Benchmarking of gender markers in English and Spanish

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CONTENT

INTRODUCTION

1. GENDER MARKERS

1.1 Concept of «gender marker»

1.2 Gender markers types

2. GENDER MARKERS IN THE ENGLISH AND SPANISH LANGUAGE

2.1 Gender markers in English

2.2 Gender markers in Spanish

3. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY



INTRODUCTION

The theme of this course paper is gender markers comparative analysis in English and Spanish languages. Since the language is inextricably linked with the people who speak it, changes and innovations will inevitably appear in it. Our society is constantly changing, thanks to which new terms and new concepts appear. One of these concepts is the "gender marker". By itself, the term "gender marker" refers to certain phonetic or grammatical features of the language inherent in men or women. It "marks" the features that can determine the gender of a person.

Since gender markers in general indicate the difference in attitudes towards men and women, this aspect of the language can be called most dependent on the culture, history and customs of the people to which the language belongs. Consequently, in the event of any changes in the differences in attitudes towards women and men, there will also be changes in the language, at all levels.

Knowing this, we can understand how it is necessary for a person who wants to communicate with people from other cultures and nations to know and gender markers of the language belonging to this culture. If, while learning a language, you do not know the elementary basis of gender markers of the language used, then you can accidentally insult or offend your interlocutor (native speaker of the given language) without even realizing it. To avoid any awkward or unforeseen situations in a conversation, you should study this area in more detail, and also because of this, you can please your interlocutor (native speaker), by the knowledge of the details of this language, as well as by the knowledge of the interlocutor's culture. Unfortunately, due to constant changes in society, gender markers of language are also changing. This explains the relevance of the topic of this work.

The goal of this course paper is to research gender markers in English and Spanish languages and compare them.

The tasks of this work are:

· to identify the existence of gender markers in English and Spanish at all possible levels

· to analyze and explore gender markers in English and Spanish languages

· to understand the impact of gender markers on the language and learn about possible changes

· to conduct a comparative analysis of phonetic and grammatical gender markers in English and Spanish languages

· to make conclusion based on the research

The object of this course paper is the grammar, phonetics and features of the pronunciation of the speaker. The subject is the differences between gender markers in English and Spanish, which indicate the gender of the speaker.

The methodological foundation of this course paper is the works of Russian and foreign linguists such as E.V. Belik, E.A. Zemskaya, A.V. Kirilina, R. Lakoff and many others.

The methods of analysis in this work are continuous sampling method and comparative method.

Scientific paradigm: is the elucidation of the significance of gender markers in English and Spanish language and their comparative analysis to adaptate to the conversation with the native speaker.

The structure: this course paper consists of the introduction, three chapters, conclusion and bibliographical references. The first chapter is dedicated to the research of the origin and development of gender markers by Russian and foreign scientists. It is also explains the meaning of gender marker and differences between men and women speech. The second chapter is dedicated to the research of gender markers in English and Spanish languages at all levels. The third chapter contains the comparative analysis of English and Spanish gender markers. In the conclusion the results of the research and summarized and conclusion are drawn.



1. GENDER MARKERS

Language is the most important means of human communication. The linguistic ability cannot be compared with the ability to walk or breathe, and the skills associated with the language cannot independently develop in isolation from society, since they are not so-called instincts. Initially, what we used to call “organs of speech” was not meant for speech. Almost all linguists disagree with the biological approach to language and criticize it. These linguists deny the identity of linguistic and racial characteristics, they believe that the progenitor of various sign systems is language, and speech was primary in relation to writing. They emphasize the connection of linguistics with such sciences as anthropology, psychology, sociology, history, etc. But what is the so-called language? Language is a complex sign system, it is naturally or artificially created and correlates conceptual content and typical sound (writing).

The term «language», understood in a broad sense, can be applied to arbitrary sign systems, although itis more often used for narrower classes of sign system. Different languages in all countries and peoples have changed and evolved over time. Under pressure from history, some languages turned into dust, and some continued to exist only as support. History knows many examples that can confirm these provisions. When Assyrian and Babylonian states, as well as culture, perished, Akkadian languages ??were buried along with them. When the powerful state of the Hittites disappeared and was converted only by history, all those adverbs that the population of that state used: non-Sith, Luvian, Paloan and Hittite. The language classifications contain many of the dead languages ??that disappeared along with the nations: Gothic, Phoenician, Osk, Umbrian, Etruscan, etc. Sometimes it happens that a language can outlast the society to which it belonged. However, when it is without a society that uses it, it ceases to develop and becomes artificial. It was the same with the Latin language, which eventually turned into the language of the Catholic religion. As a result, in the middle of the century, he began to perform the functions of the international language of science. The same role is now played by the classical Arabic language in the countries of the Middle East.

