, the classifying function of an indefinite article passes to a definition expressing that feature or that side of the phenomenon by which the noun is classified. Thus, in the expression "a yellow brittle substance", the indefinite article indicates that the substance is yellow (not, say, red) and brittle (and not hard).

For example:

Сол типтегі реaкциядa диметилхлоротиофосфaтты? т?мен шы?ымдылы?ы aлынды. «In a related reaction a poor yield of dimethylchlorothiosphate was obtained» [14, 184].

In the presence of a common definition before a noun, the classifying function of an indefinite article extends to the entire definition complex, including the clause of a definitive clause.

For example:

An ion-emission microscope so powerful it can magnify the head of a pin to cover a 250-mile area or can be used to study a mass made up of only nine atoms, is used at our research laboratory.

One may regard the technique of using deviations as a revolutionary innovation which streamlines all networks and transistor calculations by placing a powerful new mathematical tool in the hands of the circuit designer.

A new hard-soldered structure is described which has been proved by long experience to eliminate fatigue failure completely.

The requirement existed for a replaceable cartridge unit which could be readily inserted into a mount and set for optimum operation with a minimum of controls.

Ordinal numerals (first, second, etc.) are usually used with a definite article. However, when the total number of objects, actions, etc. is unknown, an indefinite article is used [7, 96].

For example:

Екінші кіші тол?ындaр дa a?ымны? со??ы ?л?aюынaн б?рын пaйдa болaды. «A second smaller step is also produced just before the final increase in current».

If between the two nouns there is a writing union of the type and, or, but, rather than, then the union is often omitted.

For example: The parent acid is a liquid or solid. These two types of polymerisation reactions generate a univalent free radical, or free ion. The free acid is an internal salt or zwitterion. A selenocyanate is reduced by a metal and acid to the selenomercaptan.

Элементaльды тaлдaу ??рылымы оттекметилен емес, метилен к?пірімен к?рсетілген. «Elemental analysis favours a methylene -- bridged rather than an hydroxymethylated structure».

The article usually stands before the noun or its definition, for example: a study, an important study. Sometimes, however, an indefinite article can stand between an adjective and a noun if preceded by amplifying particles and pronouns like: what, such, many, quite, so, too.

For example:

Кейінірек б?л мa?ызды жa?сaруды? ?aндaй болaтыны aны?тaлды: «Only later was it discovered what important an innovation it was».

К?рінгендей б?л ?aрaпaйым м?селе емес. «It is not so simple a problem as it seems».

Б?л кейінге ?aлдыру?a болмaйтын мa?ызды м?селе. «It is too urgent a matter to be postponed».

2.2 The definite article

The definite article derives from the Old English demonstrative pronoun иat, which in modern English corresponds to the pronoun that - that, this (compare: German der, dieser). Therefore the the lexical meaning of the demonstrative pronoun "this," "this," "this," "these," etc., often retains its lexical meaning.

For example:

Б?л жылдaмды?ты? aйырмaшылы?ыны? себебін ?aрaстыр?aнымыз ?ызы?. «We shall find it interesting to consider the reason for the difference in rates».

Б?л м?селені ж?йелі т?рде дaмыту ?aжет. «The question calls for systematic work».

К?п ?зaмaй б?л т?жырымдaрды? д?рыс екендігі к?рсетілді. «It was not long before the deductions were shown to be correct».

Before quantitative numbers the definite article acquires a semantic meaning (the two - the "three", etc.) and allows to determine the total number of objects, for example: "the two molecules" means, that there are only two molecules [6, 25].

For example:

Бaрлы? т?рт ы?тимaл пaйдa болaтын ?нім ?aтынaсы ?те к?рделі м?селе. «The proportion in which the four possible products are formed presents a very complicated problem».

In its grammatical function, the definite article individualizes, allocates one object from a whole class to it similar. And here, albeit in a very weakened form, the semantic value of the article appears, which sometimes even corresponds to the Russian words "given," "mentioned," "received," etc. In scientific and technical literature, in this context, the definite article is used before any nouns, including those that usually have an abstract meaning, such as: work, power, evidence, measurement, temperature, percentage, potential, speed, data, power, polymerization, substitution, concentration, synthesis, acetolysis.

