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FEDERAL STATE AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION FOR HIGHER EDUCATION NATIONAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY

HIGHER SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS

Faculty of Social Sciences

MASTER THESIS

Women's Rights and Domestic Violence Policy: A Comparative Study of the Northern and Southern region of Nigeria

Morris Anyebe Obe

Scientific Supervisor

Associate Professor (Ph.D.)

Sergey Parkhomenko

Moscow 2019



Abstract

Presently, DV policy implementation has not been successful in Nigeria, one wonders the reason for the tremendous increase of DV. In Sum, the fresh revulsive attacks on male counterpart by women raised some great concern with recent killings of intimate partners or husbands by their wives. From the study government, lukewarm attitude on women's human rights policies implementation constituted a problem. Four of the hypotheses were drawn from the research explaining the cultural harmful practices, patriarchal nature and other factors like alcohol and drugs. The revulsive attacked was also due to the cycle of violence that eventually left a lot of women with PTSD. The study used mixed methods to be compared and analysed the prevalence of DV within the Northern and Southern region of Nigeria, The VAPP 2015 policy documents results shows no policy implementation in North while in the South with only 3 States domesticated the law out of the 17 states. The results also show that 50 per cent of perpetrators of domestic violence would have reduced eventually if the States contrivance with the CEDAW policy documents. However, training of professional medical personals, social workers and security officers will forestall bill amending the penal and criminal codes and the rationale behind the study shows that previous researches were paraphernalia towards DV and the factors responsible for the pervasiveness.

Keyword: Domestic Violence, Women's Human Rights, Feminism, International Policy, Nigeria.



Acknowledgement

I thank the Almighty Father (GOD) for the honour and privilege of writing these pieces of work. I am a symbol of God's creation, many people efforts not only ensured whom I mine today, but they have also contributed immensely to my success and achievement in a foreign land within the stipulated time of two years. I have also encountered many people who are more of mentors, friends and influencers they have inspired me in one way or the other, as a matter-of-fact this page cannot be blank or an empty space without acknowledging them moreover, they deserve recognition, but I regret that the space is insufficient to thank all, however, know you are all recognized.

First and foremost, my profound gratitude goes to God the creator of Heaven and Earth, without His Grace and Mercy, I would not have been able to complete this herculean tasks, not because I am better or good than those who tread on this remarkable journey of life that was unfortunately cut short either by death, accidents, financial constraints or sickness etc.

I want to also appreciate my Father (Mr Sim Ben A. Obe) and Mother (Mrs. Maria A George) for their advice and sound supports. I will like to thank my brother (Abu A. Obe) and Sisters (Ene, Oyigboju & Ajuma A. Obe), sisters-in-law, brothers-in-law, nephews, nieces, aunts and uncles, friends and well-wishers for their imminent prayers and supports.

My Special thanks to my patient, intelligent and dependable academic supervisor Professor, Sergey Parkhomenko, for reading through my flaws and offering suggestions which I found valuable to the success of the dissertations and is moral supports also during my Term Paper and my Final Thesis.

I am indebted to lovely queen and wife (Mrs. Blessing Oinne Ihotu Obe) and my pretty daughters (Enda, Michelle and Hillary Ellaine Ihotu (Agbenu) Obe for their painstaking, moral supports and patients throughout my studies overseas (2 years) thank you so much for this lovely opportunity and trust you guys have bestowed on me. My wife your kindness is more than Gold to me, you are an epitome of virtuous woman, you are indeed one in a billion years to come. Words can describe you; you are the best thing that has happen throughout my years, thank you all.

I also appreciate my External Reviewer Ms Marina Pisklakova-Parker (PhD) and all the lecturers in Political Analysis & Public Policy, Population & Development programs and International Relations Department. For the cross-cultural and transnational knowledge, you have bestowed on me through these years in the pursuit of my career.

Finally, I appreciate the Federal Government of the Russian Federation (Under the distinguished leadership and remarkable mentors) his Excellency the President, Mr Vladimir Putin, the Ministry of Science and Education, as well as the Rector and Staff of the National Research University, Higher School of Economics for their kind opportunity to study in this wonderful University under the Federal Government Quota Scheme, which was quite extraordinary and I ultimately utilized the opportunity. My special thanks to my classmates (2017-2019) and acquaintances.

Thank you so much.



