The Implementation of the conception of Friendship on the Basis of Comparative Structural-semantic Analysis of English and Russian Proverbs

The concept of friendship is revealed in eight main implementations, which were formulated in the process of initial analysis of the semantic content of proverbs. The study of friendship as a type of relationship is based on the consideration of the basic principles of human relationships. Along with the desire of people for unification, we observe a desire for individualization; this contradiction is removed directly in the phenomenon of friendship. Friendships are classified and divided into subgroups; of all the possible grounds for classification, we are interested in the most universal, associated with the concept of "real" friendship. This classification basis is interesting precisely because we reveal the implementation of this aspect of the conception on the proverbial material. The traits that distinguish a true friend and how a friend becomes real mark another aspect of the conception of friendship. The key, most valuable properties of friends, the position of friendship in the value hierarchy and the strength of friendly ties complete our circle of interests.

The first of eight implementations, representing a separate aspect of the concept of friendship on the considered material, points to cooperation and mutual aid as a characteristic feature of the human community. Since ancient times, it was difficult for a person alone to cope with harsh living conditions -- it is easier to overcome difficulties together. Proverbs of this semantic group are widely represented both in English and Russian, they belong to the oldest paroemiological layer. These proverbs contain moral priorities and, therefore, are very important for determinating the characteristic features of the national-cultural identity of both peoples. This group contains the following English proverbs: Two heads are better than one; Four eyes see more than two; A trouble shared is a trouble halved; One man, no man, etymologically tracing its origin to the Latin expression Unus vir nullus vir; There is safety in numbers; In the multitude of councelors there is safety, the proverb of biblical origin, which means that "collective responsibility is less dangerous than individual responsibility." The Russian proverbs of this group are: Ум хорошо, а два лучше `One mind is good, but two are better'; Одна голова хорошо, а две лучше `One head is good, but two are better'; Одна головня и в печи гаснет, а две и в поле курятся `One firebrand goes out in the oven, and two burn in the field'; Один в поле не воин `One cannot conquer alone'; Артель воюет, а один горюет `The gang is fighting, and one is grieving'; В единении -- сила `There is strength in unity'; С мира по нитке, голому -- рубаха `A single thread from everyone, and there's a shirt for a naked one'.

The comparison shows that two English and two Russian proverbs are very expressive due to metaphorization, which is based on somatisms: in the English proverb, four eyes -- two eyes, two heads -- one head, in the Russian proverb (один) ум -- два (ума) `one mind -- two minds', одна голова -- две (головы) `one head -- two heads'. The last three English proverbs are maxims -- short sayings, coming from the Latin expression, quotes from the Bible. They use more neutral vocabulary. Russian proverbs are expressive due to the fact that the generalized meaning in them is expressed in metaphorical and concretized forms, the lexical components of which are associated with peasant life: головня `firebrand', печь `oven', поле `field', as well as folk-speaking vocabulary: курятся `burn', горюет `is grieving'. Russian proverb В единении -- сила `There is strength in unity' is equivalent to English proverbs, which are based on Latin sayings. In the Russian proverb Один в поле не воин `One cannot conquer alone' reflects the historical realities of Russian life, when a Russian man had to fight a lot. The last Russian proverb С мира по нитке, голому -- рубаха `A single thread from everyone -- and there' s a shirt for a naked one' expresses the idea of mutual help. O.G. Dubrovskaya calls such proverbs “the proverbs of national linguistic mentality of the first type”, the units of “unique cultural connotation” [33. P. 7]. They have no analogue in English and reflect the mentality of Russian people. “There is a generally accepted opinion about collectivism as a characteristic and most striking feature of the Russian archetype. <...> Sometimes this quality of Russians is also called “a sense of brotherhood.” Russians themselves do not deny this value: “Good brotherhood is more valuable than wealth.” Sometimes it causes outright envy and admiration among Europeans suffering from loneliness” [34. P. 155--156].