Even now we can see that with the advent of new trends and trends, not only culture, but also language is changing. Sometimes this happens arbitrarily, sometimes people purposefully try to adapt to the changes, and try to keep up with others in this. Some scientists believe that the languages ??known to science have experienced their heyday in deep antiquity, and now they are only degrading under the pressure of the modern world. This point of view was expressed by F. Bopp, and it received its further development from Baumann M., who wrote: “Within the limits of the history of the world, we see that languages ??only become decrepit according to certain life laws, in sound and formal terms. The languages ??we speak now are, like all languages ??of historically important peoples, senile language products. All languages ??of cultural peoples, to the best of their knowledge, are more or less in a state of regression.” [29. P.46]

Indeed, over time, languages ??simplify and change, but most of these changes occur under the pressure of historical events.

Such changes have not bypassed "gender markers", both in phonetic and grammatical terms. Earlier in the human society the archetypical division of society into two groups by gender among men and women has always prevailed, since this differentiation by the criterion of biological sex is the most obvious. And following this division, each individual in a society has the gender role of a man or a woman. On the basis of this gender division, some generalized ideas about the behavior of men and women, about the actions and reactions expected from them in various situations, which influenced various spheres of society's activity, were later formed. This influence was based on gender division into groups, and affected such areas of society as social differentiation, cultural background, level of scientific knowledge and education. These changes also did not avoid various languages. Previously, before the advent of the feminist movement, and before the establishment of gender equality, in many languages ??there existed gender markers indicating a person's gender. In some languages, they got rid of for the sake of simplification in pronunciation and writing, in others under the pressure of the feminist movement and other historical events, and in some they remain to this day.

1.1 Concept of «gender marker»

Nowadays, the term “marker” has a wide distribution in modern society. In various spheres of vital activity various explanations of this term appear, but the most common explanation for linguistics is: Marker is a morpheme that indicates (marks) the grammatical role of a word, word combination or sentence.
But what does the term “gender” mean and where does it come from? Over the course of history, the gender of a person from an ordinary biological characteristic was transformed into a socio-psychological characteristic, which also caused the transformation of various spheres of human activity that were adjusted to these changes. As a result, such a concept as “gender” appeared. It means the totality of cultural and social norms that society has prescribed for people to fulfill, which also depends on their gender. This concept has long gone beyond the language and is now regarded as a sociocultural, discursive and psycholinguistic phenomenon. By itself, the term "gender marker" refers to certain phonetic or grammatical features of the language inherent in men or women. It "marks" the features that can determine the gender of a person.

In her work, Pushkareva noted: the concept of "gender" is a set of agreements by which society transforms biological sexuality into a product of human activity.[21. P.27]

The concept of gender has come to linguistics rather in a peculiar way: the English term gender, meaning the grammatical category of the genus was removed from the linguistic context and moved to the research field of other sciences - social philosophy, sociology, history, as well as in political chesky discourse. The transfer was made to "leave" the term sexus (biological sex), as this concept binds with native determinism is not only bodily differences men and women, but also a gender-based division of labor, not the same social and societal requirements for men and women us, the different social "value" of persons depending on their floor. The term gender was intended to emphasize not natural, but sociocultural reason for gender differences.

In linguistics, gender came, or rather, returned to the new sometime later in the social sciences, when gender studies received interdisciplinary status directions. Along with this, the concept of gender functions in English linguistic literature, of course, also in eat the old value. In addition, and before the emergence of a new term linguistic semantics did not ignore the reflection in the language concepts of sex in the meaning of sexus. Yes it would be impossible, so as a semantic component, gender is part of the value many lexical units (man, woman, mother, father and etc.) And today the work devoted to the consideration of this millet, operate on the concept of gender.

1.2 Gender markers types

For the first time, gender studies touched the language sphere in 1913 by Mounter. He conducted gender studies based on European languages. In them, Mounter explains that the speech differences between men and women are due to historical reasons: all roles in the theaters of Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece were played by men, whose speech was considered a benchmark. But there was another opinion. In 1925, Espersen believed that not only men contribute to the development of the language, but also women. He believed that women using a more conservative and traditional speech "go along the beaten path of language," while men choose the more "difficult path", sometimes even previously unknown. However, both the Mauter and the Esperssen studies were not scientifically based and were rather intuitively descriptive, but they nevertheless made a great contribution and laid the foundation for gender studies.