Acronyms

ADVO - Apprehended Domestic Violence Order

APA - American Psychiatric Association

BIT - Behavioural Intervention Techniques

BWS - Battered Women Syndrome

CAT - Convention Against Tortures & other Cruel, in Human or Degrading Treatments or Punishments

CEDAW - Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women

CMW - The Convention of the Protection of the Rights of all Migrants Workers & Members of their Families

CRC - Convention on the Rights of the Child

CRPD - Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

DHS - Demographic Health Survey

DoJ - Department of Justice

DSM-IV-TR - Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder

DV - Domestic Violence

EASO - European Asylum Supports Office

ECOWAS - Economic Community of West African States

FCT - Federal Capital Territory

FGM - Female Genital Mutilation

FRN - Federal Republic of Nigeria

GBV - Gender-Based Violence

GPZ - Geo-Political Zones

HR - Human Rights

HIV - Human Immuno-deficiency Syndromes

ICCPR - International Convention on Civil & Political Rights

ICERD - International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discriminations

ICESCR- International Convention on Economic, Social & Cultural Rights

IQ - Intelligent Quotients

IRBC- Immigration & Refugee Board of Canada

IRIN - Integrated Regional International Network (The New Humanitarian)

NBS - Nigerian Bureau of Statistics

NC - North Central

NDHS - Nigerian Demographic Health Surveys

NE - North East

NHRC - National Human Rights Commission

NPC - National Population Commission

NW - North West

OAU - Organization of African Unity

OHCHR - Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights

PCC - Public Complaints Commission

PRB - Periodic Review Board

PSU - Primary Sampling Unit

PTSD - Post Traumatic Stress Disorders

RVF - Rectum Virginal Fistula

SARC - Sexual Assaults Referral Centre

SE - South East

SW - South West

SS - South-South

UDHR - Universal Declaration of Human Rights

UN - United Nations

UNICEF - United Nations Children's Funds

UNHR - United Nations Human Rights

USA - Untied States of America

VAPP - Violence Against Persons Prohibition Acts

VOA - Voice of America

VVF - Vesico-Vaginal Fistula

WHO - World Health Organization



Table of Content

Abstract

Acknowledgement

Acronyms

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Research Problem

1.3 Research Question

1.4 Research Goals

1.5 Research Tasks

1.6 Theoretical Basis and Methodology

1.6.1 Introduction

1.6.2 Research Method

1.6.3 Sample Size

1.6.4 Tools of Research

1.6.4.1 Analysis

1.6.4.2 Variables

1.6.5 Hypothesis

1.6 Novelty of the Research

1.8 Conceptualization and Operationalization of Domestic Violence

1.8.1 Definitions of Concepts

2.1 Literature Review

2.1.1 Introduction

2.2 Prevalence and Consequence of DV against Women in Nigeria

2.2.1 Findings on the Prevalence of DV and the Associated Factors Influencing DV in both Regions in Nigeria

2.3 General Overview of the Peoples' and Culture of the Nigerian State

2.3.1 General Overview of Nigeria Map

2.3.2 Regional & Composition of the Northern and Southern Region

2.3.2.1 The Nigeria ethnics, Socio-Demographic and Cross-Cultural as it relates to Gender Issues

2.3.2.2 Northern region of Nigeria

2.3.2.3 Southern Region of Nigeria

2.4 Definitions and Understanding Domestic Violence Concepts

2.5 Women's Rights in the Context of Domestic Violence Policies

2.5.1 International and Regional Policy on Women's Rights

2.5.1.1 International Perspectives

2.5.1.2 Regional Perspectives

2.5.2 Factor Influencing Domestic Violence Policies within the Nigerian Context

2.5.3 Other Socio-Economic Factors Influencing DV Policies

3.1 Theoretical Framework & Analysis

3.1.1 Introduction

3.2 Feminist Perspectives

3.3 Behavioural Approach

3.4 The Battered Women Syndrome

4.1 Data Analysis & Results

4.1.1 Introduction of Database and Sample Size

4.2 Data Analysis

4.2.1 The Analysis of Prevalence Rate of DV in Nigeria

4.3 Data Interpretation

4.3.1 Comparative Analysis of the Northern and Southern Nigeria

4.4 Findings

4.5 Results of the Experts Analysis

5.1 Conclusion & Recommendations

Recommendations

Limitation of the Study

Bibliography

Appendix I

Appendix II

Appendix III

1.1 Introduction

domestic violence nigeria policy

According to Chris Onuoha (2017) New trend on DV - Vanguard Newspapers https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/11/new-trend-domestic-violence/United Nations reports violence against women and girls is not affiliated to political or economic parameters, rather it is a prevalent issue affecting every facet of society and the world in general. Domestic Violence (DV) in relative terms affect every aspect of human endeavours irrespective of wealth, race and culture. Violence against women is not a new issue of discussion, several kinds of research have been conducted on its repercussion on women's physical, mental and health (reproductive). The major challenges are the uprising of violent behaviour towards the rights of women and girls, these current atrocities have downgraded their level of involvement in Societal problems that bother about their health and well-being. So many studies have observed that violence against women is a global phenomenon (WHO, 2013). According to the WHO, World Health Organisation (WHO) Global and Regional estimate of Violence against Women 2013

http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/85239/9789241564625_eng.pdf;jsessionid=B7CABC81B9746921530AB64A480D1A9A?sequence=1“overall 35% of women worldwide have experienced either physical and /or sexual intimate partner violence or non-partner violence” However, these are the different phenomenon of violence, DV in a relative term is a violence that involved some of these forms (physical, sexual, emotional) violence. Moreover, research from one country to another country estimated that UNICEF, Domestic Violence against women & Girls, Innocenti Digest No.6, June 2000“20 and 50 per cent of women have experienced physical violence at the hands of their intimate partners or family relatives”

Presently, in Nigeria, as of 2017, the imminent issue faced by the country was the reported cases of domestic violence in a different spectrum of the country, it was observed by Punch Newspaper a total number of 852 cases were recorded in the Southern region of Nigeria and most especially the second largest population density (NPC, 2006). However, Nigeria is a country with 180 million people, 50% of the population are from the Northern part while 50 % is from the Southern region. The Northern part comprises of 50% Muslims most of them are Hausa-Fulani while the Southern predominantly 40% of Christians and 10% are African traditional religion (Bello, 2017).

