Berehove and its surroundings during the Khrushchev era (1953-1964)

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Berehove and its surroundings during the Khrushchev era (1953-1964)

Natalia Varadi

PhD

Lecturer, Department of History and Social Sciences

Ferenc Rakoczi II Transcarpathian Hungarian College of Higher Education

Histories of cities, towns, villages are an essential part of understanding the history of a country, a historical era. Knowledge of the local history is important for understanding the historical past of the local population, for developing and preserving its sense of identity.

The exact date of the foundation of Beregszasz is a subject of debate among local historians, yet the town, what lies on the banks of the Verke Canal for over 900 years, has experienced many upheavals, glorious and tragic moments in its past. The history of the town is very rich in various important historical events.

During the Soviet period (1945-1991) as well as being part of independent Ukraine, Berehove played an extremely important role in the political and cultural history of the local population.

After the death of Generalissimo Stalin on March 5, 1953, it became clear that the socialist camp, which had previously been considered inseparable, was far from unified. Nikita Khrushchev became the winner in the struggle for power of the three triumvirates, after which the signs of political weakening became more and more noticeable. The consequences of his policy were felt in Berehove as well.

The period from 1953 to 1964, the historical era of the `Khrushchev Thaw', can be considered a positive decade in the history of the Soviet Union, as well as of the town, in terms of improving living standards and weakening the dictatorship. This period was characterized by a reduction in political repression and censorship besides partial liberalization of political life. Khrushchev allowed some freedom in culture and media, opened up cross-border trade and economic reforms, educational development also was obvious.

Berehove is located 72 kilometers from Uzhhorod, the centre of the Transcarpathian region of Ukraine, and only 6 kilometers from the border with Hungary, i.e., the European Union. Many have been interested in the town, its past has been researched by several historians, however, a comprehensive town monograph covering the entire history of the town, its political, economic and cultural life, has not been completed to date. The present study does not undertake this either, it only represents the town's life and history during the Khrushchev era, mainly based on the articles published in the contemporary Berehove district paper, i.e., the «Red Flag» (Hungarian title: «Voros Zaszlo»).

Keywords: history of Berehove, Beregszasz, Berehove politics, economy, culture, society.

Наталія ВАРОДІ кандидат історичних наук доцент кафедри історії та суспільних дисциплін Закарпатського угорського інституту ім. Ференца Ракоці ІІ

БЕРЕГОВЕ ТА ЙОГО ОКОЛИЦІ ЗА ХРУЩОВА (1953-1964)

Вказано, що назву «Берегсас» згадано в офіційних документах від 1504 р., а точна дата заснування міста з багатовічною історією - предмет суперечки серед місцевих краєзнавців: Ласло Зубанич (Laszlo Zubanics) датує її 1061 р. або 1063 р., а Дьордь Чанаді (Gyorgy Csanady) - 1096 р. Отже, встановлено, що місту, яке розкинулося на березі каналу Верке, вже понад 900 років, і воно пережило багато потрясінь, славних та трагічних моментів. Зазначено, що історія його дуже багата на різні важливі події, а в радянський період (1945-1991), як і у складі незалежної України, Берегове відіграло надзвичайно важливу роль у політичній та культурній історії місцевого населення.

Вказано, що після смерті генералісимуса Сталіна (Иосиф Сталин) 5 березня 1953 р. стало очевидно, що соціалістичний табір, який раніше вважався нероздільним, усе-таки був далеко не єдиним. Відзначено, що Микита Хрущов (Никита Хрущов) переміг у змаганні за владу трьох тріумвіратів, після чого ознаки політичного послаблення ставали все помітнішими, а наслідки його політики були відчутні і в Береговому. Констатовано, що період із 1953 р. по 1964 р., епоху хрущовської відлиги, можна вважати позитивним десятиліттям в історії Радянського Союзу з погляду підвищення рівня життя й ослаблення диктатури, він характеризувався зменшенням політичних репресій та частковою лібералізацією політичного життя.

Відомо, що Берегове розміщене за 72 км від Ужгорода - адміністративого центру Закарпатської обл. України і лише за 6 км від кордону з Угорщиною, тобто Європейським Союзом. Відзначено, що багато хто цікавився містом, його минуле досліджували декілька істориків, однак ґрунтовної монографії, яка б охоплювала всю історію, його політичне, економічне та культурне життя, до сьогодні не створено. Відтак у дослідженні це також не поставлено за мету, а лише віддзеркалено життя й історію міста за часів М. Хрущова, переважно на основі статей, опублікованих у сучасній берегівській районній газеті «Червоний прапор» («Voros Zaszlo»).

Ключові слова: історія Берегового, Берегсас, політика щодо Берегового, економіка, культура, суспільство.

The name Beregszasz had been used in official documents from 1504 История городов и сел Украинской ССР: в 26-ти т. Закарпатская область / ред. кол. и предис. Н. Семенюк. Киев, 1982. Ol. 121.. The exact date of the founding of this town with a long history is disputed among local historians, Laszlo Zubanics dates it to either 1061 or 1063 Zubanics L. Beregszaszi kalauz. Beregszasz, 2001. Ol. 6., while Gyorgy Csanadi dates it to 1096 Csanadi Gy. Sorsfordito evek sodrasaban. Uzhgorod: PoliPrint, 2004. Ol. 10.. Whichever we accept, this town on the bank of the Verke Channel is more than 900 years old and experienced many adversities, glorious and tragic moments in its past, and has played an extremely important role in the political and cultural history of the local Hungarian population.