The regular nature of the discovered phenomenon, implementing the concept of friendship, is also supported by a systemic counterbalance, the semantic opposite. So, in the English language there is a proverb that points to the individualism of the British: Every man for himself. This proverb also has a unique cultural connotation and reflects the Englishman's mentality, his independence. The comparison of proverbs unique for each language allows us to draw a corresponding analogy with the forms of human sociality, represented, in particular, in the work of F. Tonnies with the concepts of “community” and “society”: “Human wills relate in different ways to each other ... This relation itself and thus communication is understood either as real and organic life (this is the essence of community) or as an ideal and mechanical formation (this is the concept of society)” [35. P. 9]. The aforementioned Russian proverb through the idea of mutual help in the situation, which is difficult for one person (naked), but not for all members of the community (which could be the situation of a battle with an enemy, for example) postulates rather high level of closeness within this community, in fact, their unity: the problem of one member becomes a common problem. The English proverb claims the absence of the necessary essential connection between people: each person must solve his own problems.

The second of the implementations, which points out an internal contradiction of the concept of friendship, is reflected in the following group of English proverbs with unique meaning. They are about the need to maintain a distance in friendship: A hedge between keeps friendship green; Familiarity breeds contempt. The first proverb is expressive due to the use of the colour epithet green, which rhymes with the word between -- it contributes to its expressiveness and quick memorization. The second is an aphorism, a philosophical generalization. It contains neutral vocabulary and is devoid of expression. These proverbs have no analogues in the Russian language and reflect the mentality of the British, who believe that the closer you know a person, the more you see his or her flaws, and the initial admiration is often replaced by disappointment and neglect.

The third implementation, which directly reveals friendship as a complex entity, contains elements of integration of the first two groups, removing the contradiction found in the second one. It presents general characteristics of friendship as a type of closest non-related relationship between people, which is reflected in the corresponding groups of proverbs in both languages. The English proverbs of this group are: The only unsinkable ship is friendship; A true friend is the best possession in the world; Friendship, like phosphorus, shines brightest when all around is dark; A faithful friend is a medicine of life; It is better to be in chains with friends, than to be in a garden with strangers. These English proverbs correspond to Russian: Дерево крепче корнями, а человек -- друзьями `A tree is stronger in its roots, and a man is stronger in friends'; Друг -- ценный клад, недругу никто не рад `A friend is a valuable treasure, no one is happy with an enemy'; Человек без друзей -- что сокол без крыльев `A man without friends is like a falcon without wings'; Человек без друга -- что земля без воды `A man without a friend is like a land without water'; Без друга на душе вьюга `There is a blizzard in the soul without a friend'; Верный друг лучше сотни слуг `A faithful friend is better than hundreds of servants'; Без друга в жизни туго `Without a friend life is tough'; Друг за друга стой -- выиграешь бой `Defend each other and win the battle'; Сам погибай, а товарища выручай `Die yourself, but help your comrade'; Врагу не кланяйся, а товарища выручай `Do not bow to the enemy, but help a comrade'; Больше той любви не бывает, как друг за друга умирает `There is no greater love than dying for each other'.

The value system of two peoples is revealed especially clearly through analyzing English and Russian proverbs of this group. This system is caused by various ex- tralinguistic factors: the history, way of life, climate, etc. Comparisons and contradictions lay at the heart of their figurative structure. So, in English proverbs friendship is compared to an unsinkable ship, to phosphorus that shines brightly in the dark, to the best acquisition, to a cure for disease. The last proverb has a unique meaning, revealing the mentality of the British, who are very wary of strangers and maintain a distance in communication. In Russian proverbs, friendship is compared to powerful roots of a tree, to ценный клад `valuable treasure'; a friend is more important than money, more important than сотни слуг `hundreds of servants.' Russian proverbs use the vocabulary related to nature: земля без воды `land without water', вьюга `blizzard', ornithonym сокол `falcon' as well as vernacular words like туго `tough'. The penultimate three proverbs are imperative sentences by its syntactic structure and contain a call to help out a comrade in a battle at the expense of one's life. The readiness of friends to die for each other is also proclaimed as the highest manifestation of friendship in the last proverb. Its rhythmic organization helps to deepen the semantic content. These proverbs have a unique meaning; they reflect the mentality of a Russian warrior man, for whom mutual help and self-sacrifice in a battle guarantee a victory.