Women in Nigeria are almost half of its populations, yet they witness numerous Gender-Based Violence (GBV) this have affected the Bello, G. (2017). Condition of Women in Nigeria: Issues and Challenges. Arts and Social Science Journals, 1.“exploration of their full potentials” (M. O. Bakare, 2010). It quite unfortunate the problem of domestic violence policies in Nigeria have not been given due consideration from both the governments and individuals, however, religion plays a significant role in the cultural interplay of Nigerian society. The religion which symbolize the beliefs of morality, equality of man before God have not done justice to women, whereas Women's Rights, International Norms and Domestic Violence: Asian Perspectives. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 694.“many have perceived cultural impediments as an artificial construct rather than inherent” (Amirthalingam, 2005).

Thus, despite the positive responses from International organizations, civil societies and faith-based organizations etc. on Women's rights, the porous nature of legal reforms continues to hamper the progress of equality of women in the Nigeria State. Domestic violence is rather treated primarily as a family consideration with its policies and laws pointing towards securing the family unit at the expense of the State policies. It is on this note, that the research wants to understand the reason why domestic violence has not been given due attention in upholding women's rights issues despite Nigerian's government underpinning ratification of these treaties charters of the 1979 Convention of the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), 1993 African Union Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People's Rights on the Rights of Women in African and the recent enactment of the 2015 Violence Against Person Prohibition Acts (VAPP). In the southern region of Nigeria, domestic violence has become an impediment to the growth and development of Nigeria as a nation.

Abubakar GB (2017) Condition of Women in Nigeria: Issues and Challenges. Arts Social Sci J 8: 293. doi: 10.4172/2151-6200.1000293The Nigerian government owns it as a duty to the people in ensuring strict adherence to legislative and other guiding principles that will protect women from domestic violence, marital rape and other sexual violence and promotes new forensic evidence to prove rape cases, however, if some of these measures are well implemented, then DV in Nigeria will be ameliorated (Abubakar, 2017).

1.2 Research Problem

The study is very concerned with the risings cases of DV and the alarming rates of death attributed. Thus no significant headway to change the narratives as more and more issues are cropping up with no significant change of the status quo, the question why comes to mind and the reasons is that DV is not viewed from the perspective of women's rights issue rather as a family issues as seen from the past, others are of the view that the society envisage it as a norm because of its cultural and legal acceptability. Therefore, the research will be analysing the policy implementation of the Northern and Southern part of the country and to find possible way forward, in synergizing the understanding of women's rights as it relates to DV and to provide alternative compliance of new policies that will foster change with the trend of new innovative ideas based on this research.

In summary, the problems of DV in Nigeria can be attributed to many factors as we have earlier discussed, and one fundamental aspect is the issues of domesticating the new law across the country and another dynamic have to do with the cultural norms and values, which religion plays a significant impact on cultural constraints. Moreover, these are not the only reasons why DV has not been generally accepted as a menace, despite the Federal government efforts. One begins to wonder the reasons behind these issues, could it be as a result of the judiciary system or lackadaisical nature of the executive arms of government. As a matter of fact, these are some of the thoughts that come to bear as to why the research needs to find out the possible factors responsible for DV in Nigeria.



1.3 Research Question

Why is DV an upsurge in Nigeria despite government efforts in trying to curb the menace through the implementation of new policies?

1.4 Research Goals

The purpose of this study is to phantom on the understanding of the main reasons for DV in Nigerian society and to recommends concrete policies that will not only curb the menace, but it will expose and protect the rights of women in Nigeria and Africa at larger and to also ensure that women's rights are upheld through international global best practices.

1.5 Research Tasks

To investigate and analyse the reasons for the prevalence rate of DV in Nigeria.

To ascertain the socio-economic and cultural factors that are significantly associated with the non-compliance of DV policies in Nigeria.

To comparably understood factors that are consistent and inconsistent in their relationship with DV in the country

To phantom on possibly policies recommendations that will ameliorate instances and drastically reduce the prevalence rate of DV against women in the country.



