Teaching English

.Informal Communication includes instances of free unrestrained communication between people who share a casual relationship with each other. Informal communication occurs between friends and family. Informal communication does not have any rigid rules and guidelines.

5.2 Communicative competence

Language teaching is based on the idea that the goal of language acquisition is communicative competence: the ability to use the language correctly and appropriately to accomplish communication goals.

Communicative competence is made up of four competence areas: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic.

Linguistic competence is knowing how to use the grammar, syntax, and vocabulary of a language. Linguistic competence asks: What words do I use? How do I put them into phrases and sentences?

Sociolinguistic competence is knowing how to use and respond to language appropriately, given the setting, the topic, and the relationships among the people communicating. Sociolinguistic competence asks: Which words and phrases fit this setting and this topic? How can I express a specific attitude (courtesy, authority, friendliness, respect) when I need to? How do I know what attitude another person is expressing?

Discourse competence is knowing how to interpret the larger context and how to construct longer stretches of language so that the parts make up a coherent whole. Discourse competence asks: How are words, phrases and sentences put together to create conversations, speeches, email messages, newspaper articles?

Strategic competence is knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns, how to work around gaps in one's knowledge of the language, and how to learn more about the language. Strategic competence asks: How do I know when I've misunderstood or when someone has misunderstood me? What do I say then? How can I express my ideas if I don't know the name of something or the right verb form to use?

Questions and topics for discussion

1. What is communication? Distinguish between different types of communication.

2. Illustrate with examples four competence areas: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, strategic.

3. “Not all oral exercises mean speaking”. Comment upon this statement.

4. Analyze any lesson and show how the teacher can develop students' communicative competence.

Lecture 6. Teaching pronunciation

Objectives: SWBAT describe pronunciation problems; explain how to teach pronunciation using tasks and exercises for developing pronunciation habits.

6.1 The importance of correct pronunciation

Work on pronunciation is important for two main reasons: to help the students understand the spoken English they hear, and to help them make their own speech more comprehensible and meaningful to others. Whenever possible pronunciation work should be integrated into the lessons and held throughout the whole period of language teaching and learning. In our schools students study English literary pronunciation which constitutes received (общепринятый) pronunciation. This is the language of radio, TV, theatres, Universities, schools. Literary pronunciation is characterized by: clear stress in all the rhythmic groups, clear pronunciation of the sounds, typical abbreviations in auxiliary words ( can't, doesn't).

6.2 Pronunciation problems

The teacher faces the following problems in teaching pronunciation to the students:

-discrimination- the students must be taught to hear differences between phonemes which are not distinguished or used in their native language, between falling and rising tones.

-articulation- students must be taught to learn to make proper lip and tongue movements to produce English sounds. Very often the students' first language interferes with articulation. For example, p is aspirated in English, but not in Russian.

-intonation- students should be taught to make right stresses, pauses and use appropriate patterns.

-integration- students should learn to connect the sounds, for example in the, months.

-automacity- students should learn to produce correct sounds without thinking.

6.3 Content of teaching pronunciation

The content of teaching pronunciation includes: teaching sounds, stress, intonation.

Sounds

There are 44 English phonemes. Sounds differ depending on how they are formed in the mouth, throat and nose and whether they are “voiced” or “voiceless”. All vowels are voiced; some consonants are voiced and some are voiceless. The most common sound in English is / /- the “schwa” or “weak” sound. There are short and long vowels, diphthongs.

In spoken sentences or utterances some sounds change as words are said at normal speed and linked together to make connected speech:

-the “weak” forms of words are used: was becomes / w z/, not /w z/; of becomes / v/, not/ v/.

-some sounds are often not pronounced, for example the or in comfortable ,the d in handkerchief; the t at the end of first in first thing. This is known as elision.

-when the missing letters are replaced by apostrophes they are known as contractions: for example, I'm, could've.

-in order to make linking of words easier sometimes another sound is inserted. For example, a banana / / and two / / apples and three / / oranges. These are called intrusive sounds.

-sometimes when words are linked one sound is changed into another sound. For example, Great Britain sounds like Grapebritain. This process is known as assimilation.

Stress

In words of two or more syllables, one syllable is stressed more than other(s). This is the primary stress. In utterances the stress is usually on the “content” words or those tha carry information( nouns and main verbs). For example, Throw the ball to Ben. However, sometimes the speaker can choose to stress “non-content” words as in the utterance: Throw it to him, not at him.

Intonation

Intonation is a pattern of rise and fall in the level( pitch) of the voice, which often adds meaning to what is being said. Rising tone is used in asking yes/no questions, expressing surprise, disbelief, etc. Falling tone is used in normal statements, commands and “wh” questions. Thee are two main techniques of showing intonation in class: by drawing arrows on the board, by arm and hand movement.

