Features of transferring the meaning of non-equivalent units of language on the example of stories by R. Kipling

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Introduction

The differences between languages are due to the difference in cultures. They are noticeable in vocabulary and phraseology, since the nominative means of language are most associated with non-linguistic realia. In any language and dialect there are words that do not have a one-word translation in other languages. This is the so-called non-equivalent vocabulary, basically it is designated by a specific phenomenon of local cultures.

Interethnic and international communication has long been limited to the problem of language. This explains the desire to create a universal international language, the knowledge of which would allow for unhindered communication. To date, the position of the universal international language is occupied by English. English is a natural language, because of this, a new problem of international communication has appeared - non-equivalent vocabulary.

Non-equivalent vocabulary is primarily a category of words that denote specific objects and phenomena in the life of a given cultural and linguistic community - realias and historicisms.

Non-equivalent vocabulary simultaneously belongs to both language and culture, that is, it simultaneously reflects the features of a given language and the specifics of a given culture.

The so-called «non-equivalent vocabulary» which is discovered while comparing languages used by various cultures, is closest to the cultural component. In one of the compared languages, non-equivalent vocabulary does not have dictionary counterparts either because there are no relevant realia in the public discourse of its speakers or because there are no lexical units in that language designating the related concepts. As a result, the first row can be divided into personal names, geographical names, names of institutions, organizations, newspapers, and common names. The second group of English words includes those for which there are no equivalent lexical units in Russian.

It should be noted that a characteristic feature of non-equivalent words is their untranslatability into other languages by means of constant correspondence, their inconsistency with some word of another language. But this does not mean that they are completely untranslatable.

The problem of non-equivalent vocabulary remains an urgent topic for linguists' research, its occurrence is the result of a dialogue of languages and linguistic cultures. In their works on the study of non-equivalent vocabulary, scientists study various aspects of this phenomenon: from the causes of non-equivalent vocabulary to the interpretation of its semantics.

When considering the theoretical study of this topic, the works of outstanding scientistsIvanov A.O., LatyshevL.K., Retsker Ya.I., Vlakhov S., Florin S., Vinogradov V.S., Barkhudarov L.S. and others were based on.

Kolomeitseva E.M. and Makeeva M.N. argue that non-equivalent vocabulary refers to lexical units (words and stable phrases) of one of the languages that have neither full nor partial equivalents among the lexical units of another language.

The work is devoted to the consideration of the translation of various types of non-equivalent vocabulary based on the stories of Rudyard Kipling.

The actuality of the research is due to on the one hand, the significance of the problem of the correlation of language and culture; on the other hand, the undying interest of translation theorists in the problem of the transfer of non-equivalent vocabulary and the numerous mistakes made when transferring it to another language.

The scientific novelty of the research is in analyzing the lexical, lexico-semantic and grammatical means used to achieve adequacy in the translation process.

The purpose of the researchis to conduct a comparative analysis of English and Russian non-equivalent vocabulary and to establish the patterns of its translation.

The aimof the researchdefined the following tasks:

1) Define what is a non-equivalent vocabulary

2) Describe the classification of non-equivalent vocabulary

3) To identify the causes of lexical non-equivalence

4) To conduct a comparative analysis of English and Russian non-equivalent vocabulary

5) Determine the degree of preservation of the cultural and historical originality of the stories when translated into Russian.

The subject of the researchis translation transformations in the translation of non-equivalent vocabulary into Russian.

The object of the researchare various groups of non-equivalent vocabulary inRudyard Kipling's stories.

The theoretical value of the researchlies in the analysis of the linguistic essence of the concepts of «equivalence», «non-equivalent vocabulary» and its elements, as well as a general classification of the most effective and modern ways of translating non-equivalent.

The practical value of the research is that they can be used in the process of teaching students of linguistic universities of language specialties when studying the courses «Stylistics of a English language», «Lexicology», «Theory and Practice of Translation», «Country Studies», as well as whenwriting term papers and theses works.

The research methods were: comparative, component, contextual, and elements of interpretive analysis.

The structure of the given diploma work is as follows: Introduction, Chapter I (theoretical part of the research), Chapter II (practical part of the research), Conclusion, and Bibliography.



1. General characteristics of non-equivalent units

translation english vocabulary kipling

1.1 The notion of non-equivalent units

Usually non-equivalent vocabulary is the most difficult when translating a literary work into a foreign language. After all, this vocabulary has no analogues in other languages, but at the same time the translator's task is to convey its meaning to the reader, preserving, if possible, the national flavor.

Let's consider what non-equivalent vocabulary is.

Non-equivalent vocabulary is a vocabulary that has no correspondences in other languages or in other subcodes of a given language and is not subject to translation into other languages. The non-equivalent vocabulary is caused by differences in the conditions, lifestyle and culture of ethnic groups or geographically isolated groups of a given ethnic group.

The non-equivalent vocabulary includes exotisms and ethnographisms.