1.6 Theoretical Basis and Methodology

1.6.1 Introduction

Feminism theory seems to be the answer to the understanding of DV as it relates to GBV and often women are at the receiving end of violence. So, the theory comes in handy to give a clearer picture of DV from the perspective of the woman angle. Feminist perspective views DV in a patriarchy society, where the power of government is unevenly distributed that has constrained women (Seeley & Plunkett, 2002). Another important theory is the behavioural approach, this will enable the study to understand why people behave the way they do, to fathom on the issues of DV. Lastly, the Battered Women Syndrome (BWS) theory will be examined to determine the revulsive attacks of women on their male intimate partners. As a result of the recent killings of male partners counterpart in Nigeria. The theory will be analysing the reason behind these atrocities by the female foes and it will give a clearer prediction of what the future holds if the domestication of DV policies is not given due considerations, the repercussion will be disastrous.

In order to get a clearer understanding of DV and women rights in Nigeria, this research needs to look at different theories not just one case scenario to clarify the notion of culture and religion as they are influencing policy implementation, the realization of new laws and its general acceptability. The study will use the Feminist theoretical framework for analysing public policy research. Feminism is of the opinion that there is a wide gap of inequalities between men and women, as a result of patriarchal values attached to the Nigerian society which has given an ideological perspective of men superiority over women. It has been analysed that feminism approach to women in a relationship are violently abused, oppressed and they might need urgent guidance. Bagshaw, D. (2011). Domestic Violence: Feminist Perspective. The Encyclopaedia of Peace Psychology. doi:10.1002/9780470672532.wbepp091It has also been noted that the manner at which women classify their experience of DV is fastidious, some women obviously experience DV and observed it as a cultural way of life. Feminism argues how policies affect women and men differently. This theory will give an insight into the present trend of DV as regards to upholding women's rights. The feminist theory will also provide the necessary analytic framework in considering how policy implementation affects women differently from men. The aspect of cultural feminism is a deconstructed concept of feminism that also explains different norms and values associated with women which will eventually help in solving the challenges of cultural and religious dynamism in relation to the present situation of DV in Nigeria (Crossman, 2018).

The study will also rely on Behavioural Analysis as public policy theory on how society perception needs to change the concept about men domineering apparatus as to achieve equality for women and to have a positive behavioural change that will foster the understanding of women's rights. This theory will observe the behaviour of individuals or social aggregate (Nigeria) as the focus of analysing the Northern and Southern region regarding DV policy and to give an accurate explanation as to why states behaviour of domesticating the VAPP Act should be subjected to empirical test. This will help to focus on the action of State in understanding the social behaviours of Nigeria's populace (Sanders, 2010).

1.6.2 Research Method

The research study will use both qualitative and quantitative approach in analysing the research work. The qualitative method will entail a primary and secondary data, while the quantitative method will be strictly on secondary data from the NDHS 2013 survey conducted by the National Population Commission, in collaboration with World Health Organization, USAID and other International Partners. The literature will use credible information from similar sources which will be analysed and put together about the study.

It will be analysing the Nigerian Demographic Health Survey 2013 regarding the domestic violence data of spouse women, age range 15 to 49 years, using the quantitative approach in understanding the factors responsible for the increased of DV. In addition, expert's interviews will be analysed in answering the set objectives and making a comparative analysis of the existing data of NDHS 2013 and to elucidate the understanding of the rising trend as regards to the inept policy failures. The study will collect information from experts using the in-depth interview, whose area of expertise's relates to the topic in question however, interview guide will be used to conduct an either face-to-face contact or alternatively through social media platform will be embarked upon, in case of distance barrier formerly interview will be conducted through social media platform like Skype, WhatsApp, etc. The research will also give the answer to the objectives from the information obtained through secondary sources. It will analyse existing data from the secondary source as explained above in answering these questions. The sources are journals articles, textbooks, reports, newspapers as well as credible internet sources and relevant websites.

1.6.3 Sample Size

The sample size of the study will be 5 experts for the research, which will be on even distribution of 3 experts from the Northern and 2 experts from the Southern region who are knowledgeable in the area of DV or GBV in Nigeria. The Interview guide will be clearly defined based on the research objectives that was prepared to guide the researcher during the semi-structure interview with the experts.

1.6.4 Tools of Research

The study will administer a semi-structured interview questionnaire consist of open and close-ended questions related to the DV policy and women's rights in the Northern and Southern region of Nigeria. The researcher will construct an interview protocol according to the research principles through in-depth works of literature such as semi-structured guides. The possible likely questions of the interview protocol are as given below:

1. What forms or to what extent is DV prevalence rate within each region (Northern & Southern) Nigeria?

2. What are the roles each factor played, influencing DV and how consistent is the instances to both region?

3. What are the possible solutions to mitigate instances of DV and upholding women's rights in the country?

4. What are the reasons for the failure or implementation policy relating to DV?

1.6.4.1 Analysis

The study will extract the relevant theme from the interview with experts from the Northern and Southern part of the country in answering the research objectives using an existing data set from NDHS 2013 data survey. The study will compare the existing data set with the theme extracted from the semi-structured interview with experts to see the gap in the policy implementation process of DV. It will help in answering the set objectives of the research.