The origin of the town can be traced back to the time of the Hungarian conquest Dobos S. Beregszasza a magyar nyelvu tortenetirasban. Mercurius Veridicus Novus. A II. Rakoczi Ferenc Karpataljai Magyar Foiskola Tortenelem- es Tarsadalomtudomanyi Tanszekenek tanulmany- gyujtemenye / szerk. S. Dobos, N. I. Szamborovszkyne. Beregszasz; Ungvar: Grafika Kiado, 2015. Ol. 75-76., and its history is very rich in important historical events. In the 13^th century, it was a free royal town, later the seat of Bereg County, the home of the Roman and Greek Catholic church, as well as the very early Reformed church, since the first Reformed council was held here in 1552 Lehoczky T. Adalekok Beregszasz tortenetehez. Ungvar: Clio, 1999. Ol. 76-79; Lehoczky T. Bereg- varmegye monografiaja. K. III. Ungvar: Nyomtatott Pollacsek Miksa konyvnyomdajaban, 1881. Ol. 138-141.. The town was often ravaged by various foreign peoples, but it was also the place where Tamas Esze unfurled the flag of the War of Independence led by Ferenc Rakoczi II on May 22, 1703 Csatary Gy. Beregszasz a Rakoczi-szabadsagharc idejen. Pro Patria tanulmanyok / szerk. E. Mecsei. Nyiregyhaza: Szabolcs-Szatmar-Bereg M. Lvt, 2004. Ol. 29-40.. Prince Rakoczi himself visited the town several times, for example on December 20, 1705, he issued his proclamation encouraging the uprising here Sebestyen Z. Beregszasz utcanevei. Nevtani ertesito. 2001. № 23. Ol. 23-29. Csatary Gy. Leveltari Kalaszatok (tanulmanyok, szovegkozlemenyek). Ungvar; Budapest: Intermix Kiado, 1993. Ol. 117-130.. The inhabitants of Beregszasz also joined the events of the War of Independence in 1848-18498. After the First World War, Transcarpathia, and thus the town as well, suffered from several changes of political power and ceased to be the county seat. During the Czech period (1919-1938), later the Soviet period (1945-1991) and now in independent Ukraine, Berehove was the centre of the political and cultural life of the local Hungarian minority. Its area is 19 km². According to the latest all-Ukrainian census conducted in 2001, Berehove is the only Hungarian-majority town in Ukraine. It has a total population of 26 554, 12 785 of which are of Hungarian nationality Molnar J., Molnar D. I. Karpatalja nepessege es magyarsaga a nepszamlalasi es nepmozgalmi adatok tukreben. Ungvar: PoliPrint, 2005. Ol. 30..

On October 26, 1944, the 138^th Rifle Division of the Soviet Army invaded the town under the command of Colonel Vasilyev V. In honor of this and the soldiers who died in Transcarpathia in World War II, an obelisk was erected in the centre of the town, in the Heroes' Square Park (now Kossuth square) in June 1945 История городов и сел Украинской... Ol. 128.. On January 26, 1946, by decree of the Presidency of the Supreme Soviet of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, a new Soviet-Ukrainian administrative unit, the Transcarpathian Region, i.e., Zakarpatska Oblast, was artificially formed from the former Ung, Bereg, Ugocha, and Maramures counties. After Transcarpathia was annexed to the USSR, Beregszasz became a district seat named Berehove, or, as the sources state, the administrative centre of the area Dobos S. Beregszasz tortenete a helyi historiografiaban. II. Rakoczi Ferenc Karpataljai Magyar Fo- iskola Lehoczky Tivadar Intezetenek tanulmanygyujtemenye / szerk. A. Bocskor, S. Dobos. Ungvar: PoliPrint, 2012. Ol. 27-42..

The most significant administrative reorganizations took place between 1944 and 1969. According to the new administrative division, Transcarpathia consisted of15 administrative units, 2 towns with regional subordination, Uzhhorod and Mukachevo, and 13 districts Brenzovics L. Karpatalja tortenetenek korszakai es gazdasagi-tarsadalmi helyzete a XX szazadban. Karpatalja. A Karpat-medence regioi 11 / szerk. B. Baranyi. Pecs; Budapest: Dialog Campus Kiado, 2009. Ol. 75-107.. In 1946, in addition to Uzhhorod and Mukachevo, 3 more settlements, Berehove, Khust and Vynohradiv, received town status.

After the death of Stalin, the Generalissimo, on March 5, 1953, it became clear that the socialist camp, which had previously been considered united, was not so united after all. Nikita Khrushchev emerged victorious from the competition for the power of the three triumvirates (1953-1964), after which the signs of political easing became more and more noticeable.

On March 27, 1953, and then from May 1955, those sentenced to up to 5 years in prison were released in terms of a large amnesty program, as well as women caring for children under the age of ten, men over the age of 55, and women over the age of 50, while the duration of longer sentences was halved. Unfortunately, however, this measure did not apply to political convicts, several of whom were convicted of «counter-revolutionary activity». In Transcarpathia, this is exactly what innocent people were accused of in a significant part of the political conceptual lawsuits that resulted in 10 to 20 years or even longer sentences Csanadi Gy. Sorsfordito evek... Ol. 213..