The beginning of modern gender studies was laid by such people as: М.Р. Kee, R. Lakoff, S. Tremel-Pletz. In his research in 1975, Ki explains that the language of women is the language of excuses (language of apology), while the language of men is the language of explanations. Lakoff (1975), on the other hand, believes that “a debating woman is perceived as an object (sexual, etc.), but by no means an individual personality with serious views.” [31. P. 56]

Inn view of all these studies, female speech in the 70s acquired the following characteristic:

1. All female speech basically consists of words, corresponding to their interests and their inherent field of activity.

2. Women use a sugary speech with different decorations, fearing to accidentally offend anyone.

3. Women prefer to use interrogative intonation in narrative and motivational sentences.

4. The style of women's speech remains uncertain, as they often resort to using insurance questions (Isn't it so? Yes? Yes?), Instead of clearly and clearly expressing their thoughts.

5. Women often use emphatic adverbs or intensifiers (how cute, really cute, so cute).

6. Women often use specific markers that limit the scope of what has been said (you know, it seems to me, it seems).

7. Also, women speak more correctly in comparison with men their pronunciation and syntax are much closer to the norm (their speech is even hypercorrect).

8. Women use excessively polite forms, fewer curses and vulgarism. They don't tell jokes.

During this period, women's speech was considered as a sign of submission, lack of self-awareness and a sign of impotence and was rejected as flawed. Feminist authors indicate that the reason for this attitude is the unequal social situation, the woman is forced to just such a speech position. And in order to overcome this limp type of speech, women should start using male speech patterns.

However, in the 1980s, this point of view began to be revised. And began to win the view that the male language was undeservedly elevated to normal and was the basis for assessing the female language. And in 1980, Dale Spender put forward the theory that the female language cannot be evaluated negatively. He believes that traditional, polite and discreet language demonstrates the strength of women. Adler M. K., on the contrary (1987), says that women should imitate the speech of men, in consequence of the fact that they will only gain from it. "The language of women is already quite adequate and does not need to be changed." [27. P.23]

In 1978, Ekins put forward the hypothesis of “code switching”, in which he suggested that women can use both the male speech code and the female code, switching from one to another depending on the situation, thereby adapting to social expectations. A negative reaction to their speech will be appropriate only if they use a speech code that does not correspond to the situation.

Speech behavior of women has been studied relatively recently. And these studies are actively conducted in the framework of sociolinguistics, where gender can be one of the socio-demographic characteristics, which is on a par with profession, age, social origin, etc., which determine the stratification and situational variability of the language. Thus sociolinguistics has taken the term gender set (by analogy with a dialect or a sociolect). It denotes the variability of language due to gender, but gender, in contrast to biological sex (sexus) or the grammatical gender (genus), describes social sex. Gender is not defined by nature, but is constructed by society, i.e. is a product of our social actions (doing gender). In 1997, Kirilina, “A gender factor that takes into account the natural gender of a person and his social“ consequences ”, is one of the essential characteristics of a person and throughout her life in a certain way influences her awareness of his identity, as well as the identification of the speaking subject by other members of society. [15. P.27]

In general, all the studies of the 80s showed that the existence of a gender set or individual languages ??for both men and women does not have a permanent education. And for the most part they are gender markers. In 1975, Bodine A. declared, “Our language right down to grammatical structures is dominated by men. Women largely adapt to this masculine language, using it in accordance with their social role. In principle, women do not have their own language, which would complementally correspond with the language of men. Perhaps we can only proceed from the fact that women prefer a particular language or speech style.” [30. P.43]

In the 90s, Schoenthal and Zemskaya completely denied the phenomenon of female or male language, the existence of which was described by Lakoff. In 1992, Schonenthal stated that “Constant gender differences were not found either in the volume of the dictionary or in the choice of adjectives and adverbs, which does not exclude that within different social groups representatives of different sexes can use a slightly different dictionary. Similarly, in the area of ??syntactic constructions, constant differences were not found, for example, with regard to the use of certain patterns of interrogative sentences. Male and male languages ??are more likely to suggest gender similarities and differences than actually exist.” [31. P.51]

”Zemskayain 1993, as a Russian researcher, also had a hand in the results of a gender study of the 1990s. In her research it was written that: “There are apparently no peculiarities in the code (set of units) between men and women, we can speak only about typical features of male and female speech, which reveal tendencies in the use of language by men and women.” [11. P.133]

However, in 1993, Tannen D. began to insist on the existence of so-called male and female languages, presenting them as ideal models. He established the general characteristics of the prescribed ideal model of the female language: the establishment of equality, convertibility, cooperativity, generosity, and others. et al. The author also declares that the ideal model of women is not necessarily used exclusively for women, as well as male models only for men. He stated: “With regard to the female language in the sense of the ideal model, I do not in any way claim either that it is used by all women or exclusively women, or by the fact that men cannot speak this language. I only say that it is more often implemented by women than by men ... ”. [35. P.17]

If you rely on the logic of the author, women can speak in the male language, as well as men in the female.

