Since 1996 the level of attention to HIV / AIDS problem of Russian media in the second half of the 1990s - the beginning of the 2000s has significantly decreased. The largest number of materials was published in 1987, when HIV was first registered in the USSR, that is, when it was sensational and shocking news. A significant number of articles in 1994 appeared due to the availability of such information reason as the development and discussion of the Law `On preventing the spread of the disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV infection) in the Russian Federation'. Subsequently, the frequency of occurrence of such articles varied, but since 1997 the number of newspaper publications on this topic is small (with the exception of 2000), although within this period the number of registered HIV cases was rapidly increasing. (Yasaveev, 2006)

Turning to the studies of the 1990-s, the following units can be seen in the information flow:

- regarding the appearance of new drugs: `invention', `medicine from AIDS';

- myths about terrorizing surrounding with infected syringes: `AIDS-terrorism', `unknown with syringes';

- stamps: `plague of the XXI century', `risk groups' (instead of `vulnerable group'), etc .;

- labels: `homosexuals', `drug addicts', etc .;

- regarding the origin of the problem in the 1990s: `American syndrome', `AIDS vaccine', `plague from the West';

- confusion of the concepts `HIV' and `AIDS' (Savelieva, 1999).

Other researches on this topic confirm that in the end of 1990s - beginning of 2000s HIV/AIDS issue was not interesting for media (Efanov, 2017). They explain this fact by general principles of modern media activity. According to them the news should include sensation in order to attract attention of the audience. It is the possibility to earn at the expense of advertisement.

1.3.1 The notion of barrier

Discussing of HIV/AIDS prevention barriers is based on the understanding of barrier notion. Notwithstanding the fact that consideration of this issue is predominantly studied in the frames of psychology (I.Pavlov (1949), S.L.Rubinshtein (1989), A.Leontyev (2003), R.Shakurov (1997), N.Podymov (1999), etc.) which as a whole defines it as an obstacle for action, it would be relevant to mention consideration of the barrier problem from the point of view of sociology based on the topic of the work. Below there are key positions associated with the present work:

1) The barriers are connected with external circumstances, which serve as an obstacle. Here G.Andreeva (1988) includes the factors of social order, conditioned by political, religious, professional differences of participants of activity, as well as their belonging to different social groups. In these regards discourse is also applicable notion as the factor of influence.

2) Barriers are determined by a number of internal factors. And in this context it is appropriate to talk about difficulties. Difficulties can be associated with the characteristics of education, namely, with rudeness, the habit of pushing on another person; they can arise due to the inability of a person to reveal himself, the lack of need for interaction, which is expressed in inattention to the partner, offensive condescension or direct indifference. These difficulties, on the one hand, are expressed in a special form of mental states and appear in external passivity; on the other hand, they are associated with various manifestations of personal individuality (displeasure, apathy, aggression, internal anxiety and fear, personality disorders and internal conflicts). (Andreeva, 1988)

3) The cause of the barriers is often determined by the situation in which the interaction takes place. For example, they can arise through inability to establish contact with a partner, through a violation of mutual understanding. S. Kiselgoff (1973) points out that psychological difficulty can be explained by a low level of development of communicative skills and habits of self-organization. Therefore, the thematic (content) and operational side of this interaction can act as a factor that generates barriers to interaction.

Mentioned sociological points of view can be understood as the reasons for barriers formation. There is a kind of domination of internal over external ones. This mechanism is activated through variety of social influences (including media). As a result, it may be said that formation of subjective barrier is the reaction to social reality. On the one hand, it is an obstacle; on the other hand it can be characterized as the driver for behaviour strategies. Whatever it was, the background of subjective barriers is norms of social group the person belongs to. Norms have a major influence on people's behaviours and this is especially the case among young people. (Adam et al, 2011)

1.3.2 The notion of stigma

In covering the concept of subjective barrier existing of external barriers mentioned in the previous paragraph should be paid attention and stigma notion, in particular. According to traditional beliefs, it is a characteristic feature of a person that significantly discredits him in the eyes of others, due to the social heterogeneity of the individual, his inability to identify himself with members of his community. (Borodkina, 2008) HIV / AIDS stigma being the basis for subjective barriers in relation to the infected people and the necessity of testing (Mahajan et al, 2008; Fortenberry et al, 2002) can spoil the efforts of the state in prevention measures.