6.4 Main steps in teaching pronunciation

The first step in teaching pronunciation is to help students recognize the importance of pronunciation. The next step is to give the students the opportunity of hearing the language pronounced correctly. It can be done with the help of recordings and of course the important model for pronunciation is the teacher. It is important to use natural speech in the classroom (contracted forms, weak forms).

When providing a model it is sometimes useful to contrast certain features of sounds, stress, intonation. To contrast sounds the teacher uses minimal pairs- pairs of words which differ in only one sound,, for example: hat-heart; ship-sheep. To indicate individual sounds the teacher uses:

-exaggerated movements of the lips, teeth and tongue so that students can see what is happening;

-gestures( put a hand on a throat to show that the sound is voiced);

-fingers- a word can be broken down into sounds and each segment is associated with one of the fingers. The teacher points to the appropriate finger and says the sound;

-visuals-a diagram of the mouth can be put on the board and used whenever a problem with the sound occurs;

-phonetic symbols- transcription will help students to check their pronunciation with the help of dictionaries.

To indicate stress the teacher uses:

-gestures- moving the hand like a conductor on the stressed syllable;

-underlying the stressed syllable, for example hotel;

-using stress marks-ho tel.

To indicate intonation the teacher uses gestures, marks on the board, arrows.

6.5 Tasks and exercises for developing pronunciation habits

Exercises for developing pronunciation habits may be of two groups: recognition exercises and reproduction exercises.

Recognition exercises are designed for developing students' ability to discriminate sounds and sound sequences. Students should have enough practice in listening to be able to acquire the phonic aspect of the language. The following techniques may be recommended to teach students to discriminate sounds, stress and intonation:

-the teacher pronounces a number of English words and asks his students to recognize the new sound. For example, the new sound is / /. The teacher pronounces the words: desk, nest, pen, pan, red, rat. When a student hears a new sound he raises his hand and in this way the teacher sees whether the student can recognize the new sound among other sounds already learnt or not.

-the teacher pronounces the sentence They left for London yesterday and asks the students to say which words are stressed.

-the teacher pronounces English phrases with a rising or falling tone and asks students to raise their hands when they hear the falling tone.

Reproduction exercises are designed for developing students' ability to articulate English sounds correctly, to combine sounds into words, phrases and sentences easily enough to be able to speak English and to read aloud in this language.

Very often the teacher begins the lesson with pronunciation drill. The material used for pronunciation drill should be connected with the lesson students study. These may be sounds, words, word combinations, phrases, sentences, rhymes, poems, dialogs, proverbs. International words, proper names, geographical names, etc can also be used for pronunciation drill. But learning by heart the material included in the pronunciation drill is not the main aim of the teacher. The main aim-is students' correct pronunciation. If tape-recording is used, the material should be recorded so that students can first listen to the speaker, then repeat in imitation of the speaker during the pauses. The material for a particular lesson depends on the stage of teaching, students' progress in the language, their age the objectives of the lesson and other factors.

6.6 Correction of pronunciation mistakes

teaching languages english pronunciation

No matter how pronunciation is taught students will make mistakes in pronunciation of sounds, stress, intonation. In the junior stage it is the teacher who corrects students' mistakes, because students' ability to hear is not developed yet, besides, they need good examples to follow. The teacher explains the mistake to the students and shows what should be done to avoid it. At the intermediate and senior stages errors may be corrected both by the teacher and the students themselves. The main ways of correcting errors are:

-The teacher explains, paying attention to the proper position of the organs of speech for producing the sound;

-The teacher pronounces in the right way and the students imitate;

-The teacher demonstrates using hand and arm movements;

-Students listen to the tape-recordings and imitate the speaker.

Questions and topics for discussion

1. Why is teaching pronunciation important?

2. Describe the main pronunciation problems.

3. What does the content of teaching pronunciation include?

4. What are the main steps in teaching pronunciation?

5. What exercises can be used by teachers for developing pronunciation habits?

6. What are the main ways of correcting errors in pronunciation?

7. Examine one of the lessons in the standard textbook and show how students are taught correct pronunciation.

Lecture 7. Teaching vocabulary

Objectives: SWBAT explain the role of vocabulary in acquiring the foreign language; distinguish between active and passive vocabulary; examine the ways of presenting and consolidating vocabulary.

7.1 The role of vocabulary in acquiring the foreign language

Vocabulary is important for students. Without vocabulary it is difficult to hold a conversation, to understand a written text, to write something. Language learners need to learn as many words as possible. To know a word means:

-to understand the word when it is written or spoken;

-to recall it when you need it;

-to use it with the correct meaning;

-to use it in a grammatically correct way;

-to pronounce it correctly;

-to know which other words you can and cannot use with it;

-to spell it correctly;

-to use it in the right situation;

-to know if it has positive or negative connotations (an idea expressed by a word in addition to its main meaning), for example either skinny or slim could be used to describe someone who is thin.