As a result of these studies, we can conclude that the speech difference between men and women cannot rely only on gender. In 1991, He simply said: "The talking individual is woven into a whole network of determining factors that influence each other and should be analyzed in their unity." [35. P.47]

Zemskaya in 1993 stated: “The theme“ gender and language ”requires consideration of the diversity of factors affecting the speech behavior of men and women, and should be studied“ in a broad social context ”. Sociolinguistics in this case uses the concepts of stratification and situational variability, the speech correlates of which are stratification situational variables that detect variability simultaneously in two planes - stratification (associated with the social characteristics of gender) and situational (associated with the parameters of the communicative act). In 1992, Gьnther commented on gender research: «The gender set can only proceed from the differences and similarities in the communicative strategies of men and women in each separate communicative situation.»

As the result of these studies, it can be said that what was originally intended as male and female language is in fact a mixture of various markers including gender. And thanks to the works of Tannen D., Laoff R. , Земская Е. А., Baumann M., and others, the following gender characteristics can be discussed inherent to men and women. Even if this scientists wasn't fully agree with each other they choosed this way of classification. In this way we can clearly see the difference between men's and women'sspeech.

Communicative intentions, motivation.

Man	Women
A conversation is a negotiation where you assert your status, respectively, one must emerge from them as a winner.	A conversation is a negotiation where consensus should be reached, giving support and getting approval.
The conversation should not be personal. Must be facts and arguments and carry purposeful.	The conversation should be a discussion of problems, contain details and carry an emotional nature.
A man seeks to be independent in conversation and to preserve freedom.	A woman seeks to maintain intimacy and addiction.
A man seeks to emphasize the inequality of the status of interlocutors, in order to establish the asymmetry.	The woman tries to align the various statuses of the interlocutors in order to create symmetry.
The purpose of the conversation is to show off their abilities and achievements.	The purpose of the conversation is to establish connections and demonstrate community.

Speech content

Man	Woman
No discussion of details.	Tries to discuss all the details.
Sharply perceives sympathy, as he considers a sign of superiority.	She perceives sympathy as a sign of friendship.
Absolutely against even a hint of instructions and rejects the requirements in order not to feel superiority over themselves.	Whenever possible does what is required. Presents its requirements, as proposals.
Acutely responds to doubts about the uniqueness of their experience.	Reacts sharply if there is no confirmation of his statement by a person with similar experience.
Speaks about problems in case of emergency.	Completely trusts friends with their problems.
Offers a solution to problems.	Does not need a solution, but in sympathy and understanding.
Prefers not to talk about thoughts and feelings.	She is happy to share his thoughts and feelings.
Distant interlocutor, never talking about their fears and doubts.	Always talks about fears and doubts, trying to be closer to the interlocutor.
He calms the interlocutor saying that his problems are not serious and are quickly solved.	Calms the interlocutor trying to understand the situation by a large number of questions and showing understanding to the problems.
He tries to use as complex phrases as possible, thereby showing superiority.	She tries to say everything in accessible language, expressing support.
He uses jokes in public, believing that since he makes people laugh, it gives him some power.	Does not tell jokes in public.
Uses abstract arguments, because he does not believe that personal experience is important.	Uses arguments based on personal experience.
Uses socially relevant information in order to create a certain impression.	Accumulates personal experience and compare it with someone else.
Bad perceives information received from other people.	She tries to hide his awareness.
Believes that the praise of his merits is a necessity, and modesty - a weakness.	Believes that arrogance in the conversation is not valid.
Accepts apology as a matter of course, without thinking about reciprocating.	Sympathy looks like a constant apology.
The higher the rank of the interlocutor, as well as if he is a new person, the stronger must be the self-praise.	Self praise is possible only among your closest friends.

Stories told by men and women interlocutors.

Man	Woman
The main character is a storyteller.	They tell both about themselves and about others.
Winner in every situation.	He tells about everything (victories, defeats).
Conflicts between people, the main thing.	Joint action of society is important.
Women are rarely protagonists.	Women and men can be actors.
The author only occasionally uses the advice or help of others.	The hero can often resort to the help of others.
The plot (life) is an ongoing struggle with the outside world.	The plot (life) is the fear of being isolated from society and the struggle against this possibility.

Conversation style.