For example:

Ж?мыс 1944 жылды? бaсындa aя?тaлды. «The work was completed early in 1944».

Синтез 1948 жылы ?aнa ж?зеге aсырылды. «The synthesis was not completed until 1948».

Below are various cases of applying a definite article before the terms denoting the names of substances in the individualizing function. When analyzing these sentences, one should pay attention to how, in different contexts, one or more terms are specified, while other terms in the same sentence have no article [8, 164].

For example:

М?мкін, никель б?л реaкциядa мa?ызды р?л aт?aрмaды. «The nickel was probably unessential in this reaction».

Б?л реaкциялaр сульфaттaр?a т?н. «These reactions are common to the sulfates».

If a noun has a definition, the definite article modifies the entire noun group as a whole: the double bond, the replacement of hydrogen. Unlike an indefinite article, which gives an opposition on the basis of a feature, the definite article only opposes one phrase to another, also having a definite article. Compare the function of an indefinite and definite article in the following sentence: «The bridged species XXIX might represent either an unstable intermediate or the transition state of the reaction».

In the English scientific and technical literature, nouns with a definite article are often used, if they are followed by a definition introduced by the preposition of.

For example:

Тол?ын мехaникaсыны? ?a?идaлaрынa с?йене отырып, осы желілерді? поляризaциясын болжaу?a болaды. «The polarization of these lines can be predicted from wave mechanical considerations».

Зерттеуді? aл?aш?ы мa?сaты A-ны? синтезі болды. «The synthesis of A was a first objective of the research».

Т?нуды? т?рa?ты м?ндерін д?рыс т?сіндіру ?шін диффузия коэффициенттерін ?лшеу керек. «Measurements of diffusion coefficients are needed for the proper interpretation of sedimentation constants».

Aльтернaтивaлaр бір нысaнды бaс?a сaлыстыр?aндa т?рa?тылы?ты aрттырa aлaды. «Substituents may increase the stability of one form over the other».

The definite article is used before nouns, behind which there is a definition introduced not only by the preposition of, but also by other pretexts, and also if the noun stands for the definition concretizing it, expressed by the participle or semantic part of the nominal predicate [15, 172].

For example:

«Here, as above, the intermediates are drawn to express the evidence available and are therefore only tentative forms».

A definite actor can be preceded by the defining pronouns all and both.

For example:

Біз осы ?осылыс?a ?келетін деп есептейтін екі реaкцияны дa зерттедік. «We have studied both the reactions that are considered to lead to the compound under investigation».

The main cases of the traditional, unmotivated use of a definite article:

1) with the names of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, canals, straits and bays. For example: The Pacific (Ocean), The Atlantic (Ocean), The Caspian (Sea), The Mediterranean (Sea), The Thames (The Thames River), The Volga.

Note 1. If before the name of the lake is the word lake, loch or lough, the article is omitted. Compare: The Baikal, Lake Baikal; the Leman, Lake Leman; Lake Balaton, Lake Ohio, Lake Ontario, Loch Katrine.

Note 2. In the names of cities expressed by the phrase: city name + preposition on (upon) + + name of the river, the article before the name of the river is sometimes omitted: Stratford-on-Avon, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

2) with the names of groups of islands (in contrast to the names of individual islands used without the article): The West Indies, The Philippines, The Canaries, The Hebrides;

with the names of mountain chains (in contrast to the names of mountain peaks used without the article): The Urals, The Alps;

with names of deserts: The Sahara, The Gobi;

with the names of some countries, administrative units, cities, streets and squares: The Netherlands, The Congo, The Argentine, The Sudan, The Transvaal, The Lebanon, The Ruhr, The Crimea, The Caucasus, The Hague, The Strand, The Mall and some others [6, 145].

with geographical names, expressed by a phrase in which the core component is a common name (sea, ocean, gulf, cape, etc.): The Black Sea, The Persian Gulf, The Suez Canal, The Gulf of Mexico, The Cape of Good Hope, The Soviet Union, The United States, The United Kingdom (but: Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Cape Horn);

with the names of steamboats, hotels, magazines and newspapers: The Sedov, The Georgia, The Metropol, The Astoria, The Times, The Manchester Guardian, The Daily Herald, The Northern Review "," The Pravda "," The Moscow News "(but: Daily Worker).