In July 1953, the Plenary Session of the Central Committee of the CPSU excluded L. Beria, Stalin's bloodthirsty Minister of the Interior, from his ranks proclaiming him «guilty of anti-party and anti-state activities». At the meetings of the Transcarpathian leadership, the officials condemned Beria and urged swift, ruthless action against him and his comrades, that is, the imposition of the death penalty State Archive of Transcarpathian Oblast (hereinafter - SATO). F. 1. Op. 1. Delo Nr. 2237. Ol. 1-162.. Beria was accused of «treason, espionage for the West and trying to destroy the Party» SATO. F. 1. Op. 1. Delo Nr. 2118. Ol. 6-10.. On the orders of the leadership, meetings were held in all collectives in Berehove as well, the participants of which also condemned the traitors and encouraged vigilance and more efficient work Ibid. Delo Nr. 2237. Ol. 20-22..

In September 1953, N. Khrushchev reported on the situation of agriculture at the meeting of the Central Committee of the CPSU. For the first time, an attempt was made to portray the poor situation of the sector in a relatively realistic way, as Khrushchev put it: «The quality of agricultural production does not fully meet the population's food demand, and the raw material needs of the light and food industries do not meet the technical equipment of agriculture and the potential of the kolkhoz system... The situation is particularly unfavorable in the development of animal husbandry.» Voros Zaszlo. 1953. 17 szeptember. Ol. 1..

In September 1953, Hungarian secondary schools were opened in three settlements of the Berehove district - Variievo (Vary), V. Beregi (Velyki Berehy) and Kosino (Koson') - and a year later in Berehove as well, i.e., in the 1954/55 school year, two eighth grades with 76 students were established and in 1957 Hungarian children could graduate in their native language for the first time. Although in the Soviet system education was declared free for all citizens, students in these institutions had to pay tuition fees Orosz I. Ket evtized tavlatabol II. Rakoczi Ferenc Karpataljai Magyar Foiskola. Ungvar: PoliPrint, 2012. Ol. 7.. It was not until June 6, 1956, that the Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR «On the Abolition of Tuition Fees for Higher Education Institutions, Secondary Schools and Vocational High Schools of the Soviet Union» was issued. Сборник приказов и инструкций министерства просвещения РСФСР. 1956. № 27. Ol. 3.

The first Hungarian one-page literary section in the district newspaper, Voros Zaszlo (Red Flag) appeared in August 1953. It was the Literary Column with poems by Roza Bakos, Gyorgy Lesko, Sandor Bihari, Rozalia Lengyel and a short story by Tihamer Ivan entitled «True American» Voros Zaszlo. 1954. 30 augusztus. Ol. 3.. Poems, sketch stories, short stories, etc. by Hungarian poets and writers later appeared regularly in the paper.

From January 1954, the press was full of celebrations of the 300^th anniversary of the unification of Ukraine and Russia Ibid. 1954. 10 januar. Ol. 1., it was also one of the main agenda items of the district and regional party meetings SATO. F. 1. Op. 1. Delo Nr. 2140. Ol. 1-104.. A government committee headed by A. Kirichenko (the first secretary of the UCP Central Committee between June 1953 and December 1957) was formed to organize and conduct the celebration, to whom every moment of the preparations in the countryside was reported Ibid. Delo Nr. 2457. Ol. 15, 23.. The 300^th anniversary was finally celebrated in May 1954, after lengthy, detailed preparations Ibid. Delo Nr. 2513. Ol. 1-44.. In Berehove, a parade was held on this occasion on May 22-23, and a district song and dance festival were held in the Voroshilov Square (now Rakoczi Ferenc Square) Voros Zaszlo. 1954. 23 majus. Ol. 4.. During the organization, the leaders of factories, collective farms, and plants were obliged to find socialist competitors in the Russian Federation or other Soviet republics. They then sent each other their commitments, exchanging delegations at regular intervals to study the achievements of the competitors, to learn good practices, to apply useful experience in production SATO. F. 1. Op. 5. Delo Nr. 2457. Ol. 1-32.. The delegations visiting each other were to be welcomed with great splendor and the previously made commitments were to be overfulfilled in honor of the visit. This is how the Berehove Clothing Factory came into contact with the staff of the Red Seamstress Clothing Factory No. 16 in Moscow, and the local tannery with the staff of the Leningrad Kommintern Tannery. There was a lot of formalism in this top-down

socialist competition, the factories of the competitors could make little use of the experience of other factories because the production conditions and opportunities in the region were different from those of the competitors. The Moscow Red Seamstress Clothing Factory, for example, produced predominantly lingerie, while Berehove produced women's and men's outerwear. The factories used different technologies, machines, equipment, materials Csanadi Gy. Sorsfordito evek... Ol. 216..

On March 14, 1954, elections to the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union were held SATO. F. P-195. Op. 19. Delo Nr. 51. Ol. 1-261.. The people of Berehove were able to vote for the electric saw operator of the Svaliava Wood Industry Farm, Fedor Canyko, for the Federal Council, and for Ivan Turianycia for the Nationality Council, with the usual «uniformity» that had already become the norm. The latter was replaced a year later by Olga Ivashchenko, the secretary of the UCP Central Committee, whom the people of Berehove did not know at all and had never seen Voros Zaszlo. 1954. 7 februar. Ol. 1..

There were amateur bands and a free university in the district in the 1950's. Clubs and libraries were established in each village, along with 22 permanent and 4 traveling cinemas, which sometimes screened Hungarian films Csanadi Gy. Sorsfordito evek... Ol. 217..