Man	Woman
He uses all sorts of attacks on the interlocutor to question his authority.	All attacks addressed to her are perceived as personal and cannot withstand them.
Without a doubt in conflicts.	She tries to avoid conflicts and strive to come to a peaceful solution.
Does not consider that refusal or aggression in a conversation can affect friendships.	Avoids refusals and aggression in conversation, seeking to maintain friendly relations. However, the agreement may be irreconcilable differences.
Feels comfortable even in a circle of strangers and willingly leads the conversation.	Prefers to talk in a circle of familiar faces.
He accepts all phrases literally, prefers facts.	Outpouring emotions uses metaphors and exaggerations, often resorting to poetic freedom.
Always think about his speech before giving the most accurate answer.	Aloud shows his thought process, during which he finally formulates his answer.
Often goes on to rude and unceremonious speech, when he feels the challenge to his authority, without even noticing it. If he feels the challenge in the interlocutor's speech, then he begins to use a suspicious or negative tone.	In a mixed group of speakers (men and women) men speak a lot more women. In a mixed group of speakers, everyone always gets the impression that women speak more, even if it is not.
He tries to be the first to ask a question, he also often asks inappropriate and provocative questions.	Uses clear and correct questions.
In order to attract attention to himself, trying to show off their knowledge.	Does not focus on the form of the question, but on its content.
Expresses categorical judgments.	Tries to avoid categorical judgments.
He tries to take a leading position in the conversation, often turning it into a monologue.	She tries not to offend the interlocutor, so he hides his awareness of the topic.
He tries to take a leading position by opening the conversation, directing its course and ending it.	It goes for the course of the conversation.
It does not give a response (yeah, yes, I understood (minimal signals) to the interlocutor's speech.	Often gives a response (minimal signals) to the interlocutor's speech.
Most likely not to agree with the interlocutor, or will put his statement into question.	Often agrees with the interlocutor to show their positive reaction.
He tries to take the lead in the conversation, rather than listen to him.	Encourages the other party to continue his speech.
The perception of minimum signals is different (“Yes” means agreement).	Performs the minimum signals differently (“Yes” means “I listen”).
Waiting for his speech to be listened calmly and carefully.	It is expected that her speech will be actively supported, and her own encouragement.
Considers that the minimal signals of a woman are only a hindrance.	Considers the absence of minimal signals as a lack of interest.
He prefers a conversation where he speaks, and everyone else listens carefully and silently.	Prefers a conversation where everyone is actively involved.
He perceives comments to his speech as an attempt to interrupt.	Uses comments during someone else's speech, with no intention to interrupt.
If he wants to say something he says.	Waiting for her to say.
Does not use interrogative intonation or construction.	Often uses interrogative intonation and tail interrogative constructions so that her speech does not look categorical.

All these gender characteristics are effective only if they are not affected by a person's status, social status or professional affiliation.



2. GENDER MARKERS IN THE ENGLISH AND SPANISH LANGUAGE

2.1 Gender markers in English

Phonetic and phonological gender markers in English

The problem of identifying generic markers in modern English has its own rather remarkable and long history, since it is gender markers in the theory and practice of linguistic exploration that represent the most cognitively relevant example of structuring knowledge about the world from certain minimal conceptual units correlated with cognitive dissection of reality. In the process of linguistic evolution, the differences between female and male speech strategies are constantly considered from different positions, the conceptual and semantic parameters of generic universals in the language are contrasted, the perspectives of linguistic normalization of speech traditions in the marking of a kind of language units are discussed.

The masculine gender in English is traditionally considered a sign of normativity in the use of both lexical and grammatical units, while female markers were until recently at the periphery of research attention. This thesis can be confirmed by the author's reasoning in a treatise published in 1751 about the axiological advantages of the masculine as compared with the feminine in the practice of verbal communication. According to Lippi-Green R., “the highest Essence / Being ... is identified in all languages ??with the masculine gender, just as being a male is considered the highest and more perfect characteristic.” [32. P.310]

When the analysis of female and male speech was conducted, and the analysis of their linguistic preferences it was still not fully understood whether women are more conservative in their speech and more careful in using changes or innovations in the language. However, most linguists believe that women are still more conservative in their speech than men. Since women are responsible for educating the future generation, they try to use more correct speech, observing linguistic norms, and try to avoid non-normative expressions and incorrectly constructed phrases. Under these conditions, women, for the most part, prefer language that will provide the younger generation and put them on their feet.

Here you can see the studies that psychologists got in evaluating regional types of pronunciation and standard RP, when women were speakers and informers-informers. During these experiments on the perception of emphasis, it was found that female auditors paid special attention to changes in pronunciation. This interest was also manifested in the fact that all women, regardless of status and position, uttered the most prestigious forms while avoiding non-prestigious. The pronunciation of middle and low class women and men of the same class differed greatly, since women used hyper correct speech. Also, this difference increased even more if people increased control over speech. This can also be seen in children. Girls of 6-10 years old try to use more correct speech in the circle of adults, whereas for boys it is less noticeable, although it is present.