The research data collected will be edited and irrelevant parts will be discarded. Thematic analysis will be used to analyse the data collected. Themes will be identified from the objectives of the research upon which the interview guide will be designed. The themes will be colour-coded to flag out the key aspect of data that pertains to themes. The themes from the opinion of experts will compare with the literature reviewed and a conclusion will be drawn.

1.6.4.2 Variables

The dependent variables will be the analysis of spouse violence, while the independent variable will emotional, physical, sexual violence, physical & sexual violence, Physical, sexual & emotional violence, Physical or sexual, physical, sexual or emotional violence. The independent variables will be used to understand the reason for the rise of DV in Nigeria and to also check the recent revulsive attack of women to their male counterpart.



1.6.5 Hypothesis

1. Women who have a high awareness of women's rights and DV policy, however, the occurrence of DV will be low.

2. There is a relationship between culture and religious factors in the implementation of the DV policy, domestic violence will be high.

3. There is a relationship between the judiciary and law enforcement system in the implementation of DV policy, the occurrence of DV will be low.

4. The higher the failure of policy implementation of DV the tendency of a higher revulsive attack by women.

1.7 Novelty of the Research

Most research identifies the fundamental problems associated with domestic violence policies and suggested credible solutions to women's rights challenges, without looking at the reasons behind the implementation process of policies. This research will draw its scope from the women's rights angles in providing necessary solutions to the application process of the DV policy. Although, most previous research did not look at the policies implementation failure which has resulted in retaliation from women as a defensive reaction to the persistent violence by their male counterpart. Also, according to Battered women syndrome, there are 3 steps in the cycle of violence, it has been observed in the Nigeria society due to the failure of the implementation of DV policy, that women have adopted a behaviour of been violent (as a solution) against their counterpart. This research will help to consider this factor as an additional step in the cycle of violence of the BWS theory and in the implementation of the policies.



1.8 Conceptualization and Operationalization of Domestic Violence

1.8.1 Definitions of Concepts

This part provides an in-depth insight to the study, which explains and elaborate the broader concept of DV and to narrow it down with the concepts, forms and indicators that will enhance the understanding in order to measure the parameters of the level of DV.

DV: - is an acronym for the word Domestic Violence, Dawn LaFrance, Jung Yi & Chelsea Dale (2015) Esthetic Dentistry & Domestic Violence, A Clinical Approach to Techniques and Materials, Pp 550-555Domestic violence is defined as violent behaviour against a family member, or other violence taking place within a home. DV is antagonization among family or household makers, which can be observed from the involvement of physical harm, sexual attacks or fear of physically assaulted or harm (NDHS, 2013). DV is defined as violence committed by intimate partners or family relative which is carried out through physical, sexual, psychological and economical abuse (UNICEF, 2000). DV is the type of violence through which individual partner, or family associates inflicts on a female partner either physical, sexually and economic abuse, such abuses rendered on female partners are referred to as spouse violence especially if they are legally married. It measures the depth of violence committed exclusively by partners such as present or past husband/wife or boyfriend/girlfriend. However, it has been established that study on violence shows that intimate partner violence or spouse violence is one of the most frequent forms of violence perpetrated against female counterpart in the world (NDHS, 2013).

To expatiate further, DV can be measured under different forms of violence which are physical, sexual, emotional, spouse violence, economic violence and psychological, but for the purpose of these research, we will focus on the three forms that will be used in analysing the level of severity.

a) Physical Violence: This type of violence as the name implies on the level of severity, it can be less severe or more severe for instance less severe are hitting, kicking, slapping etc. while more severe are choking, burning, beating and so on,

b) Sexual Violence: It is an act of forcing a female partner into sexual intercourse without her deliberate consent or trying to have carnal knowledge of her either coercively or persuasively. This sexual act committed forcefully is referred to as rape.

c) Emotional Violence: this type of violence, which is not directly but indirectly, DV could be an infliction on one's feelings, it is a proponent of ruining one's self-worth with constant insult, shame and disgrace to the person's involved. It downgrades one's feeling which could lead to unhealthy relationships among intimate partners. Furthermore, emotional violence on its own cannot cause or bring about violence, unless the insult or disgrace becomes a constant abuse and the effect become a psychological trauma.

d) Spouse Violence: is referred to as intimate partner relationship which is either husband/wife or boyfriend/girl, this is one of the forms of DV which the combination of is both sexual, physical, emotional and psychological this usually take form among people who share some level of intimacy between each other.

e) Psychological Violence: It is somehow related to emotional and sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish both psychological and emotional violence because of both deals with one's feelings and mental state of the mind. The psychological violence could be attributed to intimidation, threats or frightening attitudes, verbal abuse, harassment, possessive, isolation and denial of physical and economic properties (Ozo-Eson,2008) the psychological behaviour on a one-off scenario, cannot likely bring about DV, but with constant and persistent act could lead to emotional depression could trigger physical, sexual and emotional violence.