In the autumn of 1954, the Hungarian theater group of the District Culture House presented A. Simukov's «Retired Captain» directed by Anna Nadas - a comedy in which the life, work, and love of the common Soviet people were portrayed. Its protagonist, Sergei Uskov guard captain, was played by Otto Schober. Miklos Racz, Miklos Major, Gyula Till, Erzsebet Turoczi, Eva Somogyi also played a role in the play, and their productions impressed the audience and journalists Voros Zaszlo. 1954. 2 szeptember. Ol. 4.. A few months later, Tipot's operetta «With You» was staged by the expanded team. They later entertained theater lovers with many unforgettable plays Irodalomtortenet. A Magyar Irodalomtorteneti Tarsasag folyoirata /szerk.: Barta J., et al. 1960. № 49. Ol. 363. Історія літератури. Журнал Угорського Літературного Історичного Товариства / Ред.: Барта Й. та ін..

Hungarian literary life unfolded more and more, one of the most prominent representatives of which was Vilmos Kovacs. On December 26, 1954, the district newspaper published his first poem, «Autumn Picture» Voros Zaszlo. 1954. 26 december. Ol. 3.. In the following years, Vilmos Kovacs published his poems in the district newspaper more and more often.

In April each year, the government issued a decree to lower the prices of food and state industrial retail goods. In 1954, for example, the prices of wheat bread, macaroni dropped by 5 %, coffee dropped by 15 %, summer clothes by 15 %, rubber footwear by 12 %, construction materials dropped by 10-30 %, medicine by 15 % Ibid. 1 aprilis. Ol. 1., on average. Price cuts were likely to divert attention from the poor performance of agriculture, the light, and the food industries. In reality, however, there was little food, and very often long lines for bread, meat, and dairy products as well.

In 1954, the big party grain campaign, i.e., the corn program, began SATO. F. P-179. Op. 1. Od. zb. 2776. Ol. 1-116.. Its success and profitability were reported regularly and in every possible way. In 1954, the virgin soil farming program began too. It covered the Transcarpathian organizations of the Komsomol, i.e., the Communist Youth League. The relevant resolution of the Plenary of the Central Committee of the CPSU was titled: «On the further growth of grain cultivation in the country, as well as on the farming of virgin lands and fallow lands». As emphasized in the resolution, the further development of all sectors of agriculture and meeting the growing needs of the population and the economy as a whole depended entirely on the success of the development ofthe grain farming economy Voros Zaszlo. 1954. 1 aprilis. Ol. 1.. According to the data of April 17, 1957, for example, 4 727 young Transcarpathian Komsomol members worked outside Transcarpathia SATO. F. 1. Op. 1. Delo Nr. 3029. Ol. 4.. The expected successes fell short again SATO. F. P-1545. Op. 1. Ed. hr. 93. Ol. 28.. At the machine-operating training school in Berehove, the young people were trained for six months to handle tractors and various tractor-drawn machines. After a successful machine operator exam, they were sent to cultivate the wastelands of Kazakhstan, Siberia, and the Urals to «create an abundance of food and raw materials for their homeland» Voros Zaszlo. 1954. 11 aprilis. Ol. 1.. Most of the graduates ofthe Berehove Vocational School of Agricultural Mechanization were sent off to Kazakhstan Voros Zaszlo. 1958. 14 majus. Ol. 2.. Applicants who «volunteered» for the long journey were solemnly said goodbye. Ceremonious articles were published in the press about the benefits of the program and the enthusiasm of the young people.

Most of the young people could only come home after many years, as well as those who also traveled to work in the mines of Donbas after «submitting voluntary applica- tions». Articles with titles like «To Donbas with a Komsomol passport» appeared in the local press. They stressed that «coal is the bread of industry» and that «the miner family is a strong bond, a cohesive force» Voros Zaszlo. 1955. 22 majus. Ol. 1. and never failed to stress that there is a lot of competition among applicants and that dozens of applications are submitted by young people in order to start working in the coal mines as soon as possible Ibid. 5 junius. Ol. 1..

On July 1, 1954, the resolution of the Plenary of the Central Committee of the CPSU «On the results of spring sowing, care after sowing, preparation for the harvest and ensuring the fulfillment of the 1954 stocking plan of agricultural products» was published in the Voros Zaszlo. It stressed that although the volume of stocks of agricultural products had increased, they still did not adequately meet the needs of the state, which became greater due to the regular reduction of food prices. The Ministry of Inventory, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Food, and «Tsentrosoiuz» were blamed for insufficiently managing the inventory and purchase of agricultural products. The decision-makers envisioned that «... the current year will be included in the history of the Soviet villages as a year of great work on the cultivation of virgin and fallow lands.». It was further emphasized that the task set by the «. party and the government in cultivating the virgin and fallow lands was greeted with support by the workers of the kolkhozes, MTSs (machine and tractor stations) and sovkhozes, as well as the urban population, and became a common cause for everyone. At the call of the party and the government, more than 140,000 people had already arrived at the MTSs and sovkhozes to cultivate the virgin and fallow lands and were actively involved in the work.. ,» Voros Zaszlo. 1954. 1 julius. Ol. 1..