Comparison of the proverbs of this group shows that English proverbs are more likely bookish in nature and use neutral vocabulary, while Russian ones are more closely related to folklore: they include vocabulary, relating to nature and peasant life; use folk poetry and rhyming words. Russian proverbs reflect the mentality of a person, coming from peasantry. Analyzing the semantic construction of phrases, we see that English proverbs represent a friend as a kind of acquisition, an addition to an independent, self-sufficient person: these are images of a friend and friendship as medicine, lamp in the dark, etc. In Russian proverbs a friend is considered a part of some unity without which a person is no longer complete. This idea is emphasized by comparisons of a person without friends to a bird without wings, to a tree without roots. A significant part of Russian proverbs of this group is built on a comparison with negative model. In English proverbs, on the contrary, we see comparisons with positive model: what is a life of a person with a friend like. This observation, made by comparing the material, shows us that the British tend to be individualists and have a firm understanding of privacy.

The fourth implementation is naturally connected to the previous ones, representing classification of friendship types. It includes the most important issue, in which each individual is personally interested: what kind of friendship will be the most lasting, which kind of friendship is considered “real”. Aristotle in "Nicomache- an Ethics" gives his classification of types of friendship: utilitarian (friendship for the sake of any benefit), hedonistic (friendship for the sake of pleasure) and perfect (based on internal virtue and the corresponding likeness of friends) [36. P. 222-- 223]. The first two types of friendship are imperfect and short-lived (disappear as soon as the basis for friendship disappears), the third type of friendship, based on internal qualities (virtues that are constant for Aristotle), is perfect both in essence and because of durability.

Temporary forms of friendship are reflected in both English and Russian proverbs. When good cheer is lacking our friends will be packing; No longer pipe, no longer dance; He that has a full purse never wanted a friend; In time of prosperity friends will be plenty. This English proverbs correspond to Russian ones: В радости сыщут, в горе забудут `In joy they seek, in grief they forget'; Хлеба нет, так и друзей не бывало `If there is no bread, then friends are gone'; Есть брага да пирожки, так есть други и дружки `If there is home brew and pies, so there are friends and pals'; Плохой друг -- что тень: в солнечный день не отвяжешься, а в ненастный не найдешь `A bad friend is like a shadow: on a sunny day you can not get rid of him, but on a rainy day you cannot find him'; У кого мошна полна, у того и друзей хватает `He who has a full purse, has enough friends'.

The comparison of English and Russian proverbs of this group reveals subtle shades of meaning. The first parts of the English and Russian proverbs He that has a full purse... and У кого мошна полна... `He who has a full purse' are very close in figurative meaning and lexical components. However, the second part of the proverbs expresses different meanings. In the English proverb one who has money never wanted a friend. The Russian proverb manifests another meaning: one who has money (у того) друзей хватает `he has enough friends'. The Russian proverb once again, albeit in an ironic way, emphasizes the need for friends in a person's life (even if their presence here is determined by selfish interest), while in the English proverb availability of money overrides the very need for friends. British individualism is opposed to the collectivism of Russian people. Russian proverbs are more figurative and expressive due to the oppositions and lexical antonyms: в радости -- в горе `in joy -- in grief, в солнечный день -- в ненастный день `on a sunny day -- on a rainy day'; due to expressive comparisons: плохой друг -- что тень `a bad friend is like a shadow'; through the use of diminutive suffixes: дружки `pals', пирожки `cakes'. In Russian proverbs human actions are compared to natural phenomena, which probably indicate the affinity of a Russian man to nature.