There are certain variables which can be used to measure the physical, sexual and spouse violence as to understand the level of prevalence of DV within the study, these are indicators that will help to give an explicit understanding by collating the variables in the NDHS 2013 these will further elaborate on the extent of severity of DV among women in some instances.

i. Age: this will refer to the number of women within these age 15 to 49 years who have experienced any form of violence (sexual, physical and psychological) in her life.

ii. Religion: Nigeria is divided between two major religion with traditional religion as a small percentage compared to the two other religious groups. while these indicators are used to understand the prevalence rate of violence among the different religious groups.

iii. Education: the level of education varies among women, and these give a distinctive idea of the level of women with no educational background, primary, secondary and tertiary level skills as it relates to the issue of violence, this will give a clear understanding of which category of women are affected when it comes to the issue of DV.

iv. Marital Status: This clearly portrays the various status of women in the society as to whether they are divorced, separated, widow, married and single and will explain the level of violence among these variables.

v. Employment: The term differentiates the level of employment among women, as it relates to violence either physical, sexual or emotional. This variable will be examining the level of DV among women employed for cash, women employed not for cash. For instance, women employed to learn how to bake cakes or assist one another without monetary incentives and women not employed.

vi. Residence: is used in the study to further give a distinctive understanding of the level of DV with the urban and rural settlements, within the Nigeria context. This will help to understand the dynamics of the prevalence level within the urban and rural areas.

vii. Zone: It is important to note that Zone has to do with the context of how Nigeria is divided into geopolitical zones (GPZ), this will help the study to have a comparative analysis of the two regions by the zoning formula in understanding DV among women within these specified areas. In Nigeria, DV cannot be fully examined, without analysing these indicators which expurgate across all socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds. However, these indicators will measure the depth of the prevalence of violence perpetrated against women in Nigeria.



2.1 Literature Review

2.1.1 Introduction

The section of this study will give a general overview of the DV and its policy from an international to national perspectives, touching on the women's rights angles. The main objective of the study is to fathom on the factors responsible for DV in Nigeria, observing different theories to understand the historical facts of DV and to find out possible results that will enhance positive legislative policies for women empowerment.

To this end this chapter will also review systematically selected theme as it relates to previous kinds of literature and theories on the issue of DV and its policies, the next paragraph will analyse the historical, contexts and origins of DV.

2.2 Prevalence and Consequence of DV against Women in Nigeria

Domestic violence or gender-based violence, is a worldwide situation and it affects everyone directly or indirectly and it is part of every culture on earth. According to the WHO, more than 35% of women in the world have experienced different type of violence, be it physical, sexual or abusive from an intimate partner or someone not trustworthy. Violence against women, Amnesty International, 2018, https://www.amnesty.org.uk/violence-against-women“Nearly one-third of women who've been in a relationship have experienced physical and/or sexual violence at the hands of their partners” and to crown it all more than 38% murders of women in the world are committed mostly by intimate partners (Amnesty Int'l 2018).

Violence against women is not a new word, a lot has been said about DV, its consequences have affected women negatively either through physical, mental, emotional and their reproductive health, the growing concern of the act of violence against women today is the Global & Regional estimate of violence against women, WHO, London School of Hygiene & South Africa Medical Research council http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/85239/9789241564625_eng.pdf;jsessionid=9EE431823DBD45C5D1CAD43FD36979DB?sequence=1“growing pattern of behaviour that violates the rights of women and girls”

“Globally, as many as 38% of all murders of women are committed by Intimate partners, 7% of women have been sexually assaulted by someone other than their partners” (WHO, 2013). In USA alone 4.8 million related cases of physical assaults, while 2.9 million of perpetrators of this violence are mostly men, In the third world nations, domestic violence is very common and have a high tendency of being condone, these are actually based on cultures and religion (Aihie, 2009). It is clearly define that women accept the fact that beaten from their husband or intimate partners is a clear intention of being corrected rather than, looking at it from the perspective of violations of their fundamental human rights to buttress this assertion Domestic Violence & Poverty in Africa, when the husband beating stick is like butter, Luc Christiaensen (2016) blog of the World bank http://blogs.worldbank.org/africacan/domestic-violence-and-poverty-in-africa-when-the-husbands-beating-stick-is-like-butter51% of African women have reportedly been beaten by their husbands or intimate partners for not obeying their husband instructions, leaving the house without permission, refuse to have sexual intercourse or negligence of the children and even burn the meals. “1/3 of African women have reported having experience DV either physically or sexually” (Christiaensen, 2016). The acceptance rate of DV varies from place to place or country to country in Mali and Uganda the acceptance rate is 77% while in Malawi 13% and 21% in Mozambique respectively. This phenomenon has remained a disturbing situation worldwide (Christiaensen, 2016). According to a report from IRIN(2007), it is clearly defined that 25% of women in Darkar and Kaolack in Senegal are physical abuse by their partners, more so 60% of Domestic violence victims always turn to their family for help in crisis situations but because of the cultural and religious tolerance, parents or wards usually send these victims back to their matrimonial home which usually turns deadly as the case may be (as in Aihie, 2009).