In January 1955, at the Plenary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Khrushchev himself reported on the situation in animal husbandry, and then a decision was made to boost animal husbandry, significantly expand feed manufacturing, mechanization, construction of animal husbandry premises, and so on. The Plenary considered it necessary that «the plan be based on the task of producing a determined number of livestock products per 100 hectares of agricultural land». It was stated that «great mistakes have been made in the practice of centralized supply». It was suggested that in agriculture, instead of centralized management, there should be more scope for local initiatives for development Ibid. 6 februar. Ol. 1.. Although it was very well seen that progress was stalled due to strong centralization and it was verbally acknowledged, in practice no steps were taken to improve the situation.

On February 27, 1955, elections to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR were held, as well as to local councils that were referred to as Soviets SATO. F. 1. Op. 1. Delo Nr. 2679. Ol. 1-105.. Of the 60 representatives of the district council, 22 were of Hungarian nationality Voros Zaszlo. 1955. 6 marcius. Ol. 2.. In the town council, 20 of the 59 representatives were Hungarians Ibid. Ol. 3..

In March 1955, the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a decree «On the financial incentive of collective farm members for the yield of additional crops grown from intermediate sowings». At the suggestion of the Socialist Agricultural Research Institute of Ukraine, it was requested that beans, soybeans, and squash be sown between the rows of corn sowings using the so-called square-nest method. It has also been proposed to increase the area of potatoes sown together with beans. In order to encourage the financial interests of the members of the collective farms, additional wages were introduced from 1955 «up to half the yield of the intermediate crops in the case of legumes and up to one-third of the yield of the intermediate crops in the case of squash, vegetables, and other crops» Ibid. 27 marcius. Ol. 1..

As for backyard farms, they remained in a vulnerable position. In August 1955, for example, the domestic slaughter of animals was banned within a 6-kilometer radius of slaughterhouses. Raw hides and skins of cattle and pigs had to be supplied to the state. It was forbidden to scorch or boil the pigs. Violators of the decree were fined up to 100 rubles or sentenced to up to a month of forced labour, and their slaughtered animals were confiscated Csanadi Gy. Sorsfordito evek... Ol. 220..

In the 1950^s and 1960^s, the Soviet leadership covered Transcarpathia with orchards and vineyards. The Ukrainian Communist Party sent a number of draft resolutions to the regional executive committee to increase the area of orchards and vineyards, although many collective farm and district leaders, including the Berehove leadership, responded in letters that the plans were unrealistic and not feasible SATO. F. P-179. Op. 1. Od. zb. 2801. Ol. 26..

In October 1955, for example, the presidency of the UCP Central Committee passed a resolution «On measures for the further development of viticulture in the kolkhozes and sovkhozes of the area». Based on this, the Regional Party Committee and the Executive Committee of the Regional Soviet of Workers' Representatives issued a decree stating that «between 1956 and 1961, 1 200 hectares of new vineyards should be planted in the Berehove district. At the same time, the missing vines on sparse plantations in both collective farms and sovkhozes must be replaced within two years. Thus, at least 2 million 530 thousand vines must be replaced» Voros Zaszlo. 1955. 2 oktober. Ol. 3.. The implementation of the task was again unrealistic, mainly due to the lack of the necessary conditions and tools, so the regulation improved almost nothing in the situation of viticulture.

In November 1955, as part of an exhibition in the small hall of the district culture house, art enthusiasts could admire the works of several young painters - Janos Varga's paintings «Deep in the Forest», «Ranch in Bakta», «Borzhava Suspension Bridge», as well as pastels «Monument to the Heroes», «Kvasovovo Street», «Summer in Verkhovina», «Mountain Lake» by Eleonora Haba. In addition, the paintings «Forest Road» by Pal Joanovics and «Old Tree» by Jozsef Garanyi and the works of some other artists were exhibited. However, they were criticized by many because these works were mainly portraits, still lifes and landscapes and lacked «depictions of the daily lives of people, the creators of our happy present, the builders of communism, the work in collective farms, vineyards and constructions, ... liberation from the yoke of capitalism, the struggle for the unification with Soviet Ukraine . .» Ibid. 13 november. Ol. 2..

In November 1955, «The 10^th anniversary of the reunification of Transcarpathia with Soviet Ukraine» was celebrated with great luxury SATO. F. 1. Op. 1. Delo Nr. 2649. Ol. 92..

On February 14-25, 1956 the 20^th Congress of the Central Committee of the CPSU was held. The meeting took place behind closed doors, and representatives of foreign communist and workers' parties were not invited Ibid. Delo Nr. 2809. Ol. 1-15.. However, the Great Kremlin Palace was attended by industrial and agricultural leaders from all parts of the powerful Soviet state, state and party functionaries, scientists, representatives of the Soviet Army and Fleet, and individuals close to the party who worked in arts and literature Voros Zaszlo. 1956. 16 februar. Ol. 1.. A notice on the closing session was issued. According to this, the guidelines for the Development of the National Economy of the USSR from 1956 to 1960, i.e., the sixth five-year plan, the report of the Chairman of the Vote Counting Committee on the results of the election of the party's central bodies were unanimously approved. In addition, N. Khrushchev, on behalf of the Bureau, submitted a resolution on the preparation of the party's new program, which was unanimously accepted by Congress Ibid. 1956. 26 februar. Ol. 3.. The press was silent for a long time about Khrushchev speaking at the Party Congress against the cult of Stalin's personality. Only a few months later, on June 30, 1956, the resolution of the CPSU Central Committee «On overcoming the cult of personality and its consequences» was issued SATO. F. 1. Op. 1. Delo Nr. 2810. Ol. 5-9.. From the end of February 1956, a series of processions, reports, meetings and speeches related to the 20^th Congress of the CPSU took place in all districts, including Berehove Ibid. Delo Nr. 2875. Ol. 1-53.. It was also the subject of the Plenary Session of the Berehove District Committee of the UCP held on March 20, 1956 Voros Zaszlo. 1956. 22 marcius. Ol. 3..