Exotisms denote phenomena and concepts that are absent in the life of a given people, for example, papaya, passion fruit - the names of tropical fruits; sabantuy - a holiday among Kazakhs and some other Turkic peoples; aikido, taekwondo - types of martial arts.

Ethnographisms, which, unlike other types of dialectisms, do not have synonyms (equivalents) in the literary language, include the names of specific objects characteristic only of the lifestyle of this population group, for example, zelenets - a newborn seal, khokhlyak - a baby seal with a black-gray coat (among Pomors).

The obvious fact is that absolutely in any language there are words that do not have a match in another language. The rapid pace of changes in the vocabulary of languages was caused by the development of production, culture and science of a particular country. Many linguists dealing with various problems related to language and translation, such as Barkhudarov L.S., VlakhovS., Florin S., Ya.I. Retsker Ya.I., Ivanov A.O., Komissarov V.N., Schweitzer A.D. often have the concept of «non-equivalent vocabulary», but it is interpreted differently by everyone. What is meant by this term?

In the event that a lexical unit does not have a corresponding lexical equivalent in the translating language, the translator is faced with the phenomenon of non-equivalence. It reflects the specific phenomena of the cultural identity of a particular country.

Let's consider some definitions of lexical equivalence in translation theory.

It is possible to infer from Retsker's Ya.I. definition of the term «equivalence» that non-equivalent unit refers to a collection of lexical or phraseological elements that are independent of context and do not have a permanent dictionary correspondence in the translating language. Additionally, non-equivalent vocabulary refers to truths that are peculiar to the nation of the source language and foreign to the culture of the translated language [Retsker Ya.I., 2007, P.34].

SchweitzerA.D. refers to this category «lexical units that serve to denote cultural realia that do not have exact correspondences in another culture» [Schweitzer A.D., 1998, P.86].

Komissarov V.N.writes that non-equivalent is «units of the source language that do not have regular correspondences in the translation language». In addition, he gives a broader explanation of this phenomenon: «non-equivalent vocabulary is used to denote culture-specific phenomena that are the product of the cumulativefunction of language and can be considered as receptacles of background knowledge, i.e. knowledge available in the minds of speakers» [Komissarov V.N., 2002, P.51].

By non-equivalent vocabulary, VereshchaginE.M. and KostomarovV.G. understand «words that serve to express concepts that are absent in another culture and in another language, words related to particular cultural elements, i.e. to cultural elements characteristic only of culture, but also absent in culture, as well as words that do not have a translation to another language, in a word, have no equivalents outside of the language to which they belong.»

Non-equivalent vocabulary is a lexical unit of one selected source language or dialect that does not have regular (full or partial) dictionary correspondences in the target language. For example, Vereshchagin E.M. and KostomarovV.G. define a layer of non-equivalent vocabulary as «words whose content plan cannot be compared with any foreign lexical concepts» [Vereshchagin E.M., Kostomarov V.G., 1983, P.56]. Non-equivalent vocabulary is primarily a category of words that denote specific objects and phenomena in the life of a given cultural and linguistic community - realia and historicisms.

Linguists With Vlakhov S. and Florin S. significantly narrow the boundaries of non-equivalence - «lexical units that do not have translation equivalents in the target language.» Moreover, they distinguish between the concepts of «non-equivalent vocabulary» and «realia». The concept of «non-equivalence» for them has a wider range of content, unlike realia - a separate, independent circle of words [Vlakhov S., Florin S., 2009, P.48].

According to LatyshevL.K., the concept of «non-equivalence» is relative, because although when translating from one language to another, it may turn out that there is no equivalent of one or another unit of the lexical system of the source language in the translating language, but the equivalent of this unit is created in the translation process. Latyshev uses the term «non-equivalent vocabulary» in the case when there is a «ready-made» name for some object or phenomenon in the lexical system of the source language, and there is no «ready-made» name in the dictionary of the translated language. In this case, this name must be created in the process of speech [Latyshev L.K., 1981, P.121].

Barkhudarov L.S. provides a more concise definition: «words denoting objects, concepts and situations that do not exist in the practical experience of people speaking another language» [Barkhudarov L.S., 1975, P.81].

Krupnov V.N. defines non-equivalent vocabulary as «foreign words and phrases denoting objects, processes and other realia of life that at this stage do not have equivalents in the translation language.» It distinguishes non-equivalent vocabulary from the terms that it designates scientific concepts used in scientific, technical and other special texts [Krupnov V.N., 1976, P.146 - 149].