7.2 Principles of vocabulary selection for active and passive vocabulary

Scientific principles of selecting vocabulary have been worked out. The words selected should be:

-frequently used in the language (the frequency of the word is determined mathematically by means of statistic data);

-easily combined ( nice room, nice girl, nice weather);

-unlimited from the point of view of style( oral, written);

-included in the topics syllabus sets;

-valuable from the point of view of word building (use, used, useful, useless, user, usage).

Selected words may be grouped into concrete, abstract and structural. The selection of the vocabulary is not the teacher's main concern. It is usually prescribed for him by textbooks and study-guides he uses. The teacher's concern is how to develop his students active and passive vocabulary.

Active vocabulary- words which students will need to understand and also use themselves. In teaching active vocabulary it is necessary to spend time giving examples, asking questions, so that students can really see how the word is used.

Passive vocabulary- words which teachers want students to understand when reading a text but which they will not need to use themselves. To save time it is often best to present it quickly with a simple example or translation or the students can guess the word from the context.

7.3 Ways of presenting vocabulary

There are two ways of presenting the meaning of words: direct way and translation.

Direct way brings the learner into direct contact with the word, the mother tongue doesn't come in between; it establishes links between a foreign word and the thing or concept directly. The direct way is usually used when the words denote things, objects, qualities, gestures, movements. The teacher may use:

-Real objects;

-Pictures, photos, wall charts, blackboard drawings;

-Mime and gestures: It is particularly useful for action verbs and some adverbs, for example brush teeth, ride a bicycle;

-Matching- learners match words or sentences or pictures;

-Definitions: for example, a blind person- a person who can't see;

-Giving examples: shirt, jeans, jacket are clothes;

-Synonyms and antonyms: the teacher uses words the students already know to teach them similar or opposite words, for example: The exercise is difficult. The exercise is complicated;

-Context building: This is probably the most useful technique, because it gets students to work out the meaning of words for themselves. Teachers should think of a clear context when the word is used; at least three example sentences should be given. For example: It was hot. We had nothing to drink. We were thirsty;

-Word building elements: prefixes or suffixes help learners build words or guess their meaning, for example, the students are familiar with the word dancer. By dropping the ending er they form a verb dance.

Translating: There are arguments for and against this technique. Its advantage is that it requires no preparation, and it can be done quickly. In contrast, it is sometimes too fast, and students forget the new word quickly. In addition, it encourages students to think that there is one to one equivalence between English and mother tongue. Consequently, translation should only be used for time saving.

The choice of the way of presenting the meaning of the word depends on the following factors:

-Psychological ( students' age, their intelligence)

-Pedagogical factors ( the stage of teaching-junior, intermediate, senior; the size of the class; the time; the qualifications of the teacher)

-Linguistic factors (whether the word is abstract or concrete).

No matter what way of presenting the meaning of the word is used the teacher must show its meaning, us, form and pronunciation.

For example, the new word is to chatter. To show its meaning the teacher uses the technique of definition: to chatter means to talk quickly for a long time about something unimportant.

To show its use the teacher gives an example sentence: Girls like to chatter on the phone.

To check for understanding the teacher asks questions based upon the parts of definition that might be confusing:

Does a person when he chatters speak about smth important? Does he speak for a long or for a short period of time?

To broaden understanding the teacher might ask such questions:

Do you like to chatter? What do people usually chatter about?

To show the form the teacher writes the word on the board.

To show pronunciation the teacher has the class repeat the word.

7.4 Exercises for vocabulary consolidation

To fix the words in their memory students must perform different exercises:

1. fill in the blanks-students fill in the blank with the necessary word;

2. matching- students match definitions to words, definitions to sentences, antonyms or synonyms to the word;

3. correcting mistakes- students read a paragraph in which the vocabulary is used incorrectly and correct the mistakes;

4. labeling a picture- students write a necessary word to complete the labels;

5. crossing out the word- students cross out the word that does not belong with the others in the group;

6. acting out/ miming the word-one person picks a word and acts it out. The others try to guess the word;

7. complete the sentences;

8. crossword puzzle- teacher creates a crossword puzzle in which the new words are used;

9. vocabulary games: chain story, Bingo, back to the board, find the differences, guessing, etc.

Some tips for memorizing vocabulary:

Read more! Vocabulary is better learnt from context

Relate the word to words you already know, Make up as many associations as possible.

Use mnemonics (tricks designed to help the memory).

Learn the words in categories.

Put the words and expressions on one topic in a “spidergram” to which the new words can be added.

Listen to songs and recordings.

Watch English language films with subtitles.

Keep a small box containing cards with the English word on one side and the translation on the other.

Stick up words around a mirror or on the wall above the desk in your room.

Get an English pen friend.