According to the decree of the Presidency of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR issued on March 8, 1956, in order to alleviate the financial situation of the workers, the authorities reduced working hours to six hours on the days before the public holidays and weekends, effective from April 1956. The regulation did not apply to those who worked six or fewer hours a day. In plants operating without interruption, or in industries where it was impossible to introduce reduced working hours due to production conditions, an additional day off was provided in exchange for four eight-hour working days worked before days off and public holidays. In the case of time wage, the pay for a full working day was given. In the case of per piece wages, the wages were calculated in accordance with the work performed Ibid. 1956. 11 marcius. Ol. 1.. On March 15, 1956, the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR issued a resolution: «On the statutes of the agricultural artels and on the further development of the initiatives of the members of the collective farm in the organization of collective farm production and management of collective farm affairs» Ibid. 15 marcius. Ol. 1.. The resolution emphasized the need to regulate the allocation of backyard plots: «... collective farm families that have collective farm members capable of work who do not work in the collective farms or are insufficiently involved in the work of the collective farm community should have smaller backyard units than families who work in kolkhozes conscientiously». Ibid. Ol. 1. The resolution covered the keeping of livestock in private property, the distribution of income, issues of kolkhoz life, raising the standard of political and organizational work regarding kolkhoz matters, and so on.

The resolution provided for «monthly advances to collective farm members and monthly extra wages in collective farms», expecting an increase in the interest among collective farm members SATO. F. P-179. Op. 1. Od. zb. 4381. Ol. 13..

On May 1, 1956, in Berehove, the ceremonial meeting was held in the Voroshilov Square, where the statue of Stalin was still standing, but it was no longer wreathed. The speakers were: Kohutych - Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Town Council, Bubryak - Secretary of the Berehove District Party Committee, Shchadey - Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Berehove District Council, etc. Voros Zaszlo. 1956. 4 majus. Ol. 2..

On May 11, 1956, the Council of Ministers of the USSR submitted a bill on state pensions to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. According to the draft, a state pension could be established tax-free in the case of old age, disability, or loss of a provider. Men could retire after at least 25 years of service from the age of 60, and women could retire from the age of 55 after 20 years of service. The minimum monthly old-age pension was set at 300 rubles and the maximum at 1 200 rubles Ibid. 1956. 11 majus. Ol. 1.. In addition, invalidity pensions had also been established. The bill was accepted and entered into force on 1 October 1956.

On September 8, 1956, the resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, the Central Committee of the CPSU, and the Central Trade Union Council of the USSR «On the increase of wages of low-paid workers and employees» was issued, which came into force on January 1, 1957. According to this, workers and employees employed directly in industrial plants, construction, transport, and telecommunication plants had to be paid at least 300-350 rubles a month. Other workers were paid at least 300 rubles in towns and workers' settlements and at least 270 rubles in the villages. In addition, the student income tax and taxes for unmarried, single citizens and small families were abolished for those who received 370 rubles a month in wages or scholarships Ibid. 12 szeptember. Ol. 1..

In 1956, subscriptions for Hungarian newspapers and magazines were available in Transcarpathia, so people could follow the events taking place in Budapest. Nevertheless, the outbreak of the revolution was quite unexpected for the locals. In Berehove, at the end of October, the radio was switched on all day long. People observed the events with tension. The mood was depressed. The sound of the old-style «Moskvych» and «ARZ» radios was crackling, the «Free Europe», «Voice of America» and BBC news programs were being disturbed, but from the fragments of news, it was possible to suspect that a revolution had broken out in Budapest Interview with Gyorgy Csanadi, who from 1951 was the translator and column editor of the Red Flag Beregszasz district newspaper, and from 1957 he was the editor-in-chief of the paper. The interview was conducted by the author on July 7, 2002..

During the 1956 revolution, reports on the events in Hungary - published in the Soviet central and Transcarpathian press or told on the radio - focused mainly on the executions of Hungarian communists, the assassination of Soviet soldiers, and the occupation of the party and state institutions.

The district newspaper published its first article on the revolution on October 31, 1956, entitled «The Failure of the Anti-People Adventure in Hungary», which was taken over from the October 28 issue of «Pravda» Voros Zaszlo. 1956. 31 oktober. Ol. 4.. It covered the events and their motivations on an entire page. On November 2, the Declaration of the Government of the USSR of October 30, entitled «On the Basis for the Development and Further Consolidation of Friendship and Cooperation between the Soviet Union and the Other Socialist States», was published. It announced that «at the request of the Hungarian People's Government the Soviet Government allowed Soviet military units to march on Budapest to help the Hungarian People's Army and the Hungarian authorities restore order» Ibid. 1956. 2 november. Ol. 1..

On October 23, everything was quiet in Berehove, but the next day large military units arrived in the town and the tanks and trucks marched through the Khmelnytskyi, (Bochkay) Street, through Luzhanka (Astey) village, towards the Hungarian border. It was obvious that the Soviet army was preparing for the armed suppression of the Hungarian revolution. When the Hungarian radio announced that the Soviet troops will be withdrawn from Hungary, the residents of Berehove had doubts about this, as the flood of tanks heading to Hungary did not decrease for a moment, and no tank passed through the town in the opposite direction at the time Interview with Gyorgy Csanadi. 7.07.2002..