The definition of the concept of non-equivalent vocabulary given by researcher Ivanov A.O. seems to be the most accurate, complete, and complex. By this concept, he means that the lexical units of the source language have no equivalents in the vocabulary of the translating language. In other words, this means that there are no relevant components of meaning similar to the original language in the translation language. Moreover, Ivanov A.O. makes a very important clarification concerning the English non-equivalent vocabulary. He puts the following meaning into this concept: «this statement concerns the translation of English non-equivalent vocabulary into Russian». It should be understood that the phenomenon of equivalence exists within a certain language pair and is used in translation only in one direction. From this we can conclude that if a word is equivalent in one language, it does not mean that it will be so in another. Thus, Ivanov A.O. adds that it is impossible to associate non-equivalent vocabulary with something untranslatable. Only nontranslatable meanings at a similar level are untranslatable, but not the lexical units themselves.

Consequently, non-equivalent vocabulary at the same time refers to both language and culture, that is, it simultaneously reflects the features of a given language and the specifics of a given culture.

If you look at the dictionary of methodological terms, then the following definitions of non-equivalent vocabulary is given there: non-equivalent - (from Latinaequus equal + valens having power, meaning, price). Vocabulary - lexical units that do not have equivalent correspondences in the native language of students.

It should be noted that a characteristic feature of non-equivalent words is their untranslatability into other languages by means of constant correspondence, their inconsistency with some word of another language. But this does not mean that they are completely untranslatable.

Non-equivalent vocabulary simultaneously belongs to both language and culturethat is, it simultaneously reflects the features of this language and thespecifics of this culture.

The current stage of studying the problem of the relationship between language and culture indicates the presence of several directions due to the consideration of this problem, both philosophy and linguistics.

1.2 Classification of non-equivalent units

Scientists give different definitions of the term non-equivalent unit and interpret it differently, therefore, linguists include various lexical units in their classifications based on what they understand by this concept. Let's consider the classification of non-equivalent vocabulary proposed by BarkhudarovL.S. and Ivanov A.O.

So, Barkhudarov L.S.divides non-equivalent vocabulary into three large groups: proper names, realia and random lacunae. Consider each group:

1) Propernames

Proper names, including personal names, names of organizations, geographical objects, settlements, periodicals that do not have permanent correspondences in the vocabulary of the target language. For example, American surnames (Hanema, Thorne, Appleby, Guerin) or the names of some localities (Tarbox, Mather, Quogue) do not have corresponding equivalents in Russian, unlike well-known language correspondences such as John, George, Shakespeare or London, New York etc. Sometimes it is very difficult to draw a clear line between non-equivalent proper names and those that have constant correspondences in the translation language. In translation practice, there have been cases when words that have no equivalent and are considered non-equivalent were subsequently found in fiction or other types of publications, having received a match. Therefore, it can be concluded that only those proper names that are absolutely unknown to native speakers of the translating language can be attributed to the number of non-equivalent vocabulary [BarkhudarovL.S., 2010, P.92].

2) Realia

By realia, BarkhudarovL.S. understands words and phrases that denote objects, phenomena and situations that are characteristic only for the understanding and culture of people who speak the original language. These words usually include: components of society's life, for example the names of national dishes (toffee, haggis, muffin, butter-scotch, sundae, квас, щи), types of national clothing (сарафан, лапти, кокошник), words describing political phenomena and authorities characteristic of the country of the source language (дружинник, lobbyist, caucus), names of shopping and public establishments (парккультурыиотдыха, grill-room, drive-in), etc. As with proper names, it can be very difficult to distinguish between realia and so-called occasional translation correspondences or equivalents. Thus, some English concepts were borrowed into the Russian language: палатаобщин - House of Commons, лордхранительпечати-Lord Privy Seal etc. [Barkhudarov L.S., 2010, P.94].

3) Randomlacunae

As already noted earlier, Barkhudarov L.S. defined lacunarity as the absence of lexical correspondences in another language in the vocabulary of one language. For example, the meaning of the Russian word «сутки» can be translated into English in several ways: by specifying the number of hours (twenty-four hours) or by emphasizing the continuity of action (day and night) [Barkhudarov L.S., 2010, P.84].

In the end, Barkhudarov L.S. notes that we can use the term «non-equivalent vocabulary» only if there is no correspondence of the lexical unit of the source language in the translating language. As practice shows, any language can describe and express any concept and phenomenon, regardless of whether they have exact dictionary correspondences in the translating language or not.

Let's consider the classification of non-equivalent vocabulary proposed by Ivanov A.O. When describing the concept of non-equivalence, the author relied on a semiotic classification of meanings, including referential, pragmatic and intralinguistic relationships between signs, objects and structures. Non-quivalence can be considered only at the level of differences between referential and pragmatic meaning due to the fact that the intralinguistic meaning can in no way be related to this phenomenon.

So, Ivanov A.O.identifies three types of non-equivalent vocabulary: referential-non-equivalent, including terms, individual (author's) neologisms, semantic lacunae, words of broad semantics, complex words, pragmatically - non-equivalent, including various deviations from the linguistic norm, foreign language inclusions, abbreviations, words with suffixes of subjective evaluation, interjections, the phenomenon of onomatopoeia, associative lacunae and alternative non-equivalent vocabulary containing proper names, addresses, phraseological units and realia [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P.46].