7.5 The use of modern technologies in teaching vocabulary

Technology can assist in vocabulary acquisition. Visual imagery helps in learning and retention of new words. There are several ways in which technology can support vocabulary development in students. Some of them are:

-On-line interactive vocabulary lessons with the features to engage students, provide feedback, individualize instruction. A teacher may download the necessary material beforehand, and have students work through it, helping out when needed.

-On-line dictionaries, thesauri, encyclopedias. Great effect may have dictionaries designed specifically for English language learners (The Longman Interactive English Dictionary, the Oxford Picture Dictionary Interactive).

-On- line texts for reading.

7.6 Techniques for testing vocabulary

To see how the students assimilate the form, meaning, use of words the teacher uses tests. For testing the acquisition of the written form dictations are used. For testing the meaning may be recommended: writing synonyms, antonyms, derivatives. For testing use the teacher has students make up sentences on a picture, write a letter, etc. All the exercises offered at the stages of presentation and consolidation can be applied for vocabulary testing.

Questions and topics for discussion

1. Why is teaching vocabulary important? What does it mean to know the word?

2. How are the words to be taught and learnt selected? What is the difference between active and passive vocabulary?

3. Speak on the main ways of presenting vocabulary.

4. What exercises for vocabulary consolidation does the teacher use? How do you learn new vocabulary?

5. What modern technologies are used for vocabulary assimilation?

6. To see how the students assimilate the form, meaning, use of words the teacher uses tests. Give examples of tests.

Lecture 8. Teaching grammar

Objectives: SWBAT examine aims, principles, ways of grammar teaching; distinguish between 3 stages in teaching grammar.

8.1 The importance of grammar for learning a foreign language. Aims of teaching grammar

Grammar has always been central to teaching a foreign language. It was even synonymous with teaching a foreign language. However for some time after the rise of communicative language teaching the status of grammar in the curriculum was rather uncertain. Some linguists stated that it was not necessary to teach grammar, that it would develop automatically. Nowadays it is widely accepted that grammar is an important resource in using language communicatively.

The aim of teaching grammar is to teach grammar forms and structures in relation to meaning and use for the specific communication tasks.

Without the knowledge of grammar learners can't understand the meaning of a sentence. For example without the knowledge of the “complex object” the learners can't understand the sentence: We saw him book a ticket. Without grammar learners are not able to understand a listening text, speak, read and write in the foreign language.

When focusing on a grammar structure the teacher considers the following:

1. form - part of speech; regular/ irregular; spelling; pronunciation; word order.

2. meaning - it is important to show the exact meaning and the function: for example, the past simple tense can be used to talk about the past: Last year I was in London and to ask a question politely: What was it you wanted?

3. use- how and when the structure is appropriately used; in what contexts, by which people, on which occasions? For example, compare Would you like to come to the cinema on Saturday? (an invitation) and Would you come with me?( an instruction).

For example, form is-must+ main verb; meaning is- obligation, necessity, duty; use is- It is your duty to do smth/you must do smth.

8.2 Communicative approach to the selection of grammar material. Principles of grammar teaching

There exist principles of selecting grammar material for teaching speaking knowledge (active grammar) and for teaching reading knowledge (passive grammar). The main principle of selecting grammar material is frequency (how often the grammar item occurs). The syllabus determines what to teach. The textbooks emphasize how to teach and present grammar patterns or structures.

The teacher should know some principles of grammar teaching:

Conscious approach- the teacher draws students' attention to some elements of the structure, so that students will be able to use them as the orienting points when speaking or writing. This is ensured through contrasting one grammar item with another, giving the example and a rule.

Practical approach- students learn those grammar items which they need for immediate use.

Structural approach- grammar items are introduced and drilled in structures or sentence patterns. It allows the students to use the same pattern for various situations.

Situational approach- different situations are selected for a particular grammar item.

Different approach to the teaching of active and passive grammar- if students need grammar for conversation they perform different oral exercises, read and write sentences. If grammar is for reading it is taught through reading.

8.3 Stages in teaching grammar

1. Presentation

Presentation is a stage at which students are introduced to the form, meaning and use of a new grammar item. The new grammar item may be presented either deductively (students are given grammar rules and examples and are told to memorize them.) or inductively (students induce grammar rules themselves). Presentation should be clear, reasonably brief, interesting, efficient and appropriate.

The main concern of the teacher is to build up appropriate situational and linguistic context for the new item.

Techniques and resources for presentation are: pictures, time lines, matching, writing on the board, story telling, role-play, charts, dialogs, texts, modeling, explanation, realia, songs, poems, games. Let's look at some examples:

The simplest and clearest way to present a structure is often to show it directly, using things the students can see: objects, the classroom, the teacher, the students themselves, pictures. The structure “ too…(adjective)…to…” can be presented in such a way :

T: (points to the ceiling): What's that?

Ss: the ceiling

T: (reaches up and tries to touch it): Look- I'm trying to touch it. Can I touch it?