The true, reliable friendship is the treasure; its necessity is postulated by proverbs of both peoples. Assuming the possibility of a long-term, reliable friendship, it is necessary to determine the way to distinguish it from unreliable (fake) friendship. The answer to this question is given by proverbs, which say that "you can only understand who is your friend and who is your enemy when you face problems and difficulties". This group contains the following English proverbs: A friend in need is a friend indeed; Calamity is man's true touchstone; Prosperity makes friends and adversity tries them; Suffering for a friend doubleth friendship; In need one sees who his friend is; A friend is never known till a man have need. They correspond to the following Russian proverbs: Друзья познаются в беде `Friends become known in trouble'; Без беды друга не узнаешь `You will not get to know your friend without trouble'; Друг познается при рати да при беде `A friend is known in a battle and in trouble'; Конь узнается при горе, а друг при беде `A horse is known upon the mountain, and a friend in trouble'; Друг в беде -- друг вдвойне `A friend in need is twice a friend'; Кто друга в беде покидает, тот сам в беду попадает `Who leaves a friend in need, he himself gets into trouble'. We see that most of the English proverbs are more neutral in lexical components, more aphoristic, edificatory, less expressive except for the proverb A friend in need is a friend indeed, that stands apart with its expressiveness and deserves a special attention. In this proverb, we observe the so-called phenomenon of “paronymic attraction”, i.e. convergence of similarly sounding words, which leads to the effect of “false etymologization”: indeed <in deed [37. P. 84]. The semantic volume of the proverb expands due to this fact. Most of the Russian proverbs of this group are also rather neutral lexically, but several of them are more dramatic: the one in which a friend is tested not only в беде `in trouble', but also в рати (a lexical archaism that means `battle'). The proverb with a zoonym конь `horse' expands expressiveness due to expressive comparison.

The fifth implementation of the conception of friendship is closely related to the previous one. The essence of reliable true friendship is revealed in a group of proverbs about old and new friends. This group includes the following English proverbs: Before you make a friend eat a bushel of salt with him; Old friends and old wine are best; Make new friends but keep the old for one is silver and the other is gold; Old tunes are sweetest, old friends are surest; Old friends are better than new ones. A lot of synonymous Russian proverbs with the same meaning can be given: Человека узнаешь, когда пуд соли с ним съешь `You will know a person when you eat a pood of salt with him'; Человека узнаешь, когда из семи печек с ним щи похлебаешь `You will know a person when you eat cabbage soup out of seven stoves with him'; Не узнавай друга в три дня, узнавай в три года `Do not get to know a friend in three days, get to know him in three years'; Новых друзей наживай, а старых не забывай / не теряй `Make new friends, but don't forget / don't lose old friends'; Вещь хороша пока нова, а друг -- когда старый `The thing is good while it is new, and the friend is good when he is old'; Старый друг лучше новых двух `An old friend is better than two new ones'; Друг не испытанный, что орех неколотый `A friend not time-tested is like a nut not chopped'. The first English and the first Russian proverbs are partial equivalents, their figurative meaning coincides: "to experience friendship you need to eat a lot of salt" (pood / bushel of salt symbolizes a long period of time, spent together in various activities, especially in consentient labour). They are distinguished by its construction: in the English proverb, the main sentence is an imperative, and in the Russian one the sentence is indefinite-personal. According to E.V. Ivanova, “... motivation is more peculiar for the English proverbs; they encourage a person to take active actions or, on the contrary, prohibit them.” [13. P. 190-- 191]. It is expressed by the greater frequency of using imperative sentences. The same meaning is conveyed by another Russian proverb Человека узнаешь, когда из семи печек с ним щи похлебаешь, which reflects characteristic household details of the life of Russian people (печь `stove'), Russian food (щи `cabbage soup'), contains a common word (похлебаешь `eat'), which indicates its peasant origin. In the proverb Друг не испытанный, что орех неколотый `A friend not time-tested is like a nut not chopped' we see an unexpected comparison. All these features along with rhythmic organization and rhyming words make Russian proverbs more expressive. The comparing of English and Russian proverbs of this group reveals subtle shades of meaning. So, in the English proverbs old friends are compared to old wine, to gold and old melodies; in the Russian ones this meaning is revealed through striking contrasts новая вещь -- старый друг `new thing -- old friend' and comparisons старый друг лучше новых двух `an old friend is better than two new ones'. The different lexical components of these proverbs indicates a different figurative thinking of the English and Russian peoples, however, the general meaning can be traced in both cases. We see that friendship is a result of coping with challenges together: either overcoming troubles or hard work / travelling together. The evidence of this is a bushel or пуд `pood' of salt. Both English and Russian proverbs appeal to time, matching friends according to the duration of friendship.