In the intonational aspect, speech features are practically not described anywhere except in the work on the inhabitants of Newcastle. In this work, they write about American women that they very often use intonation, associated with the expression of surprise and politeness, often use a rising tone in affirmative sentences. It is believed that in this way women show uncertainty and non-categorical nature. Also during the use of minimal signals (mm, er), which women use most often, in men it means “I agree”, while in women “I listen to you”. Non-verbal means of communication are no exception, even in them women show more submissiveness, whereas men show aggression. Most scholars believe that this is due to the position of men in society and their power throughout history. The main factor in social relations, which affects the speech behavior of communicants in the English-speaking society, including their intonation, is the ratio of superiority and subordination.

When analyzing the female and male intonations most often pay attention to the speech competence, avant-garde or conservatism, emotionality, social speech and social status. To identify the intonational competence of men, as well as women were asked to read the text. As it turned out, intonational competence in educated women does not differ from men. In addition, in a descending tone, you can also see the difference. Men, as well as women often use the increased frequency of descending tones. However, while men increase the frequency by 13.4%, women increase it by 21.2%. From this we can conclude that women are more sensitive in the area of ??modern pronunciation tendencies in the use of tones, which makes them true vehicles of pronunciation innovations.

Women are characterized by variability, the use of combinations of elements of various types of scales (sliding + level, descending with impaired gradualness + sliding, etc.). Perceptively, the impression of a greater variety, variation due to the irregularity of the melodic figure. Thus, it confirms one of the stable opinions about the increased emotionality of women, which in the intonational form has the nature of nuances, subtle differences in realizations.

In relation to the altitude range, however, there is disagreement with the view that the voice range in women is wider than in men. The height level in the speech of women, naturally, is higher, but the range, nevertheless, is narrower than in men. In general, since female tones, like the entire melodic contour, are implemented in a relatively narrow range, women are “inferior” to men in the implementation of the acoustic parameter. Speech of men, thus, sounds more weighty, categorical. The tempo and the pause contribute to this impression to some extent: in the male performance, as a rule, the tempo is somewhat slower, mainly due to the increase in the duration of the pauses and syntagmas. In women, the length of syntagmas is somewhat shorter, as a result of which, when the text is identical, the number of syntagmas and pauses increases, but the total duration of pauses in women is less than that of men, as a result of which the text is read faster, the pace is somewhat accelerated. From this we can conclude that women prefer to use intonational innovations. A social role that is attributed to a woman, she only shows herself directly in conversation. It is because of the unstable social status that women try to maintain the sociocultural tendency to read, moreover, they are trying to transfer it to their everyday speech, which leads them to hypercorrectness and lowering of speech competence regarding stylistic differentiation in the RP group.

Grammatical gender markers in English

Genus is a grammatical category, which is characteristic of different parts of speech and consists in the distribution of words in two or three classes, which correspond to the signs of sex or their absence. As a rule, these classes are masculine, feminine or neuter. The category of the genus is a feature characteristic of all Indo-European languages, even if at the moment they have a different degree of preservation of the genus, which is directly dependent on the stability of synthetism in the inflection system. The development of analyticism in the English language led to the destruction of inflection and the loss of generic oppositions in the names. Thus, the gender has become a hidden category, which can only be found through the anaphoric pronouns he, she, it.

Now you can see some of the classic positions in the dichotomy of the masculine-feminine gender in modern English. In Russian, we can find out the gender of nouns by their ending or value, but in English, the only way to find out the gender of a noun is to look at its meaning. All names of males are masculine and can be replaced by the pronoun "he":

- Who is this boy?

- He is my friend Henry.

The names of the females are feminine, the pronoun “she” can be used instead:
My sister study abroad. But tomorrow she said, she would return next week.
All other animate nouns also belong to the feminine or masculine: teacher, friend, pupil, wolf, etc. teacher, girl-friend, boy-friend.

A group of feminine nouns is formed by adding a suffix from masculine nouns, this suffix is ??-ess: lion - lioness, poet - poetess, tiger - tigress, etc.

From this we can conclude: it is obvious that in English, as well as in many Indo-European languages, masculine words are neutral words for persons of both sexes. And almost all feminine words are derived from masculine words, for example, with the addition of some suffixes, etc.

From the point of view of some linguists, this is a situation that has developed in the course of the development of some modern socium, has caused a negative attitude. These groups of linguists fear for redefining gender in modern English. These linguists believe that such a situation arose because of prejudice in English society in the course of history, when this society was a "society of men", and patriarchy prevailed in this society. Thus, it affected the evolution of the English language.