Ss: No

T: No, I can't .Because it's too high. It's too high to touch. Too high. The ceiling's too high to touch (says this sentence again in the students' own language)

Having shown how the structure is used and what it means, the teacher shows how it is formed by writing the structure clearly on the board. He underlines the “fixed” part of the structure:

The ceiling's too high to touch.

If the teacher uses the picture to present the structure the following procedure may be suggested:

-Draw the pictures and give the example;

-Give a model and ask the class to repeat;

-Ask individual students to repeat the sentence;

-Write the sentence on the board;

-Explain how the structure is formed;

-Ask the class to copy the sentence;

-Give other situations and examples.

2. Practice

At the practice stage students apply the new grammar item to new situations that illustrate its form and meaning. It should take place in controlled but interesting conditions that include aspects of real communication. The teacher uses mechanical, meaningful and communicative drills.

Mechanical drills: They focus on the form of the new item by getting students to repeat or manipulate the form. They do not require students to learn anything, they only require parroting of a pattern or rule. For example:

Running- He is running. George waited for the bus this morning- He will wait for the bus tomorrow morning, too.

Meaningful drills: They require students to understand the prompts they hear. Each prompt has only one correct response, and students must attend to meaning to complete the exercise. For example:

Where are George's papers? They are in his notebook.

(Students must understand the meaning of the question in order to answer, but only one correct answer is possible because they all know where George's papers are.)

Some other exercises for mechanical and meaningful drills are: underlining the correct form, making statements on the picture, answering questions, substitution, matching, completion, making dialogs, telling the story, paraphrasing.

Communicative drills- they еncourage students to connect form, meaning and use. Students respond to a prop using the new grammar item, but providing their own content.

For example:

To practice questions and answers in the Past tense, teacher and students can ask and answer questions about activities the previous evening.

T- Did you go to the library last night?

S1- No, I didn't. I went to the movies.

S1- Did you read chapter 3?

S2- Yes, I read chapter 3, but I didn't understand it.

S3…………………………………….

3. Production

Students have the opportunity to use the new language in freer more creative ways, integrate the new language with old. The atmosphere in the classroom usually relaxed, students feel confident enough to try out the new language. The teacher is the monitor, adviser, encourager, consultant. Errors are corrected only if they interfere with comprehensibility. Typical activities are: games, role-plays, discourse chains, information and opinion gaps.

The advantages of using games.

Games are not just time-filling activities but they have a great educational value. Most grammar games make learners use the language instead of thinking about learning the correct forms. There are many advantages of using games in grammar.

1. Games can lower anxiety, thus making the acquisition of input more likely;

2. Games are highly motivating and entertaining, and they can give shy students more opportunities to express their opinions and feelings;

3. They also enable learners to acquire new experience within the foreign language that are not always possible during a typical lesson;

4. Games add diversion to the regular classroom activities, break the ice and introduce the new ideas;

5. In the easy, relaxed atmosphere which is created by using games the students remember things faster and better;

6. Grammar games are a good way of practicing the language, for they provide a model of what learners will use the language for in real life in future;

7.Grammar games encourage, entertain, teach, and promote fluency.

Choosing appropriate games

There are many factors to consider while discussing games, one of which is appropriacy. Teachers should be very careful about choosing games if they want to make them profitable for the learning process. If games are to bring desired results, they must correspond to either the students' level, or age, or the materials that are to be introduced or practiced. Not all of the games are appropriate for all students irrespective of their age. Different age groups require various topics, materials and modes of games. For example, children benefit most from games which require moving around, imitating a model, competing between groups, and the like. Another factor influencing the choice of a game is its length and the time necessary for its completion.

When to use games.

Games are often used as short warm-up activities or when there is some time left at the end of the lesson. Games should be used at all stages of the English lesson, provided that they are suitable and carefully chosen. At different stages of the lesson, the teachers' aims connected with a game may be different:

1. Presentation. It presents and provides a good model, making its meaning clear.

2. Controlled practice. It elicits a good imitation of the language and appropriate responses.

3. Communicative practice. It gives to the students a chance to use a foreign language.

4. The use of modern technologies in teaching grammar

The available resources for grammar on the Net can be grouped into two main types: information-based and teaching resources. These are sites which provide: information on grammar items including lists of grammar items, Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) on correct grammatical usage, online grammar clinics/help centres/forums inviting questions with responses assured and also explanations of grammar rules with appropriate examples and teaching resources including lesson plans, worksheets and activities, tasks or exercises. Feedback can be used to provide information to learners about their performance to enable them to use the information to correct their errors. On some sites, encouraging feedback and the necessary explanations to aid in understanding are given almost immediately.

5. Testing grammar skills

Tests allow the teacher to evaluate learners' achievement in grammar, that is how they have mastered form, meaning, use of grammar structures. Tests in grammar may involve: filling in the gaps, opening the brackets, transformation (make negative, change into plural), extension ( like to read books- I like to read books taken from our library), completion( when I came home…), making statements on the picture, translation, matching, correcting mistakes, choosing the correct item, etc.