First of all, let's consider the referential-non-equivalent vocabulary and its components. Often in translation practice there are cases of divergence of the referential meanings of lexical units of the source and translating languages, despite the fact that in most cases of translation the referential meaning of words is fully conveyed. Such discrepancies can be caused by several reasons: - the absence of a word in the translating language that would have the same referential meaning as the original word and an incomplete coincidence of the referential meanings of the lexical units of the original and the translating languages. Most often we encounter the absence of certain concepts in the translating language of 8 types of non-equivalent vocabulary as: terms, author's neologisms and semantic lacunae. Let's analyze each of these concepts [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P.87].

By terms are meant words or phrases that relate to a special language characteristic of a particular scientific, political, economic and other fields of activity and are created to denote special subjects and knowledge. Due to the gradual development of scientific and technical spheres, these phenomena, for the most part, have received full equivalents and correspondences in other languages. In this case, only terms reflecting the meaning of a new and incomprehensible language for the translator can be considered non-equivalent. The most significant advantages of the terms are their brevity and unambiguity. One of the leading methods of translation, in addition to calque and description, is borrowing. For example: radar - радар; overall - аврал (marine term). Due to the preservation of the main and main characteristics of the term, this translation method is prevailing [Ivanov A.O., 2006.P.88].

Under the author'sneologisms are understood words and expressions that are created by the author to describe a new concept, object or phenomenon. How does the group of author's neologisms differ from the general group? First of all, it is important to understand that these neologisms are created by one author of one special work and do not exist outside of it, moreover, they carry a certain semantic load in the work, affecting its artistic structure. Despite the fact that such neologisms are quite rare in nature, they cause particular difficulty for translators, since they are absolutely non-equivalent. An example is the words from L. Carroll's «Alice in Wonderland»: Humpty-Dumpty, jabberwocky [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P.96].

Semantic lacunae indicate the absence in the translating language of a similar lexical unit of the source language to denote a specific concept. At the same time, the level of expression of this unit in the source language may not correspond to the level in the translating language. Russian examples of this phenomenon are some English words that require a voluminous description to explain and reveal their meaning in Russian: bouncer - человекилиречькрупныхразмеров, barber - парнадводойвморозныйдень, and conversely, from Russian into English: ровесник, именины, сутки and etc. In addition, I would like to note that preferred way to translate such vocabulary is descriptive translation [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P.96].

Pragmatically-non-equivalent vocabulary. The phenomenon of divergence of the pragmatics of lexical units of the source and translating languages is more frequent than the phenomenon of divergence of their referential meanings. The largest class of this vocabulary is represented by deviations from the general linguistic norm. These include various types of dialectisms, vulgarisms, localisms, slangisms and jargonisms, which are a common language norm and do not have pragmatically adequate equivalents in the Russian language. For example: Big Apple - большойгород (most often New York), nixy - нет, etc. Also, this group includes free utterances (words, expressions) of oral speech. For example: in Russian, these are words like - свинтус, развлекуха, книженция, in English: buttinsky - человек, которыйвездевстревает [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P.110].

Foreign language inclusions are words or expressions that are foreign to the translating language and are transmitted using graphic and phonetic means of the original language, i.e. without any morphological and syntactic changes. Often the author introduces similar words into the text to give it color, atmosphere, a touch of comicality or irony. If a foreign language is used to convey the color of the country or the national and cultural identity of the speaker, then in the translating language, it will be displayed in its original form. For example: «Nein», he roared down the phone to his colleague - «Nein» - громовымголосомвопилонвтелефоннуютрубку. It should be added that in order to fully understand the foreign language inclusions in the text, the translator uses all kinds of footnotes [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P.121].

Abbreviations are «a reduced reflection of the original lexical unit» and are associated with various fields of special scientific, technical, economic, military vocabulary. Recently, they have become more and more often used in everyday colloquial speech and penetrate into the language of television, radio and fiction. In most cases, these words do not have their own conceptual meaning and have an additional pragmatic meaning. This means that they additionally belong to a certain functional style or register of speech. The difficulty of conveying the meaning of abbreviations lies in translating the pragmatic meaning, and not the concept itself, which is behind this or that abbreviation. The following words can serve as an example: vet (veteran) - ветеран, specs (spectacles) - очки, gents (gentlemen) - господа, etc. It should be added that abbreviations should be translated only by receiving compensation [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P.123].

The phenomenon of onomatopoeia is based on the conditional imitation of sounds of living and inanimate nature. Such words are non-equivalent and are translated descriptively. For example: clop - стуккопыт, plonk - звукшлепка [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P.126].

Associative lacunae are words or phrases that evoke clear associations in the minds of native speakers of a particular language associated with the peculiarities of national-cultural linguistic realia and thinking. Russians perceive черемуху or сирень as a symbol of spring, березу as a symbol and reflection of Russian nature, and cranes evoke associations with autumn and the approach of winter, but the English words bird-cherry, birch-tree or cranes will not cause any associations [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P.127].