There are several types of manifestation of stigma such as social, institutional, group and personal. In the context of HIV / AIDS they all take place and are usually interrelated. (Borodkina, 2008) In addition stigma can be external (directed from the outside to the stigmatized person) and internal (may be associated with the person's belonging to a certain group, but may have a purely individualized character). The most difficult situation is when an individual is simultaneously exposed to external and internal stigma, which often leads to destructive mental and social consequences. (Borodkina, 2008) Stigma leads to rejection, discrimination of its bearers. (Bovina & Bovin, 2013) The causes of these phenomena are usually the lack of information about the disease, the widespread false myths about HIV / AIDS, for example about the ways of HIV transmission. (Shakhgildyan, 2007) At the individual level, stigma has an impact on self-awareness, causing people to despair, low self-esteem, depression, at the community level - it affects preventive work, for example, leads to the rejection of HIV testing, from timely seeking medical help, and may affect the quality of medical and social assistance to HIV-infected people. (Pokrovsky, 2013)

In Russia, stigma and discrimination of people living with HIV / AIDS are quite common, especially in the male part of society, but these phenomena are latent. There is an inverse correlation between the level of knowledge on HIV / AIDS and the severity of stigma and discrimination. HIV-infected are subject to both external and internal stigma. Stigmatization phenomena also present in the medical environment; in particular, there is an emotional manifestation of external stigma, such as fear of possible infection, which can affect the quality of medical services to HIV-positive patients. (Chernyavskaya & Ioannidi, 2014)

Notwithstanding the fact that in Russia a legal framework has been formed to protect the rights of HIV-infected patients, the laws don't always work. The explanation is that real need is to change attitudes of the society towards this issue from ethical point of view. (Veshneva & Barkovskaya, 2012)

Attributes of HIV / AIDS stigma existing in Russian society can be confirmed by the results of research conducted in 2014 in Central Administrative District of Moscow (Belyaeva et al, 2015) and involved usual people and medical personnel (893 respondents). They are as follows:

- At the time when the majority of medical workers don't consider it necessary to contacts with HIV-infected people only 60% of respondents from general population demonstrate the same conviction. And the youth is that age group which predominantly considers it important to avoid such contacts, the same as people over 60.

- The majority of respondents in both groups demonstrated the absence of desire to share food with HIV-infected people, mainly, middle-aged respondents.

- Willingness to live in the same room with HIV-infected person was demonstrated by less than the half of respondents in each group, especially among people over 60.

- The assessment of the willingness to let the child go to a kindergarten visited by HIV-infected child depicted that almost half of respondents in both groups didn't have it.

- Along with fears of infection possibility during the contact, another stigmatization factor is the perception of HIV-infected people as a marginal social group. More than the half of respondents in both groups agreed with the statement that `HIV-infected people lead a disorderly lifestyle'.

- At the time when `medical workers' were more likely to object to the introduction of a record of people living with HIV through fingerprints representatives of general population were more likely to support the introduction.

It should be paid attention that the study was conducted not so long ago. And the amount of stigma phenomenon is confusing. Manifestation of a stigmatizing attitude in this sample demonstrates the possibility of people with similar attitudes to influence the motivation of patients for dispensary observation and treatment of HIV infection, limit the ability to timely conduct of medical and diagnostic activities and implement the concept of `treatment as prevention'. Moreover, such influence can be reflected on the efforts of the state to provide population with HIV tests as prevention measure.

In connection with existing media discourse it can be supposed that those public figures which form public opinion connected with HIV/AIDS issue may have the same stigmatizing attitudes and, thereby, aggravate the situation as a whole.

1.3.3 Basis for HIV testing subjective barriers of Russian youth

Existence of subjective barriers is connected with everyday understanding of the causes, nature, characteristics of the course of HIV infection and AIDS and it is diversified in society. Among the factors that determine it are as follows (Emelyanova, 2010a):

One of American NGOs Medwiser (2018) paid attention to the fact that in 2006 the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, recommended to the people in the age of 13-64 to be tested, found out that the instructions fell short. Several studies which were conducted later demonstrated that the majority of efforts directed for HIV testing failed. The explanation was availability of the following subjective barriers:

- Stigma. Its essence was that peopled were feared of the opinions of other people in case of positive result. Also they were worried about possible discrimination because of positive status.

- Fear. First of all they were connected with future result as it was associated with death sentence.