Lecture 9. Teaching listening

Objectives: SWBAT examine problems in teaching listening, distinguish stages in teaching listening, apply their knowledge in compiling lesson plans and conducting lessons

9.1 The importance of teaching listening. Problems in teaching listening

Listening is important for developing speaking skills, for managing a successful conversation, for listening to the radio and TV, for understanding foreigners. Listening is an important way of picking up structures and vocabulary. Materials for teaching listening are: radio and television programs; announcements in the airports, stores, etc; speeches and lectures; telephone recordings.

Listening comprehension is difficult for learners because they should discriminate speech sounds quickly, retain them while hearing a word, a phrase or a sentence and recognize this as a sense unit. Learners should overcome the following difficulties:

-They can't differentiate between the sounds and words(walked-worked, east-west, put on-put off). Grammar can also cause difficulties;

-Unknown words may be a sudden barrier causing students to stop and think about the meaning of the word and thus making them miss the next part of the speech;

-The content of the text should be taken into consideration. The most easy texts are simple narrative texts where events are described in the order in which they occurred, and if they have an informative title. Monologic speech is easier for the learners.

-The voice of the speaker influences comprehension;

-Poor recordings, bad acoustics, outside factors don't allow students to concentrate;

-Learners can't control the speed of the speaker and can't get things repeated;

-Students have some established learning habits that they should understand everything in the English language. Because of this students are worried if they fail to understand a particular word or phrase when they are listening.

9.2 Stages in teaching listening. Activities for teaching listening

Pre-listening

At the pre-listening stage some preparatory work for listening is done. The aim of this work is to assist with comprehension and motivate students to want to listen. Pre-listening activities may include:

1. look at the pictures and the title and make guesses;

2. look at the new vocabulary;

3. list ideas about;

4. list possibilities;

5. make a note of what you expect to hear;

6. answer the questions;

7. listen to the opening and predict what will happen next.

The choice of pre-listening activities depends on the ability of the class, the material available, the time available, the nature and content of a text for listening.

While-listening

At the while-listening stage students develop the skill of eliciting messages from spoken language. Activities are done during the time students listen to the text. They may include:

1. tick things, people, dates, etc on your list;

2. make a list of…;

3. fill in the chart;

4. take notes on…;

5. find words which mean…;

6. decide whether each statement is true or false;

7. complete the information in the paragraph;

8. match the picture to what is said;

9. follow the route on your map;

10. draw a picture;

11. carry out actions.

Post-listening

Post-listening activities are done after listening is completed. Some post-listening activities are extention of the work done at the pre-listening and while-listening stages. They can be much longer because at this stage students have time to think, to discuss, to write. Post-listening activities may include:

1. open-ended questions;

2. true/false questions;

3. multiple choice questions;

4. fill in the gaps in the summary;

5. put the events in the correct order;

6. put the pictures in the correct order;

7. complete the chart;

8. complete the paragraph;

9. paraphrase;

10. summarize;

11. solve the problem;

12. discuss…;

13. role-play;

14. write a letter or a composition.

9.3 Methodology of working with a text for listening

When selecting a text for listening the teacher takes into account the following:

-Will the students find the topic and the text interesting?

-Does the text fit the students' level?

-Will the text lead to further work (speaking, writing)?

-Will the text be useful for students?

-What kind of text is it: a radio extract, a video, a song, an interview, a real story?

-Is it a recording or a teacher's voice?

-Isn't it too difficult for students and how to overcome the difficulties?

-Is the structure of the text simple and straightforward, but not too dense- there is repetition, pausing, etc?

The text is usually listened to two times. The purpose of the first listening is to listen for the main ideas (it is “global” listening or “gist” listening). The purpose of the second listening is to listen for details (it is “listening for details”). Thus the knowledge of the text is built gradually.

Example of one way of conducting a lesson using a text:

The students are going to listen to a text about a famous person's life.

Pre-listening

1. The teacher shows a picture and elicits facts the students know or can guess about the person. He writes the facts on the board: Facts we are sure about/ Facts we aren't sure about

2. The teacher teaches a few key-words- without which the listening would be difficult to understand. If there are proper names, they should be written on the board and pronounced by the students.

3. The teacher sets the task: these pictures tell a story. Listen and put them in the correct order.

Then the students listen to the text for the first time. Afterwards in pairs or in groups they discuss and put the pictures in order. Before listening for the second time the teacher again sets the tasks, which will check understanding of details.

They are checked after the second listening (post-listening stage) and may include:

true-false questions; multiple-choice questions; filling in a chart; putting items in order(words, phrases, sentences, pictures; responding with a tick; gap filling; answering questions; categorizing(e.g. advantages/disadvantages); re- ordering jumbled text; etc.