Let's consider an alternative non-equivalent vocabulary. This group may include vocabulary, whichdepending on which way the translator has chosen to convey the meaning, may be referentially non-equivalent, or pragmatically non-equivalent. Here we can include proper names, realia, phraseological units and addresses. The group of proper names includes names, surnames, patronymics, nicknames of people, names of companies, organizations, firms, machines, equipment, geographical objects and points, magazines, newspapers, films, books, etc. For example: James 1 translates as Яков 1, not Джеймс1, Dordogne - translates asДордонь, not Дордонг, the title of the book «The Hiding of Black Bill» should be translated «КакскрывалсяЧерныйБилл», and «The Enchanted Profile» as «Волшебныйпрофиль» [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P.147].

Along with proper names, «addresses» are non-equivalent. Basically, all proper names in the function and the role of the address have equivalents in the translating language. However, there are exceptions, including, for example, the title of the husband's position used when addressing his wife. So, Mrs. Professor Johnsontitl г-жаДжонсон, Mrs. Colonel Smith - г-жаСмит. Conversational and informal appeals are also non-equivalent. They are translated by more common appeals, or completely omitted [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P.149].

Realia are words or phrases denoting objects of cultural heritage, everyday life, social and historical development of a particular people. Due to the fact that these words are a reflection of the national and spiritual flavor of a particular country, they do not have exact equivalents in the translating language. Forexample: coroner - следователь по делам, связанным с насильственной смертью, fatcats - спонсоры президентской кампании, приглашенные на обед с кандидатом в президенты [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P.152].

Phraseological units are stable combinations of words peculiar to the language, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the words included in them, taken separately. This well-built, harmonious system of words loses its true meaning when one or another lexical unit is lost. It is logical to consider the fact that phraseological units of the source language are transmitted by similar phraseological units of the translating language. However, there are often cases when the original phraseological expression does not have an exact or approximate equivalent, and sometimes it does not exist at all. In such cases, the translator must resort to the search for descriptive non-phraseological means in order to correctly convey the meaning. For example: A bolt out of the blue - какгромсредиясногонеба (is the full equivalent); don't count your chickens before they are hatched - цыплятпоосенисчитают (is the partial equivalent) [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P.166].

A certain part of the non-equivalent vocabulary of the English language can be classified as «temporarily non-equivalent terms». Temporarily equivalent terms are words that are close in nature to real words. The lack of equivalence of vocabulary of this type is due to the uneven distribution of achievements of science and technology in the social sphere, as a result of which the innovation present in the practical experience of the speakers of AI for some time may be practically unknown to representatives of another linguistic and cultural community. It isknown that banking, insurance, tax and many other aspects of economic activity developed mainly in the USA and other developed Western countries and for example:terms such as investment, marketing, merchandising, underwriting, leasing or even the now popular manager for some time had no equivalent in Russian, i.e. remained temporarily unequivalent.

1.3 The reasons of using non-equivalent units

Of course, the language is a component of the culture of a certain people, therefore, the differences in languages are due to the differences in the cultures of these peoples. Therefore, the more distinctive the compared languages are, the fewer cultural contacts there have been in their history, the fewer points of contact they have. The non-matching elements include, first of all, objects denoted by non-equivalent vocabulary.

And connotations inherent in words in one language and absent or different in words of another language. From the point of view of Vereshchagin E.M. and V.G. Kostomarov, non-equivalent vocabulary is «words that cannot be semanticized with the help of translation (they do not have stable correspondences in other languages, do not have semantic correspondences in the content system peculiar to another language)», that is, «words whose content plan cannot be compared with by any foreign lexical concepts.» Therefore, the concept of «non-equivalent vocabulary» includes not only the absence of an equivalent, but also the reason for such absence - «the reflection of a specific material and spiritual culture by a word.» The absence of an exact and permanent lexical correspondence to any word does not mean that it is impossible to convey its meaning at least in context. Any word can be translated into another language at least descriptively.

The main problem is that the translator faces difficulties in transmitting the referential values expressed in the source text. Data mismatches of values inherent in the units of the source language and the translating language. In these cases, when the correspondence of one or another lexical unit of one language in the vocabulary of another language is completely absent, it is customary to talk about non-equivalent vocabulary. This term was introduced by Vereshchagin E.M. and V.G. Kostomarov.

As mentioned above, the lack of equivalence of the lexical unit of the source language can only be understood that it has no analogue in the lexical system of the translating language, that is, such a «ready-made» word or stable phrase that can be substituted for it in the context of a specific translation.

According to Ivanov A.O., the causes of non-equivalence usually include:

1) The absence of an object, a phenomenon in the life of the people of the translating language (material equivalence);

2) The absence of an identical concept in the translating language (lexico-semantic equivalence);

3) The difference of lexical and semantic characteristics (stylistic equivalence) [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P.54].