National Data Health Survey (NDHS) 2013, data survey estimated that 28% of women age 15 - 49 have experienced some sort of physical violence even from the age of fifteen, 7% of women of the same age bracket above have experience sexual violence at least once in their life time. 25% of married women have experienced physical or sexual violence either from their intimate partners or husbands. While 33% have experienced physical violence in their lifetime, but unfortunately the apparent reason why DV is getting more and more dangerous in our society according to this report, is that 45% of women who have ever experience any form of DV never get to report to anyone reason of the fear of the unknown (DHS, 2013 reports). Presently, according to Chukuma (2017) Josephine, Effah-Chukuma (2017) Project Alert Executive Directors, she published a report titles “The Enemy Within: Domestic Violence in Nigeria” https://www.pressreader.com/77% of sexually assaulted victims in Nigeria are children and 50% of these atrocities happens in homes, these goes to show the alarming situation, the African nations have in their hands to give a very important attention to women's rights and bring these scourge to abruptly end.

In Nigeria women have become object of rape, murder and beaten by close members of the family, According to Amnesty Amnesty (2005) IRIN http://www.irinnews.org/report/54750/nigeria-women-getting-no-protection-against-high-levels-abuse-says-amnesty“2/3 of women in a certain area of Lagos have been victims of physical, sexual or psychological violence of family” It is also estimated that one in five women has experienced physical violence out of these number 28% of women have experienced violence in physical form by the age of 15. 1/3 of Nigerian women and girls within the age limit of 15 - 24 are already victims of violence (Akosa, Osakwe & Awosika, 2013). C21Stnigeria (2013) Call to End Violence against Women & Girls in Nigeria https://c21stnigeria.wordpress.com/2013/03/08/call-to-end-violence-against-women-and-girls-in-nigeria/“Up to a third of women in Nigeria have been subjected to some form of violence, including battering, verbal abuse, emotional, psychological abuse, marital rape, sexual exploitation or harassment within the home”

In Nigeria, Domestic violence experienced by women are usually reported to the family as first-hand reports, but unfortunately these aftermath of the family intervention does not go beyond these parameters of reporting to appropriate authorities, which have led to increasing cases of DV perpetrated by intimate partners or spouses “at least 45% of violence against women are perpetrated by their current husbands or parents”(C21Stnigeria, 2013). Over 45% of women and girls who are victims of these sexual or physical violence finds it very difficult to reveal their circumstances to anyone, which many of the victims suffer in silence leading to emotional trauma within our society.

Violence against women and girls are the main determinants of HIV epidemics and causes of sexually transmitted diseases and other infectious diseases in our society due to forcefully rape, sexual assaults by male partners. The study is to investigate these prevalence rates of domestic violence and portrays reasons as to why every individual need to see the pertinent needs of relegating these evil trails from every sphere of the society.

2.2.1 Findings on the Prevalence of DV and the Associated Factors Influencing DV in both Regions in Nigeria

The word Gender Based Violence (GBV) is an attribute of violence against women in all ramification which in another way round is a violation of Basic Rights (women's rights). Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey 2013DV is a form of GBV according to WHO. The term GBV is a synonym for violence against women (Oladepo, Yusuf & Arulogun, 2011). In Nigeria, DV has become a great plague not only from the perspective of HR (Human Rights) issues but from the economic and health implication. One pertinent fact is that women experience physical violence due to cultural factors (Oladepo, et al). There different factors influencing DV in Nigeria one of such is young age, Income, being divorced or separated and victimization is one major factor that triggers the risk of DV, another important aspect is low level of education among men can instigate physical violence against their wives or partners who are virtually highly successful academically (Oladepo, et al. 2011).

There is also a difference between factors that influence physical violence and sexual violence, for instance, alcohol can trigger physical violence among young adults compared to older men, there is study that shows that African journal of Reproductive health, December 2011. 15(4): 78. http://www.bioline.org.br/pdf?rh11054“physical or sexual violence is more associated with young people predominantly those less than 30 years”. However, there is no cognitive evidence of the relationship between alcohol and violence just for the record. Another significant approach is that females with low incomes experience sexual or physical violence than those with relatively high paying jobs.

28% of all women have experienced physical violence from the age of 15 (NDHS, 2008). Religion plays a key role in advancing the causes of DV among women, it brings about or give the right for women to be submissive to their husbands within the Christian religion, thus it has further intensified the way women are being treated by their husbands when they antagonize, likewise in Islam The Qur'anic (Islam Holy book) show clear justification of violence against women, Azizah, Yahia Al - Hibri (2000-2001) Muslim Women's Rights in the Global Village: Challenges and Opportunities, Journal of Law and Religion, Vol.15, No.1/2, Cambridge University Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1051514“those women on whose part you fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish them first, refuse to share their beds and lastly, beat them lightly” women are supposed to be corrected by their husbands by spanking them a little if they go wrong, these can be clearly justified that within the DHS 2013 survey Catholic or protestant, 44% of women have experienced physical violence, while traditionalist group, 36% and the least is the Muslim with only 13%. Understanding the Nigeria context, women within the urban centres experience more violence compared to the women found in the rural settlements, the rate is 33% and 24% respectively. Holistically, the rate at which women experiences DV is higher in the South-south 52% while in the North West is 7% upon some of these statistic representations that the study wants to understand the reason behind DV in the Northern and Southern regions of Nigeria, does it mean that DV does not really happen in the North and what is the reason that despite the awareness in the South and less awareness in the North, Violence against women is still on the increase in the South, this calls for more research into understanding the reasons behind these statistics.