There are several works of English-speaking linguists associated with this, for example, Jacobson, Redfern, Sorrels and Spender. They suggested some changes in the field of business prose vocabulary. They believe that the word "man" in English has two meanings: it can mean human being or male human being. They believe that due to the changes that had previously occurred in society, the use of the word “man” as a generic term resulted in the exclusion of the word “woman” from everyday frequency usage, which was also due to the fact that many people assume that understated role in English society.

An example of this proposal is this expression, which illustrates the prejudice about the position of women in English society. To a certain extent, this expression bears an element of inconsistency with reality: “As with other mammals, men suckles his young.”. (In this case, the word "man" translates as "man", however, from the point of view of the above linguists, this translation is contrary to common sense). gender marker phonetic grammatical

If we consider this point of view, it can be understood that the language that is used by a gender attribute will be associated with certain stereotypes of the role of men and women in English-speaking society. Also, some words that are used to refer to females who are at an earlier stage of their development (Child, babes, etc.) reinforce the stereotypical view of the prejudice that women are least developed compared to men. Because of this, the following suggestion was made: they proposed a system for replacing words with the generic attribute “man”.

Instead of: the man, the best man for the job, manpower, the common man, man hours, man the desk, chairman, businessman(woman), foreman, policeman(woman)

Alternatives offered: human beings, humankind, man and woman (individual), the best person for the job, workforce, personnel, the stuff, the workers, the average person, ordinary people, stuff the desk, chairperson, police officer, supervisor.

Since in modern society there were significant changes in the role of men and women in many countries, some English-speaking linguists proposed to introduce a number of changes, both in the lexical and grammatical matter of the language. As a result, in modern English there have been big changes in gender markers, and perhaps more sophisticated ones will be introduced.

In addition, there are a number of groups of gender-marked nouns which include the following units:

- The name of all river and sea vessels refers to the group of feminine nouns:

Look at the yacht. She is almost touching the waves with her sails. A big black steamer with a long loop of smoke ... The wind doesn't stop her; she cuts through the waves, making for the open gate between the pointed rock that leads to ... It's the light that makes her look so awfully beautiful and mysterious.

- Toponyms - the name of the countries:

England enjoyed much authority beyond her size.

Also, matching personal and possessive pronouns of the feminine or masculine with words that are traditionally considered to be neutral can be situational and pragmatic. Due to that the author may intend to use this method of gender marking.

- If we are talking about an animal, the biological characteristic of the genus of which is relevant or obvious in this context:

She is feeding her little ones.

- If a person speaks about his pet, isolating him from the general mass of other animals:

Tittums is our kitten. She is about the size of a penny roll.

- If a person talks about an inanimate object that feeds a special affection, for example, an instrument of his labor (a violin for a violinist, a typewriter for a journalist, etc.)

- If in a work of art the author personifies an inanimate object, plant or animal, gives it the characteristics of a living:

The Oak-tree ...felt sad, for he was very fond of the little Nightingale who built her nest in his branches.

- Common cases of gender marks in the names of modern English-language dramatic works include the following noun + man composition: “Yellowman” by Deal Orlandersmith (USA, 2003), “The Pillowman” by Martin McDonagh (UK, 2005), “Poor SuperMan” by Brad Fraser (Canada, 1996) and many others.

2.2 Gender markers in Spanish

Lexical gender markers in Spanish

Most often in Spanish, the gender of nouns is determined by the letter on which the word ends. Usually, all nouns that end in «o» are masculine, and those nouns that end in a are a feminine. For example: vaca huerta - gossip girl; arrabalera - bazaar woman; ata el gato - miser

In addition, those nouns that came to Spanish from Greek and end in ma, ta are masculine words. For example: el clima - climate; el enigma - riddle

In addition, it should be noted that those nouns that end in ma, ta, but not connected with the origin of the Greek language, are words of the feminine gender. For example: la rama - branch; la llama - flame; la goma - tires

There are also certain semantic and stylistic nuances in the use of nouns in the masculine and feminine. For example:

"Anбlisis" - this word is almost always used in the masculine gender. In the feminine, it is characterized by a certain archaism and is associated only with book speech.

No hay“Arte” - this word is mainly used as a masculine noun, if it stands in the singular in its main meaning “creative reflection of activity in artistic images”. For example: el arte atrae a millones de hombres - art attracts millions of people

Or the given word can be used in the meaning of skill, skill, in this case it is usually used in the feminine gender. For example: el arte poйtica - poetic art; el arte culinaria - culinary art

In addition, in the plural, the word "arte" is also usually feminine. For example: las artes plбsticas

“Canal” in the meaning of “artificial channel” is used mainly in the masculine gender. For example: En barko entrу en el canal - Vessel entered channel

If “canal” is used in the meaning of “vessels,” then it is usually a feminine noun. For example: las canales linfбticas - lymphatic vessels

The word "mar" is most often used in the masculine gender. However, feminine use has been preserved in the speeches of some inhabitants of the coastal regions, as well as in many proverbs, sayings and logical units. For example: hasersia la mar - go to sea

The word "puente" can be used both in the masculine and feminine. However, in the feminine, this word is colloquial.