Latyshev L.K. believes that the first cause of lexical equivalence appears when the lexical unit of the source language designates a phenomenon that is quite familiar to its native speakers and has steadily entered the lexical system of the source language, but it is not known or very little known to native speakers of the translating language and therefore, naturally, is not reflected in their lexical system [Latyshev L.K., 2006, P.29]. As a rule, these are so-called realia - phenomena peculiar to the material and spiritual life of only a given people, but absent from others.

The second reason for lexical lack of equivalence, according to Latyshev, is a slightly different vision of the world by different cultural and ethnic communities. This is expressed, in particular, in the fact that the translating language does not always fix in the concepts and meanings of its lexical units what is already fixed in the source language. What for the latter has already become a fact delimited by certain signs, for the former it is not yet such and its allocation occurs as necessarywith the help of «sporadic» speech means. It would seem that the simplest English word tea forms a huge variety of phrases for which, due to the difference in national traditions, it is quite difficult to find convenient equivalents in Russian. For example: high tea, afternoon tea, meat tea are usually translated in a descriptive way: «плотныйужинсчаем», although there are significant differences between these three English phrases reflecting social preferences.

Also, Latyshev, in his handbook on translation technology, notes that the reasons for the lack of equivalence, and as a consequence, the causes of translation transformations are significant discrepancies in the communicative competencies of native speakers of the source and native speakers of the translating languages in certain components and the need to «smooth out» them in order to achieve the equivalence of the regulatory impact of the outgoing and translating texts. The author explains that transformations are not always necessary. It is often possible to translate «word for word», i.e. literally, and this, of course, should be used [Latyshev L.K., 2006, P.38].

When we turn to reasoning about equivalence, it can no longer satisfy us, unlike the equivalent. Linking the lack of equivalence of the compared units of the texts of the source and translating languages with the discrepancies of meanings between them, we must clearly realize that in this case the meaning cannot be considered as a single whole, since not all its elements are equivalent in importance from the point of view of the translating language and the functions of the text generated in the process of translation.

Since translation is carried out not at the level of language, but at the level of speech, the traditionally distinguished lexical and grammatical meanings are not quite convenient for describing equivalence. Semiotic classification of values is more convenient for this purpose. Its basis, as is known, is the relation of the sign to something lying outside of it. According to the semiotic classification of A.O. Ivanov, all the meanings that we deal with in any utterance in any language are divided into three types:

1) Referential, expressing the relationship between a sign and its referent when it comes to relation to a concept, or denotative when it comes to relation to an object.

2) Pragmatic, expressing the relationship between a sign and a person or a language collective using it (connotative, emotive).

3) Intra-linguistic, expressing the relationship between this sign and other signs or elements of the structure of the same sign system, in our case, language [Ivanov A.O., 2006, P. 83-85].

Since it is precisely the difference in the values of the corresponding units of the source and translating languages that constitutes the essence of equivalence and at the same time its cause, it is possible to ignore the discrepancies in the intra-linguistic values of the units of the source and translating languages and consider equivalence as a discrepancy in the referential or pragmatic meaning of simple language signs.

Having studied the causes of lexical non-equivalence, it is advisable to proceed to the classification of non-equivalent vocabulary.

Conclusion onthe first chapter

The uniqueness of any human language is largelydetermined by its non-equivalent vocabulary, by the units of which we understand such words that do not have a one-word correspondence in the translation language, and therefore can be transmitted in another language only through description.

Usually non-equivalent vocabulary is the most difficult when translating a literary work into a foreign language. After all, this vocabulary has no analogues in other languages, but at the same time the translator's task is to convey its meaning to the reader, preserving, if possible, the national flavor.

By non-equivalent vocabulary we mean words that serve to express concepts that are absent in another culture and in another language, words related to particular cultural elements, i.e. to cultural elements characteristic only of culture, but also absent in culture, as well as words that do not have a translation into another language, one in a word, they have no equivalents outside of the language to which they belong.

Non-equivalent vocabulary simultaneously belongs to both language and culture, that is, it simultaneously reflects the features of a given language and the specifics of a given culture.

One of the distinctive properties of non-equivalent words is their inconsistency of words in another language, which makes it impossible to translate them into other languages through consistent correspondence. However, this does not mean that they cannot be translated at all.

Ivanov A.O. divides all non-equivalent vocabulary into three large groups: referential-non-equivalent, which includes terms, author's neologisms, semantic lacunae; pragmatically-non-equivalent, combining deviations from the general linguistic norm, foreign language inclusions, abbreviations, interjections, onomatopoeia; and alternatively-non-equivalent vocabulary, which includes proper names, addresses, realia and phraseological unit.

So, Barkhudarov L.S.divides non-equivalent vocabulary into three large groups: proper names, realia and random lacunae.

The reason for the lack of equivalence of words-realities is the absence in the practical experience of native speakers of the translation of objects or phenomena, and therefore, the concepts designated by these words.