True friendship achieved with the help of hard work is not only valuable, but also a rare thing. The following group includes English and Russian proverbs that express folk wisdom: "You can be friends with many, but true friends should be few." So, the English proverb Books and friends should be few but good is unique by its figurative and motivational basis. It gains expressiveness due to the pictural comparison friends -- books, which should be "few, but good." The English proverb A friend to all is a friend to none and the Russian one Всем брат -- никому не брат `A brother to all is a brother to none' are very close in meaning and by the construction. The difference is that English proverb uses the word friend, and the Russian one uses брат `brother' instead, though the meaning of the latter is similar to “close friend”, not “close relative”. The studies of the British anthropologist, Robin Dunbar, conducted on extensive extralinguistic material, confirm our conclusion: the possible number of close friends is limited, the main factors of limitation are the time (that is needed to make friends and to communicate) and capabilities of the human brain [38].

The sixth implementation of the conception of friendship is close to the fifth one and thus is related to the others. At the same time, it reveals axiologically different aspects of the problem and thereby it strengthens the stability of the studied conception. True friendship is not limited to collaborative work and trials of life passed together.

The important group of proverbs conveys the peculiar meaning that “only friends can make a clear-eyed assessment of your behavior, indicate your strengths and weaknesses. It includes English proverbs: The eye of a friend is a good mirror; A friend's frown is better than foe's smile; All are not friends that speak fair; Only your real friends tell you when your face is dirty. They correspond to the following Russian proverbs: Лучше горькая правда, чем лесть врага `Bitter truth is better than adulation of an enemy'; Не всяк друг, кто нас хвалит `Not all are friends that praise us'; Друг спорит, а враг поддакивает `Friend argues, and enemy assents'; Дружба крепка не лестью, а правдой и честью `Friendship is strong not by flattery, but by truth and honour'; Не та рука, что только гладит, а и та, что за вихор таскает `Not that friendly hand that just strokes, but the one that drags a tuft'; Не та собака кусает, что лает, а та, что молчит, да хвостом виляет `Not that dog bites that barks, but that which is silent, but wags its tail'. Analyzing this group of proverbs, we see that both English and Russian proverbs provide their additional meaning. Their figurative and motivational basis and lexical components do not coincide completely. It is possible to consider counterparts: All are not friends that speak fair and Не всяк друг, кто нас хвалит. Two other English proverbs are based on double contraposition: open enemy -- false friend and friend's frown -- foe's smile. Russian proverb Лучше горькая правда, чем лесть врага is similar to the two aforementioned in its syntactic structure and is also based on double contraposition, but they are distinguished by lexical components. Frown and smile in English proverb figuratively denote arguing and assenting; this makes it close in its meaning to the other Russian proverb Друг спорит, а враг поддакивает, though they are distinguished by the syntactic structure. English proverb The eye of a friend is a good mirror does not have a direct Russian counterpart; the using of somatism eye increases its expressiveness. Another English proverb is also quite expressive due to the use of the face is dirty metaphor, which reflects bad features of character. Two distinctive Russian proverbs of this group are identical by their syntactic structure and represent folk-colloquial construction of the sentence. In one of them the idea of an enemy is hidden behind the somatism рука `hand' that гладит `strokes', and the idea of a friend is hidden behind a рука `hand' that за чуб таскает `drags by a tuft'. In the second Russian proverb of the same type we see the allegory. The behavior and the traits of the animal are transferred to the person. These proverbs are associated with Russian folklore and have peasant origin.

The same group includes English and Russian proverbs that have the meaning “a good friend speaks good behind the scenes”: He is a good friend that speaks well of us behind our backs. The Russian language also has a proverb that partially conveys this meaning: Хороший друг в лицо ругает, а за глаза хвалит `A good friend scolds to one's face and praises behind the back'. Here is educative function of a true friend. A person, connected with him by mutual trust, will rather listen to his words and try to correct mistakes in some way. At the same time, “a friend is always the one who understands us, who sees us through our outer shell and acknowledges our innocence” [14. P. 97].