As the follow-up the following activities may be suggested:

discussion of the theme of the text; retelling; practicing vocabulary or grammar; practicing functions; writing a letter to a character; writing a review; role-play.

9.4 Using videos/DVDs in the classroom

Using a video tape is very similar to using an audio tape, however there are soma differences:

-Video is easier to understand because students can see the persons they are listening to;

-Monologs are fine on an audio tape; but when there are more than one person is speaking, when there are many dialogs, unfinished sentences, etc video is better;

-Video is more like real life, as a result it is more motivating;

-Video tapes are usually very long. It is advisable to select 10-15 minute segments of viewing material;

-The teacher should watch the video before the class begins and think of pre-viewing, while-viewing and post-viewing activities.

Some technique for using a video as a teaching aid:

1. silent viewing- students view an extract without the sound playing. Students in groups discuss what they think the characters are saying. Teacher replays the segment with the sound.

2. freeze frames -students watch an extract. Teacher pauses video before an important event. Students guess what will happen next.

3. sound only-students only hear what is going on , they cannot see the picture. Students listen to the dialog and try to guess where the scene takes place and to whom the speakers are talking.

4. jigsaw viewing- the class is divided into two groups: the watchers and the listeners. The listeners sit with their backs to the television. The listeners can hear what is going on by the use of headphones. The watchers face the television but cannot hear anything because the sound has been turned off on the television. The teacher plays the segment, then makes pairs consisting of one watcher and one listener. Pairs discuss to get a full picture of a segment. Then they tell the story in full. This is then followed up by a second viewing where everybody can see and hear what is going on.

Lecture 10. Teaching dialog

Objectives: SWBAT analyze psychological characteristics of speech, define the main dialog structures, describe the main stages in teaching listening, examine samples of pair and group activities.

10.1 Psychological characteristics of speech

1. Speech must be motivated- the teacher should think over the motives which make learners speak. They should have a necessity to speak and not only a desire to receive a good mark. The teacher should ensure conditions in which a learner will have a desire to say something in a foreign language, to express his thoughts and feelings.

There are two kinds of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic.

Intrinsic is the motivation that comes from within. Students who have intrinsic motivation see the education as something deeper than just getting good marks or a good job.

Extrinsic motivation is the opposite. It comes from the outside. Students who have extrinsic motivation think only about getting a diploma .

2.Speech is always addressed to an interlocutor- when speaking a learner should address the class, and not the teacher.

3. Speech is always emotionally colored- learners should be taught to express their attitudes, feelings about what they say. That can be done by giving such tasks as: say, why you like the story; prove that…; give your opinion on the episode; solve the problem; agree/disagree; etc.

4. Speech is always situational- To stimulate students' speech the teacher creates real or imaginary situations.

Speech exists in its main forms: dialog (2-3 speakers), polylog (group of speakers). monolog (1 speaker).

10.2 Linguistic peculiarities of dialogs. Main dialog structures

Linguistic peculiarities of dialogs are:

1. The use of incomplete sentences(ellipses) in responses:

-How many books have you got?

-One

-Who has done it?

-Ann has.

2. The use of contracted forms: doesn't; can't; etc.

3. The use of some abbreviations: lab; maths; p.m.; etc.

4. The use of conversational tags. These are the words the speaker uses when he wishes to speak without saying anything. For example: well; you know.

Besides, the learners need words to start, to carry on and to finish the conversation. For example: I think; as far as I know; to tell the truth; what about? And so on.

The main dialog structures are:

1 question-response

-Hello. What's your name?

-Ann. What's yours?

-My name is William

2. question-question

- Will you help me, dear?

-What shall I do, Mum?

-Will you do the room?

-Is it my turn?

-Yes, it is. You brother did it last time.

3. statement-statement

-I'd like to know when he is going to come and see us.

-That's difficult to say. He is always promising, but never comes.

-It's because he is very busy.

-That's right. He works hard.

4. statement-question

-I'm going to the theatre tonight.

-Where did you get tickets?

-My friend got them somewhere

-How did he do it?

- I don't know.

10.3 Stages in teaching dialog

In acquiring necessary habits in carrying on a conversation pattern-dialogs may be helpful. When a pattern-dialog is used as a unit of teaching there are three stages in teaching a dialog:

1. receptive

Students receive the dialog by ear first. They listen to the dialog recorded or reproduced by the teacher. The teacher helps students in comprehension of the dialog using pictures. They listen to the dialog a second time and then read it silently for better understanding paying attention to intonation.

2. reproductive

Students reproduce the dialog in imitation of the speaker or the teacher after they have heard it. The students are asked to learn the dialog by heart for homework. After students have learnt the dialog at home, they enact the dialog in persons. Students can enact the dialog with some changes in content. They change some elements in the dialog. As a result of this work students master the structure of the pattern-dialog and can use it as a model for making up their own dialogs. That's why pattern- dialogs should be carefully selected.