- Risk factors. Many people didn't want to be tested as they were not at risk groups, so they considered that nothing threatened them. However, the studies showed that about 70% of infected people had previously the same point of view.

- Medical personnel and health care systems. This barrier pushed the Center for Disease Control and Prevention to change recommendations as to HIV testing. While previously only people from risk groups should be tested, further all the adults were obliged to do it.

In 2011 the group of Australian scholars (Adam et al, 2011) conducted the survey with specification of barriers to sex transferred infections (including HIV) testing. A sample of 1,100 sexually experiences participants aged between 16 and 26 years living in NSW, Australia were the object of the study. They demonstrated the fears and worries about future results in the following answers:

- Talking with a doctor about my sexual behaviour;

- The medical procedures involved in testing;

- My parents' reaction;

- My partners' reaction;

- Other people's reaction;

- Losing my reputation;

- Negative attitudes of staff in testing facilities;

- Testing staff talking about or giving out information about me.

As it is seen the answers remind the data from American NGO. The data about no relation to risk groups also presents in Australian research.

Another survey conducted in the UK (Deblonde et al, 2010) showed such barriers as low-risk perception, fear of HIV disease and its consequences, fear of disclosure (worries about stigma, discrimination and rejection by significant others), denial and accessibility of health services (especially for migrants). In the literature overview of this work it was mentioned that out of 24 studies published in international peer-reviewed journals 14 demonstrated the same results with the focus on stigma and possible discrimination.

As it was mentioned earlier, formation of subjective barriers is natural process and it is understood that young people may have them, including in relation to HIV testing. Speaking generally representatives of any age group can have such barriers. And in first turn, they are connected with public opinion accompanied by a tense attitude of a part of Russian society to infected people and this situation leads to social isolation of the latter. Public opinion associates dangerous social and behavioral characteristics with the diagnosis of HIV infection and creates a system of social restrictions (in employment, in personal relationships, etc.), resulting in excluding a person from the system of social ties. (Emelyanova, 2010b) And it is again the issue of stigma in the society. But speaking about the basis for barriers they can be as follows:

1) The perception of health care, the attitude to it and the way of using it. Health systems are complex. They contain many internal and external factors, real and perceived barriers that affect the use of the health system. For example, in low- and middle-income countries, in particular, access to testing and counseling is hampered by a limited number of HIV testing institutions, the lack of test kits in stock and correspondent employees. (WHO, 2011)

2) Diversification of understanding of the causes, nature, characteristics of the course of HIV infection and AIDS in the society. It entails various barriers depending on a particular country notwithstanding having something in common. (Emelyanova, 2010b)

The results of this basis may be demonstrated by the interview of STOP HIV/AIDS community in the social network `VKontakte'. The question `Have you been tested for HIV within the past year?' was answered by 29199 participants (Stop HIV / AIDS, 2018).

Figure 3. The results of the interview of members of Stop HIV/AIDS group (n=29199) connected with the question `Have you been tested for HIV within the past year?'

Notwithstanding the fact of age structure absence, the answers at the Figure 3 demonstrate the attributes of barriers presence. And they are connected with conviction of no necessity to be tested because the disease cannot happen to a person. At the same time they can be related to different fears either not specified or the situation of getting result. In the first case there is some mental filter which forms the obstacle for self-preserving behavior. Second case is probably connected with social influences.

These data correlates with other sources with availability both the first specified barrier (Brylina & Kuzyukin, 2016) and the fear of obtaining a positive result. (Shchendrigina & Burina, 2017) In their turn, these two barriers correlate with the ones which Europeans have. (Deblonde J. et al, 2010).

Consideration of the basis for HIV testing subjective barriers of the youth may be found in several studies conducted by Russian researchers. They were analyzed through those components which are connected with the notion of social influence (beliefs, stereotypes and attitudes), on the one hand, and different groups of respondents which took part in the mentioned studies. The results can be specified as follows:

One of the researches (Bovina, 2013) depicts that the beliefs and stereotypes of young people are built on the perceptions that AIDS is connected with death; that main ways of transmission are drugs, non-sterile syringes, and sex. At the same time they demonstrated negative attitudes to the diseased people while the repeated research showed respondent to be more tolerant to the infected people. Speaking about attitudes to the AIDS as the disease, it can be characterized as strong negative emotional experience or fear.