Peter Ezeah (2013) Socio-economic & cultural processes associated with DV in rural Nigeria, A study of Uzo Uwani Local Government Area of Enugu, Bangladesh e journal of Sociology Vol 10 no. 1 January, 2013.

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5dc9/0ab7b213f7081cf87822eb695a9f1c815cfe.pdfIn the rural community of Nigeria in 1986, a study shows that 86% of women from the South East have experienced domestic violence at the hands of their husbands. Another factor is the early marriage among Nigeria women, most especially the Northern part of the country, where early marriages seems to be both on cultural and religious beliefs to give teenage girls away at an early age of 9 to an elderly man, who is sometimes older and unknown to them for marriage. The young adolescent girls know nothing about marriage or sexuality, their experiences are horrible for them, even in the Southern part precisely, the East the same can be attributed with the Uzo Uwani Local Government Area, it is a tradition for families to give their young women into marriage to an elderly person within the community whom she is not familiar with or unknown to her (Ezeah,2013).

Research has proved that women with economic empowerment are well-respected compared to women who are just mere housewives, waiting for their husbands or partners to put food on the table. There is a relationship between economic empowerment and DV, the more financially stable a woman is, the less the cases of domestic violence among such families.

DV as much as we envisage it to be violence against women or GBV, another aspect of such violence that is ubiquitous in Nigeria is Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), Emeordi Chidera (2018) Journal of Tropical Diseases and Public Health. https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/what-factors-influence-the-persistence-of-female-genital-mutilation-in-nigeria--a-systematic-review-2473-3350-1000256-98962.html“WHO estimated that over 200 million girls and women have been mutilated around the world” This practice are associated with cultural rituals and a violation of Women's rights, The FGM is another form of violence attributed to DV it happens even in homes where women are deprived of their rights to say no due to cultural beliefs, it is observed that 24.8% of women and young girls have been mutilated in Nigeria according to the NDHS 2013 reports, the traditional reasons for the incidence are that it helps the ease of childbirths, promote better marriages and there is this myths that it reduces women from being promiscuous. Emeordi Chideral (2018) The practice is common among the Yoruba (South West) and Igbo's (South East) with 58.4% and 51.4% respectively.

A careful glance at the diagram below, explain the experience of domestic violence prevalence within the Nigerian context and why the need to uphold women's rights has become obligatory within the context of this study.

Table 1.1

The Prevalence Rate of Domestic Violence in the Northern & Southern Region

Background Characteristic of Zone	% who have experience physical violence as from the age of 15	% of who have experience sexual violence	Number of sampled women
			Physical	Sexually
North Central	30.5	9.6	3,882
North East	29.5	15.7	4,079
North West	6.9	2.3	8,531
South East	38.3	8.4	3,142
South-South	52.2	10.3	3,518
South West	37.1	4.6	4,482

Source: DHS 2018

This diagram illustrates the prevalence rate DV within the sampled population of women in the Northern and the Southern region of Nigeria. One significant incidence is North West recorded the lowest per cent of physical and sexual violence but the number of women sampled is very higher compare to the other zones within the country this could be either because of the number of the PSU (primary sampling Units) are more compared to other PSU in other zones, or there was a positive response from the respondents compare to the other zones as well.

In Nigeria, numerous cases of couples hurting one another either verbally, sexually, physically and battering each other are very peculiar with information from news media these days, due to being deserted and deep contrition of stigmatization many are suffering from mental depression of DV (Okhakhume, Oguntayo & Aroniyiaso, 2016). Another, issues of victims who are pregnant throughout DV relationship, they also stand Okhkahume, Oguntayo & Aroniyiaso 2016 Department of Psychology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.ijap.20160606.03.html“greater risk of miscarriages, pre-term labour and death of the foetus” however, victims of DV and their children are vulnerable to some medical health complications like stress, fear, depression, anxiety, general phobia and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, children from violence couples may likely develop some complications like low self-esteem, low IQ, drug addictions, alcoholism and sexually risky behaviour that might be detrimental to him/her and the country at large. This is some of the attributes of DV that the study needs to research and to phantom on possible solutions that will change the course of history and to apply positive approach to ameliorate the menace which will enable the supportive efforts to women's rights through championing women empowerment programs and policies.

2.3 General Overview of the Peoples' and Culture of the Nigerian State

The section of the study provides an understanding of the demographic, socio-economic and cultural routine of the peoples of Nigeria. This aspect of study is important for a background knowledge and the dynamic factors or structures that have contributed to the patriarchal nature and disparities against women in the country.

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