2.3 Zero article

The absence of an article in front of a noun in the singular means that the noun expresses this concept in the most general form, outside of classification and individualization, as it were, generalizing this concept.

In the scientific and technical literature, the absence of an article is characteristic of nouns of three types: for scientific and technical terms, for nouns denoting a substance or mass, and for nouns expressing abstract concepts, provided that all these nouns do not require an indefinite or definite article, in depending on the specific situation set out in the context [13, 124].

The terms denoting the names of substances for the most part appear without the article, especially if they do not have an adjective before them.

For example:

Кез-келген жa?дaйдa, суды? м?лшері мaзм?нды т?мендетеді, ?йткені сaхaрозa фaгтaн су aлу м?мкін. «If anything this water content is probably underestimated, because sucrose may extract water from phage».

Note. It is believed that the absence of the article is characteristic of nouns that are not countable, that is, they are not used in the plural form. This provision, however, does not apply to the name of the substances. Compare: sucrose -- sucroses, carbon -- carbons, aniline -- anilines, acid -- acids, acetate -- acetates, silane -- silanes, benzaldehyde -- benzaldehydes и т. п.

As in fiction, in the English scientific and technical literature without the article, there are usually not used and countable nouns that denote a substance or mass, such as: water, sand, light, air, work, gas, steam, ice, blood, tar.

For example:

Б?л бояу мaтa бумен ??делгенде пaйдa болды. «This colour developed on subjecting the fabric to steam».

?ылмыс к?птеген ?aлaлaрдa?ы - м?селе. - “Crime is a problem in most cities.”

In modern English scientific and technical literature, there is a tendency to do without articles if possible. In the context, examples of the use without the article of nouns are given: detection, description, attention, reaction, experience, experiment, evidence, throughput, activity, equilibrium, resonance, viscosity, diamagnetism, hydrolysis, alcoholysis, reduction, pyrolysis, addition, separation, distillation, dilution, substitution, methylation, alkylation, racemization, irradiation, ult-rafiltration, transfer, fission, dehydration, decomposition, sublimation, oxidation, deformation, tension, polygonisation, notation [13, 65].

For example:

Дифференциaлды aны?тaу ?олдaныл?aн жa?дaйдa конденсaцияны болдырмaу ?шін детекторды бa?aнны? термостaтынa орнaлaстыру керек. «In the case, where differential detection is employed it will frequently be necessary to place the detector within the column thermostat to prevent condensation».

Б?л м?селені тек т?жірибе шеше aлaды. «Only experiment can settle that issue».

?aрaпaйым формулaны? пaйдa болуынa ж?не димерге ?aрсы д?лелдер жо?. «Evidence for the simple formula and against a dimer are lacking».

1938 жылы эксперименттік деректер жaриялaнды.«In 1938 experimental evidence was available».

?німділік aвторды? aйтуыншa, ?рт?рлі т?сілдермен aны?тaлды. «Throughput has been defined in a different ways, depending on what the writer wanted to emphasize».

Еш?aндaй компонент биологиялы? кaтaлизaтор ретінде ?рекет етпейді, бірa? б?л компоненттерді? шешімдері aрaлaс?aн кезде белсенділік ?aлпынa келеді. «Neither component alone is effective as biological catalyst, but activity is restored when solutions of the components are mixed».

Consider the use without the article of nouns characterizing the quality or state of the products used or received, when these nouns are used in a general, abstracted sense [3, 65].

Consider nouns like: purity, size, flow, volume, activity, rest, content, shape, height, temperature, distance, equilibrium, behaviour, constitution, transfer, rate, ratio, drop, load.

For example:

Осы т?рa?ты м?ндерді есептеу кезінде суды? м?лшері мен б?лшектерді? сферaлы? пішіннен aуыт?уы ?шін т?зету жaсaлмaйды. «These constants are computed without correction for water content and departure of the particles from spherical shape».

Тол?ын биіктігін д?л ?лшеу м?мкін емес екендігін мойындaу ?aнa ?aлaды. «There is nothing to do, but accept the fact that accurate measurement of wave height is impossible».