3. constructive(creative)

Students make up their own dialogs. This is possible if students have mastered the structures of the pattern-dialogs; know a number of phrases for starting and joining the conversation; can make statements and ask questions of different types, can make responses; etc. Audio-visual aids should be extensively used at this stage.

10.4 Pair and group work

In pair work the teacher divides the class into pairs. Every student works with the partner, and all the pairs work at the same time. In group work the teacher divides the class into small groups to work together (usually 4 or 5 students in each group). As in pair work, all the groups work at the same time. For certain types of activities pair work and group work has a number of advantages:

-students have more chances to speak English;

-all the students are involved in the active learning process;

-students collaborate, exchange ideas, help and correct each other;

-students feel secure.

However there might be some problems:

-not all students participate equally;

-students make mistakes;

-difficult to control the class;

-there is classroom noise (but if it is in English it is a “good” noise).

Samples of pair and group activities

Jigsaw picture :Ss in groups have a series of pictures that tells a story. In pairs they retell the story by putting the pictures in the proper order.

Ranking activities: Ss in groups rank qualities, factors or items from the most important to the least important.

Describing a picture: Each group has a picture which all members of the group can see. One person is chosen to be a secretary. The group has two minutes to say as many sentences as they can that describe it. The secretary marks a check on a piece of paper representing each sentence. At the end of two minutes, groups report how many checks they have. This is a simple activity for beginners.

Information gap: Ss find missing information from each other by asking questions. Ss are given two pictures, schedules or maps that are almost identical; however each one has missing information. If pictures are selected, Ss have to ask one another about the differences without looking at the partner's picture. If maps or schedules are selected, Ss have to ask questions in order to complete their map or schedule.

Guessing games: Ss make guesses to discover the information known by another person. For example, the teacher has a picture, but he doesn't show it to the Ss. By asking questions Ss must find out what the picture looks like. The teacher can only answer “yes” or “no”, but can help by giving hints.

Interviews: Teacher has Ss interview for a job, do opinion polls or group interviews.

Discussion: Ss are given a topic to discuss.

Debate: Ss are given a controversial topic that they debate. A simpler form is to give Ss a statement or a quote that is controversial. If they agree, they stand on one side of the room; disagree- on the other side of the room; sometimes agree- in the middle.

Problem solving: Ss in groups are given a problem and must come up with the solution.

Role play: Ss imagine a role, for example, a customer in the shop. They take part in a situation, acting out a conversation. It gives a chance to use language in new contexts and for new topics, use natural expressions, intonation, gestures.

Simulation: Ss do not imagine but they are themselves. They solve the real tasks or problems.

Procedure for role play

-language input-teacher brainstorms vocabulary and grammar that might be used.

-setting of context- students get acquainted with the situation in which they will be role playing. Visuals can help to make it more effective.

-allocation of roles- the teacher decides who plays which role.

-statement of aims- this is important because it gives the students a concrete result to aim for in the role play and thus provides motivation.

-familiarization with roles-students read role cards. Role cards describe the person and the role he plays. For lower level students are included words and expressions that might be used.

-role play

-follow-up- this can take two forms: written work based on the role play, perhaps for home work and remedial work based on mistakes noted by monitoring student performance.

Questions and topics for discussion

1. Can all exercises be called “speech” exercises? Why or why not?

2. Give examples of the main dialog structures.

3. What is it: “pattern-dialog”? Give examples.

4. Describe 3 stages in teaching dialog.

5. What are the advantages of pair and group work?

6. Choose any activity for teaching dialog and perform it in the classroom.

7. Examine the procedure for the role-play. Choose any sample of the role-play from the standard course book and see whether it follows the requirements.

Lecture 11. Teaching monolog

Objectives: SWBAT describe different types of monolog, describe stages in teaching monolog, analyze activities for teaching monolog

11.1 Types of monolog

Monolog is a speech of one person. There exist the following types of monolog: description, retelling, story telling, reporting, speech.

Retelling is an activity in which the learners retell the text that they have read, seen, or listened to. Retelling can be done in the first person or in the name of one of the characters.

Speech- the teacher can organize an oratorical contest in which the learners compete presenting their speeches on a definite topic.

Description- learners describe an object or a picture to their classmates.

Story telling- learners can briefly summarize a tale or a story they heard from somebody or they may create their own stories to tell their classmates. Story telling fosters critical thinking. It also helps students express ideas in the format of beginning, development and ending, including the characters and the setting. Students can also tell riddles or jokes. For instance, at the beginning of every lesson the teacher may call a few students to tell short riddles or jokes as an opening.

Reporting- before coming to class, students are asked to read a newspaper or a magazine and in class they report to their friends what they find as the most interesting news.

11.2 Stages in teaching monolog

In teaching monolog there are three stages, according to the levels which constitute the ability to speak: the statement level, the utterance level, the discourse level.

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