To strengthen the educational work among the population of the Berehove district, 6 «lecturers» were directed from the regional center to the district, who gave lectures to the people. These, as well as members of the district party committee, gave 26 lectures and 72 reports in the Berehove district in late October and early November. In addition, about 100 lectures were read by village «lecturers» as well. On November 4, talks were held with the population in all settlements of the district, in order to explain the program announced by the Revolutionary Workers-Peasant Government of Hungary to the population SATO. F. 15. Op. 15. Ed. hr. 13. Ol. 82..

According to current facts, Transcarpathia played a significant role during the revolution. Among other things, it served as a parade ground for Soviet tanks. In Uzhhorod, a political headquarters was established, which maintained contact between Budapest and Moscow and received the deportees of the 56' Revolution - more than a thousand people, according to my current research - to the local prison Sectoral State Archive of the Security Service of Ukraine. F. 1. Op. 1. Delo Nr. 1-22..

On January 18, 1957, the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR published a voluminous call that occupied an entire issue of the local newspaper: «To all agricultural workers, workers of MTSs and sovkhozes, the party, professional and Komsomol organizations, the Soviet and agricultural authorities, professionals and all agricultural workers». In this, the success that the country's workers achieved «enthusiastic about the resolutions of the XX party congress, together with the leadership». However, failures were also reported, the cause of which was seen in the incompetence of leading cadres. «Not only has the situation not improved in some collective farms, but it has even worsened. This was due to the fact that not everywhere were the leaders selected conscientiously and that many collective farms were offered weak, uninitiated people, and sometimes people who simply did not want to honestly perform the great and honorable task entrusted to them» Voros Zaszlo. 1957. 18 januar. 13 evf. Ol. 1-4..

This was typical of Berehove and the Berehove district as well. The lack of professionals was a common phenomenon throughout the Khrushchev period. According to the resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU of March 25, 1955, to strengthen the leaders of the collective farms, 30 000 volunteers were sent from various cities of Ukraine to manage the underdeveloped collective farms. This movement became known as the «Thirty Thousand». Of these, 506 people SATO. F. 1. Op. 1. Delo Nr. 2639. Ol. 127. arrived at the collective farms of Transcarpathia to help them catch up, 78 of whom became collective farm leaders or deputy collective farm leaders Нариси історії Закарпатської обласної партійної організації / редкол.: Ю. Ільницький (голова) та ін. Ужгород: Карпати, 1980. Ol. 189.. However, a significant proportion of the new kolkhoz presidents were unable to solve local problems. Foreign «leaders» from distant lands, who carried out the orders they received from higher agricultural bodies without thinking, did not understand the real worries, insights, and problems of the people or the economy. In the Berehove district, which was mostly inhabited by Hungarians, the situation was aggravated by the fact that the majority of the leaders did not speak the Hungarian language at all.

The aforementioned call pointed out «the successes in increasing the production of animal products and milk in particular, and the great work done to expand maize sowing» and therefore predicted an increase in maize production. «Corn can grow in every district, provided it is surrounded with love and attention», - stated the call Voros Zaszlo. 1957. 18 januar. Ol. 3.. The area under corn also referred to as the «queen of the fields» increased significantly. However, there were not enough machines, fertilizers, weed killers, etc. to cultivate it, so the long-awaited success was not achieved. Although numerous exaggerative articles were published, entitled: «We introduce the proposals of the kolkhoz members extensively into kolkhoz production» or «The kolkhozists decided so» Ibid. 23 januar. Ol. 3. which suggested that after the call, kolkhoz leaders took into account the opinions of kolkhoz members during production, though not much had changed in reality.

On the day of the election of the local councils on March 3, 1957, the people of Berehove delegated 33 Hungarian representatives to the district council and nearly forty to the town council Ibid. 8 marcius. Ol. 2.. For the first time, more than half of the representatives of the local councils in the district were Hungarian Csanadi Gy. Sorsfordito evek... Ol. 231..

Due to Sovietization, the private sector in Transcarpathia was completely abolished by 1950. In addition to crop supply and collective farming, part of the workers' wages was seized as state loans, which people gave to the industrial development of the country to fulfill the five-year plan, to serve the reconstruction and development of the national economy «voluntarily», mostly in cash SATO. F. P-1. Op. 1. Od. zb. 12. Ol. 62.. However, the government bond caused serious financial problems for the workers every year, so Khrushchev's announcement was issued in the district newspaper on April 10, 1957, which stated that «From 1958 onwards, government bonds must be abolished, the payment of government loan prizes should be stopped and the deadline for repayment of government loans must be extended. The unity with which workers and employees supported this proposal signals the expression of the interests of the Soviet people» Voros Zaszlo. 1957. 12 aprilis. Ol. 2..

The World Youth Meeting was held in Berehove on April 28, 1957. In advance, local youth meetings were held everywhere. Art enthusiast groups from the town and villages gathered to show off their talents Ibid. 1957. 28 aprilis. Ol. 3..