In addition, there are certain articles in Spanish for feminine and masculine.

	Female Gender	Male Gender
Plural	Las	Los
Single	La	El

pagar los platos rotos - being a scapegoat, in this case we are talking about men, becla vieja piruli is an old hag, in this case we are talking about a woman, since the article “la” was used, which points specifically to the feminine noun singular.

Also, gender markers can be seen in words related to the profession. Most often, the feminine words relating to the profession, are formed from the masculine words. With the addition of the ending and the end of the word masculine we get the word feminine. In Spanish, there are a large number of gender pairs in which the masculine noun is stylistically neutral, and its female correlate is lowered. In everyday colloquial speech and vernacular, the feminine gender can be used to designate a man and impart a bright expressive tonality to the statement. As a rule, this leads to degrading shades.

la gallina en corral ajeno - fair maiden (about young woman)

Gender markers in Spanish speaking

Gender issues began to be actively developed in Spanish linguistics in the second half of the eighties and early nineties of the 20th century. Currently, Gracia Mouton noted that the most comprehensive and versatile research in Spanish linguistics is carried out within the framework of a discursive direction, that is, the features of speech behavior of men and women are studied, while most of the works, the subject of which is reflection of gender discrimination in language, performed with the position of feminist linguistics. Thus, she characterized the state of gender studies in Spain. In addition, an active struggle for the real equality of men and women began. This began to play a huge role in the mid-eighties of the 20th century in the public life of Spain. Representatives of this movement put forward claims about the oppression and unfair distribution of social roles in society in Spain. Also about the uneven ratio of males and females, which also affected the language.

Male image in Spanish is very clearly expressed. The embodiment of traditional Spanish gender roles are the cultural stereotypes of marianism (marianismo) and machismo (machismo). That is, it is assumed that one hundred Spanish men must be courageous and strong, while women are weak. It is assumed that a woman should obey a man in the family, therefore her speech is more accommodating and humble. In that time, as a man in his speech shows the image of a courageous powerful man. However, if the opposite situation occurs, the person who does not comply with this stereotype will be strongly condemned. That is, if a woman manifests an imperious nature in her speech and intonation, then she will be discussed and reprimanded. The same applies to men, if he will be soft and submissive in his intonation or speech, he will be mocked. It is unacceptable for a man to obey a woman in speech.

estar arrimado a las faldas - be under the heel; poco hombre - few men; mediohombre - half a man

We can also see this behavior in the Spanish language by the example of the word ciudad (city). Men pronounce this word with a firm “d” at the end, as if stating their steady and superior position. They toughen their speech, trying to show superiority over the interlocutor, and also, instead of being ready to listen, willingness to express their opinion and give appropriate advice in his opinion. Whereas women do not pronounce this word with the sound “d” at the end, thereby softening their speech. Thus, a woman shows her interlocutor her willingness to listen and, in which case, support him.

Using the word nombre in the meaning of man - hombre mortal, hombres de negocios, hombres jornaleros, hombres en la calle, la vida del hombre, evoluciуn del hombre - we do not imagine that we can talk about a woman. Thus, the meaning of a woman, formally included in the definition of "man", is in fact supplanted from the semantic composition of this word, which is realized in everyday speech, and the universal human concept turns out to be a strictly masculine category.

Dictionaries (for example, DRAE) are full of indications that in paired nouns (caballo - vegua - horse - horse), the male correlate is meliorative or neutral, the female correlate is peoraotive. Peorativity is most often associated with an indication of the unworthy moral character of a woman. Let us give examples of the figurative meanings of certain nouns:

1) Aventurero - osado, valiente, arriesgado, hombre de mundo (Adventurous) ; aventurera-puta

2) Caballo - persona que posee amplios conocimientos o habilidades para hacer algo (Cuba)(person with a great number of skills), caballa - mujer grosera (Cuba) (rude woman);

3) Cualquier - cosa persona indeterminada (anybody); cualquiera - puta

4) Gallo - hombre fuerte, valiente; hombre que trata de imponerse a los demбs por su agresividad o jactancia (strong, courageous man); gallina - persona cobarde, pusilбnime y tнmida; puta;

5) Golfo - masa de agua marina, parcialmente rodeada de tierra (land surrounded by water); golfa - puta;

6) Guayabo - muchacha joven y agraciada (young and graceful girl); guayaba - mentira, embuste (Am.) (Lier);

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