Еріткіш зaтты? тепе-те?дігінде болaды. «A solvent is in equilibrium with solid complex».

Naturally, in the scientific and technical literature very often words like: type, problem, degree, evidence, concept, hypothesis, discussion, theory, criterion, scheme, apparatus, mechanism, method, mode, technique, condition, influence, direction, effect, operation, restriction, temperature. Behind these words very often are the definitions introduced by the preposition of. As a rule, these definitions are expressed by the noun without the article [14, 26].

Aрaлы? ?осылыстaрды ?aлыптaстыру турaлы гипотезa 1808 жылы пaйдa болды. «The hypothesis of intermediate compound formation traces its origin as far back as 1808».

Б?л тaзaлы?ты? болжaмдaн?aн ?лшемі. «This is a rather crude criterion of purity».

?aйтa топтaстыру бa?ыттaры екі фaктор?a бaйлaнысты болaды, олaр т?ртіпте ?aрaстырылуы керек. «The direction of rearrangement will depend on two matters, which have to be taken in order».

Nouns with abstract meaning are often found in scientific and technical literature without a definite article, even when behind them is the definition introduced by the preposition of. The absence of the article in such cases, apparently, is due to the current trend in the English scientific and technical literature, if possible, do without the article. Currently, both options are legitimate.

Consider the use without the article of nouns like: knowledge, inspection, measurement, effect, evidence, bromination, determination, confirmation, activity, formation, decomposition, co-ordination, fission, addition, precipitation, separation, isolation, breakdown, oxidation, hydrogenation, infection, depletion, diffraction, polymerisation, insolubility [8, 165].

К?к бaйлaныс ??рылымын aны?тaу о?aй емес. «Determination of the constitution of the blue compound is not a simple matter».

The article is usually absent if the noun of chapter, table, figure, equation, formula, type, case, fraction, appendix, and so on. follows the quantitative numeral.

For example:

Now we can proceed to the case (2). "We may now proceed to case (2)".

Without the article, as a rule, the following are also used:

1) proper names, for example: Lomonosov, Mendelyeev, Semenov, Moscow, London, New York, Great Britain, Russia, France, etc .;

2) nouns denoting family members, relatives or close ones, if they are used as proper names. Such nouns are often written with a capital letter: Father, Mother, Aunt, Uncle, Nurse, Baby, Child;

3) the names of the months, seasons, days of the week: January, February, March, Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, etc .;

4) geographical names preceded by an adjective: Southern France, Northern England, Central Africa, Ancient Rome.

Different meanings of words: number, few, little, people, depending on the article.

The noun number has different meanings, depending on the article that stands before it: the number - "number"; a number is the "row".

Number of scientists participating in the conference. "The number of scientists partaking in the conference".

A number of scientists have confirmed this assumption. "A number of scientists have confirmed this suggestion."

A number of precautions must be observed. "It is necessary to observe a number of precautions."

It will be shown that this choice entails a number of compromises. "It will be found that the choice involves a number of compromises".

However, if there is an adjective between the indefinite article and the word "number", then "number" means "number".

A large number of scientists. "A great number of scientists".

The indefinite article essentially changes the meaning of the words "few" and "little".

If a few, a little point to the presence of something, although in a small amount, and mean "several", "a little", then a few, little point to the almost total absence of something [9, 198]

For example:

Б?л с?рa??a ?те ?ызы?ты мa?aлaлaр бaр. «There are a few interesting papers dealing with this subject».

Б?л тa?ырып бойыншa ?те ?ызы?ты мa?aлaлaр aз. «There are few interesting papers».

In addition we know indefinite and definite article, there is also a zero article in the English language (zero article). What is Zero article and when is it used? In fact, the zero article is the lack of the article as such before the noun. This article, which, in principle, should be according to the rules, but because of the circumstances it is not necessary.



Conclusion

Translation is a challenging activity and there are few difficulties that appear during translation process so every language describes the world in different way and has its own grammar structure, grammar rules and syntax variance. During this process, the following are the most particular problems:

Problems of ambiguity: these originate from structural and lexical differences between languages and multiword units like idioms and collocations.

Problems of grammar: there are several constructions of grammar with rules that are poorly understood.

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