One of the reasons for the lack of equivalence is the temporary lag of one of the languages in the development of a system of concepts in a particular area.

According to A.O. Ivanov, traditionally, the causes of non-equivalence, by which types of nonequivalence are also usually classified, include:

1. the absence of an object, a phenomenon in the life of the people of the translating language (material equivalence);

2. absence of an identical concept in the translating language (lexico-semantic equivalence);

3. difference of lexical and semantic characteristics (stylistic equivalence).



2. Analysis of translation of non-equivalent units on the basis of Rudyard Kipling's stories

2.1 About the author

A well-known writer, poet and author of short stories Rudyard Kipling. He is also the creator of the «Jungle Book», which made him famous all over the world. He received the first Nobel Prize winner from England.

«We be of one blood, thou and I…» - so said the most famous character created by the famous English writer KiplingRudyard. These are not just words for the author. The humanist writer firmly believed that everyone in the world should live in love and harmony. The plots of his works transport the reader into a harsh life with their powerful nature, often cruel to the weak, who must exert all their strength, physical and mental, to survive.

Kipling R. was born on December 30, 1865 in Bombay, India, where his parents had just emigrated from England. His father, John Lockwood Kipling, was appointed professor of architecture and sculpture at the local art school. Alice's mother, who later became a writer, came from the family of George Brown MacDonald, a Methodist minister. The MacDonald family became famous when their daughters married prominent figures of the Victorian era: Georgiana married the pre-Raphaelite artist Edward Burne-Jones, and Agnes married the artist Edward Poynter, who later became president of the Royal Academy of Arts.

Kipling R. was often called the chameleon man. That's how his fate turned out - on the verge between two worlds. He was white, but he was born in India, he was seen as the hope of the family, but the boy grew up an abandoned child, he was a storyteller who glorified British imperialism.

Kipling R. spent his early and very happy years in India, having managed to fall in love with this country forever, but according to the then existing tradition, he was sent to England for education and training.

In October 1882, Kipling R. returned to India and worked as a journalist for seven years, first at the Civil and Military Newspaper in Lahore, then at the larger Pioneernewspaper published in Allahabad. Along with reporting, he wrote short stories andpoems, published several books that brought him recognition from readers.

In 1886, Kipling's R. first book, «Departmental Ditties and Other Verses», was published in Allahabad. This was followed by a collection of short stories, «Plain Stories from the Hills», published in Calcutta in 1888. Each story is accompanied by a poetic epigraph, a technique that became Kipling'sR. calling card and with which he traveled throughout his life.

Kipling R. began writing for children. The stories he wrote for his eldest daughter Josephine were collected into the famous short stories «The Jungle Book» in 1894 and «The Second Jungle Book» in 1895. These short stories brought him national and international recognition and fame. The book is written in India, where a family of wolves in a tangled jungle is raising a «male child» named Mowgli. The boy has two loyal friends: Baloo the bear and Bagheera the panther, who teach him the «Law of the jungle», and a terrible enemy, Sherkhan the tiger, who threatens Mowgli and his loved ones. Although some of the stories in the collection have nothing to do with the main plot (the most famous is «Riki-Tikki-Tavi»), readers felt that it was somewhat similar to the story of Mowgli. Kipling R. started receiving letters from young fans from all over the world, and he was happy to respond. Interestingly, it was the author's father, John Lockwood Kipling, who drew the first illustrations for the book «Jungle Book». During the four years he spent in Vermont, Kipling R. created the novel «CaptainsCourageous'' (1896) and published a collection of poems «The Seven Seas» (1896).

The writer traveled around the country and visited South Africa, where he became friends with Cecil Rhodes, a South African politician, an active figure of the British colonial expansion. Kipling R. shared the views of Rhodes, fully supported the expansionist policy of Britain. More and more political and propaganda works appear in his work, including the famous poem «The White Man's Burden». At the same time, Kipling R. created the novel «Kim», 1901, a book about aperson's openness to the world and people. «Kim» is considered one of Kipling's R. bestnovels, and some critics call this book one of the best novels of the twentieth century.

In 1899, during a visit to the United States, the writer and his eldest daughterfell ill with pneumonia. Kipling R. recovered, but Josephine died, which was a heavy blow for him. In memory of his daughter, he began working on a new children's book, which was published in 1902 under the title «Just So Stories».

Kipling Joseph Rudyard purchased a country property in Sussex county in 1902, where he resided until the end of his days. This was the year he discovered his true home in England. Here, he creates «Puck of Pook's Hill» in 1906 and «Rewards and Fairies» in 1910, two works that combine Old English fairy stories through the narration of the elf Puck who appears in Shakespeare's plays. The second of these publications included one of Kipling's R. most well-known poems, «If,» which was written in 1895 and is regarded as the most eloquent illustration of Victorian stoicism. In a 1995 BBC study, «If…» was identified as the most well-known English poetry.