The seventh implementation of the conception of friendship is related to the previous ones. The following aspect of the conception generalizes the value of friendship. Both English and Russian proverbs manifest that friendship must be preserved and cherished, since it is not so easy to find a friend. This group includes an English proverb Friendship is like money, easier made than kept and corresponding Russian proverbs: Нет друга -- ищи, а нашел -- береги `Seek for friend if you do not have one, and take care of him if you find him'; На деньги друга не купишь `You can't buy a friend for money'; Не имей сто рублей, а имей сто друзей `Do not have a hundred rubles, but have a hundred friends'; Дружба дороже денег `Friendship is more expensive than money'. The English example derives from a quotation, that makes it more aphoristic. It is an extended sentence by its structure. Money here acts as a model for the object of discussion (friendship). The corresponding Russian proverb also includes the word money, but it is used not in the comparison, but in the lexical contraposition: friendship / friend is more valuable than money. Other Russian proverb of the same meaning Не имей сто рублей, а имей сто друзей is very expressive due to its structure (two imperative sentences in the form of the contraposition), due to detailed concept of “money” (сто рублей `hundred rubles') and due to rhyming words (рублей -- друзей). In English there is a proverb that expresses a similar meaning, but with significant clarification: A friend in court is better than a penny in purse. A friend in court here refers to a powerful friend. This proverb has no counterparts in the Russian language and reflects the mentality of an Englishman, for whom powerful friend is more valuable than money. This proverb characterizes the British as pragmatic people who appreciate not only the quality of friendship (true or not), but also traits of the friend himself.

The eighth implementation specifically represents the dynamics of friendship. The relevant aspects, correlated with all seven previous implementations, represent the concept of friendship in the scope of the “test to destruction”. The following group includes proverbs about destruction and reconstruction of friendship: Patched up friendship seldom becomes whole again; Reconciled friendship is a wound ill salved; A broken friendship may be soldered, bur will never be sound. English proverbs correspond to Russian ones: Замиренный друг ненадежен `A reconciled friend is unreliable'; Дружба что стекло: сломаешь -- не починишь `Friendship is like glass: if you break it, you can't fix it'; Надсаженный конь, надломанный лук, да замиренный друг равно ненадежны `An overstrained horse, a broken bow and a reconciled friend are equally unreliable'. Comparing proverbs we see that one English and two Russian proverbs contain a common lexical component reconciled -- замиренный. These proverbs are expressive due to figurative comparisons: reconciled friendship is compared to a wound ill salved in English and замиренный друг `reconciled friend' -- to a надломленный лук `cracked bow' and надсаженный конь `overstrained horse' in Russian. Another vivid comparison дружба `friendship' -- стекло `glass' is used in another Russian proverb. English proverbs use more neutral metaphors concerning friendship: patched up, broken. Both English and Russian units of this group contain specific metaphors and reveal the figurative thinking of both linguistic and cultural ethnic groups in different ways. Following on the analysis of this group of proverbs, we conclude that friendship seems to be a rather fragile, inflexible kind of relationship. Despite the fact that it is “forged” in consentie nt labour, in battles and troubles, it looses its value after destruction and can not be “repaired”. Let us return to Aristotle: if friendship has a constant, perfect foundation (i.e. is based on the virtue of friends and a mutual disinterested attitude towards each other), then it can end only after the death of friends. If it stopped earlier, therefore, its foundation was not perfect, because the attitude of one of the friends was not disinterested. Naturally, it is impossible to trust such a friend. If we assume the very possibility of developing a disinterested attitude to replace the former, self-serving one, then, probably, this could be resulted in a new friendship. The “glued together” old “friendship” is, in fact, a kind of relationship when both participants see the truth: that it is not true friendship or not a friendship at all, but for some (perhaps self-centered) reason they continue to communicate.