On May 31, 1956, a new task was issued: «In the coming years, we will catch up with the United States in per capita meat, milk, and butter production». While in 1957 the production of 332 centners of milk per 100 hectares of land was expected, by 1960 the production of 381 centners of milk was planned Ibid. 31 majus. Ol. 1.. A few days later, as of June 5, 1957, a new campaign was launched with the slogan «for 400 and for 100» to produce 400 centners of milk and 100 centners of meat for every 100 hectares nationwide Ibid. 1957. 5 junius. Ol. 2.. To date, no document has revealed how and who calculated that these were the numbers needed for success. These two numbers then appeared regularly in the newspapers. However, instead of the target of 400 centners of milk and 100 centners of meat per 100 hectares the farms of the Berehove district, for example, produced only 182 centners ofmilk and 30 centners of meat in 1957 Csanadi G. Sorsfordito evek... Ol. 234..

At the end of May, those interested could view the largest-ever exhibition of the town's painters, i.e., 130 works by seven painters, mainly etudes and sketches Voros Zaszlo. 1957. 29 majus. Ol. 4..

In 1957, the town already had good public catering, i.e., a restaurant, 9 canteens, 14 snack bars, 5 buffets, 5 school buffets, self-service canteens Voros Zaszlo. 1956. 24 oktober. Ol. 3.. A confectionery was also opened on May 19, 1957, where a variety of delicious cakes, chocolate, ice cream, skim milk, cocoa, tea, coffee, butter, milk, sour cream, syrups, and mineral water were served. The pottery store had a self-service department, so customers could examine the goods for a long time without holding up the salesperson, who could thus pay more attention to serving customers interested in electric appliances and other goods. In addition, the turnover of bookstores increased Voros Zaszlo. 1957. 7 junius. Ol. 4.. The diet canteen opened in May 1958 was a great sensation in the town. In canteen No 8, under the supervision of specialists, 10-15 different dietary dishes recommended by doctors were prepared daily, with the help of chef Chehyl. Here, customers also had the opportunity to seek the advice of a specialist about their diets Voros Zaszlo. 1958. 5 junius. Ol. 3..

There were a central and 16 savings bank agencies in the district and more and more people placed their money in the Berehove district savings bank Ibid. 21 marcius. Ol. 3..

From the summer of 1958, local film fans could watch widescreen films at the Pushkin Film Theater Ibid. 13 augusztus. Ol. 2..

In December 1957, the 40^th anniversary of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was celebrated at the District Culture House Voros Zaszlo. 1957. 25 december. Ol. 1..

On February 12, 1958, the Central Committee of the CPSU issued an invitation to participate in the next election to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on March 16, 1958, to fulfill their civic duties and vote for the candidates of the bloc of communists and non- partisans Voros Zaszlo. 1958. 12 februar. Ol. 1-3.. The candidate from the Berehove district was Fedor Tsan'ko, who was successfully registered by the District Election Committee. Then a great exhortation campaign was launched so that on March 16, 1958, everyone would vote as one person for the candidate of the Communist and Non-Partisan Bloc - Fedor Semionovich Tsanko Ibid. 28 februar. Ol. 1..

On February 14, 1958, in accordance with the resolution of the Transcarpathian Territorial Executive Committee, as well as the District Executive Committee, a notice was issued that in 1958 families could relocate to the Crimean kolkhozes and sovkhozes that possessed an abundance of land, or to the virgin lands of Kazakhstan Voros Zaszlo. 1958. 14 februar. Ol. 4.. As the families were not motivated to relocate SATO. F. P-1545. Op. 1. Ed. hr. 87. Ol. 31., they were offered a number of encouraging advantages Ibid. Ol. 32., such as: free travel, property transfer, housing, financial aid, jobs, wonderful beach and excellent climate, sanatoriums, food loan, exemption from agricultural taxes, etc. for as many families as possible to move. These were provided in terms of the «relocation ticket» Ibid. Ol. 36-37.*. However, no one moved voluntarily. Despite the difficulties of relocation, the authorities did not give up the plan and even increased the number of families to be relocated.

On February 26, 1958, by decree of the Presidency of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, Transcarpathia was awarded the Order of Lenin SATO. F. 1. Op. 1. Delo Nr. 3213. Ol. 1-15.. On 27 February 1958, the district newspaper, and then on 28 February, the regional newspapers reported that 10 regions of the Ukrainian SSR, including Transcarpathia, had been awarded the Lenin Order for their achievements in increasing the production and stockpiling of agricultural products. Crowded rallies were held in several settlements to thank the Communist Party for the high government award Voros Zaszlo. 1958. 5 marcius. Ol. 2..

The Plenary Session of the Central Committee of the CPSU held on February 25-26, 1958, passed a resolution «On the further development of the kolkhoz system and the reorganization of the machine and tractor stations» Ibid. Ol. 1.. The essence of this was that since the kolkhozes had become a large, solid economy, were well-equipped technically, had a skilled workforce, a significant income, etc., MTSs were unnecessary in the economic organization of the kolkhozes. Thus, the machine and tractor stations were liquidated, and their machines and technical equipment were offered for purchase to the kolkhozes. This put an end to the unsustainable situation where tractors and machinery were owned by MTSs and machine operators carried out contract jobs in the collective farms. The operators of the MTSs were not sufficiently interested in increasing the yield Ibid. 7 marcius. Ol. 2..

As a result of the reorganization of the MTSs, the relationship of agriculture with industry expanded, and the material and technical base of the collective farms was consolidated. It was possible for the collective farms to make better use of the machines, to specialize in production, and to reduce the cost of agricultural products. The MTSs were transformed into repair and technical stations, which supplied the collective farms with new machinery, spare parts, and agrochemicals and helped them to repair the machinery.