A heavy blow for Kipling R. was the death of his son John in the First World War, in 1915. Some consolation later came from working for the War Graves Commission which was responsible for the preservation of British war graves around the world. Kipling R. continued his literary activity until the early 1930s, although with less enthusiasm and less success.

Shortly after becoming seventy years old, on January 18, 1936, KiplingRudyard passed away in London from a perforated ulcer. He is interred in Westminster Abbey's Poets' Corner beside Thomas Hardy and Charles Dickens. His East Sussex home is currently a museum.



2.2 Analysis of translations of non-equivalent units in the novel «Kim»

The novel «Kim» by Kipling Rudyard tells about the orphan son of an Irish soldier who served in the Indian troops. From an early age, Kim has to literally survive and look for food every day, because over time he merges with the contrasting society in which he is constantly. Kim becomes, as it is pleasant to say here, «a child of the bazaar.» After all, the bazaar in this Asian country, as well as in others, is a kind of concentration of public life. Kim is a Hindu boy, originally belonging to a low caste according to the class hierarchy, nevertheless, having an innate talent both externally and internally to undergo spiritual transformation. This boy, as a result, is a multi-faceted ambiguous Indian life. Kim has a unique talent for understanding and endearing people around her. One day he falls into the field of the keen eye of British intelligence, after which he remains in its ranks for the rest of his life. Surprisingly, Kipling R. did not manage to write a political novel at all. The political background was blocked by the writer's incredible love for the amazingly colorful life of India.

The book «Kim» was received firmly, but ambiguously. It is often considered a masterpiece of Kipling's R. fiction for its wealth of descriptions. However, its genre is difficult to determine with accuracy: it has elements of children's literature, but at the same time it goes beyond the usual scope of this field. It can best be described as a coming-of-age story in which the storyline is driven by issues of personal and cultural identity, as well as events occurring during the narrative.

The background of the narrative is the colonialism of British India at the end of the XIX century, with an emphasis on the geopolitical tensions arising between the European powers in Central Asia (a situation called the «Big Game» in Kim). Most of the criticisms of «Kim» are related to his portrayal of colonialism.

«Kim» carries the limitations of an outside view of Indian culture despite being significantly more sympathetic to the indigenous population than most works of colonial literature from the same era (even frequently portraying white Europeans as ignorant in contrast to the wisdom, hospitality, and intelligence of Indians).

The protagonist of «Kim» is young Kimball O'Hara, an orphan who was raised in British India at the close of the nineteenth century as the soldier-soldier's orphan son from an Irish regiment. The young man, known only as Kim, has blended in withhis surroundings so completely that no one realizes he is white. He glides fluidly across the intricate cultural landscape of Lahore, where the novel opens, and his personality is marked by intelligence, surprise, and a yearning for a wide range of life experiences.

The narrative has a number of major themes. The novel's central theme, imperialism, runs through the entire book. Kipling's R. expertly created portrayal of unity and uniformity between the «natives» and «Sahibs» classes, with the unavoidable conclusion that the British are the ruling class and the Indians are the governed. According to Kipling R., colonial rule over India was unquestionably beneficial.

Original text written by Kipling R.	Translated by Repina A.P.	Translated by Klyagina-Kondratyeva M.I.
Zam-Zammah	Зам-Зам	Зам-Заммах

«Zam-Zammah» is the name of a cannon standing on one of the central streets of the city of Lahore. This example is replete with cultural realia. They are part of the referential-equivalent vocabulary. When transmitting cultural realia, there are several ways of translation. but both translators used transcription or transliteration. RepinaA.P.uses transcription, Klyagina-Kondratyeva M.I. uses the transliteration method when translating.

Original text written by Kipling R.	Translated by Repina A.P.	Translated by Klyagina-Kondratyeva M.I.
Ajaib-Gher	Аджайб-Гера	Аджаиб-Гхара



Here we are faced with a geographical realia - Ajaib-Gher, as the Lahore museum was called. This geographical name is translated into Russian using only transliteration and transcription. The translator Repina A.P. translated this word by transliteration, and Klyagina-Kondratyeva M.I.with the help of transcription.

Original text written by Kipling R.	Translated by Repina A.P.	Translated by Klyagina-KondratyevaM.I.
Lahore	Лагор	Лахор

Lahore is the city where the whole plot in the novel «Kim» unfolds. These are geographical realiathat are translated by transliteration and transliteration Repina A.P. uses the transcription method, Klyagina-Kondratyeva M.I. translated this realiausing the transliteration method.

Original text written by Kipling R.	Translated by Repina A.P.	Translated byKlyagina-Kondratyeva M.I.
Punjab	Пенджаб	Пенджаб

Punjab is a state in India bordering Pakistan. This non-equivalent vocabulary can be attributed to alternative non-equivalent words. Repina A.P.and Klyagina-Kondratyeva M.I. used the same transcription method, resulting in the same translation adapted for the Russian reader.

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