Scholarly Activity of Polish Researchers in Humanities in Kiev, Kharkov and Novorossiya Imperial Universities

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Scholarly Activity of Polish Researchers in Humanities in Kiev, Kharkov and Novorossiya Imperial Universities

A. Yu. Bazhenova

PhD in History, Research Fellow, Institute of East-Central Europe, Lublin, Poland

The subject of this paper is the study of the scholarly activity of Polish researchers in humanities -- philologists, historians, philosophers, literary critics and jurists -- who worked at the universities in Kiev, Kharkov, and Odessa in the second half of the 19^th and early 20^th centuries. Covered in this article are: Henryk Jakubakis, Wiadysiaw Jurgiewicz, Witold Klinger, Leonard Koimaczewski, Edmund Liwski, Witold Nowodworski, Jozef Piechowski, Leon Sze- pielewicz, Alfons Walicki, Leopold Wojewodzki (Faculties of History and Philology), Konrad Dynowski, Leon Fiedorowicz, Alekander Mickiewicz, Jan Sobestyjanski, Antoni Stanisiawski, Eugeniusz Waskowski (Faculties of Law). This article analyses the academic careers of the professors and determines the duration of their work at the aforementioned universities. It gives an overview of their contribution to the development of humanities and jurisprudence in Russia, and to the creation of academic schools in the field of humanities. The most significant group of Polish scholars became the specialists in classical philology (five professors). To some extent, a study of the distant historical epochs can be explained by the desire to disengage from the actual political situation in the country and from assessment of the developments of the recent past. Two academics represented each of the following disciplines: Western European literature, world history, and Roman law. The encyclopaedia of law, the history of Russian law, civil law and civil procedure, political economy and statistics were represented by a different Polish academic each. Some professors were also engaged in translations. This article is a step towards further study of the participation of Polish academics in the scholarly life of the Russian Empire.

Keywords: St. Vladimir University, Kharkov University, Novorossiya University, humanities, researcher, Polish, academic school.

Научная деятельность польских ученых-гуманитариев в Киевском, Харьковском и Новороссийском императорских университетах

А. Ю. Баженова

канд. ист. наук, науч. сотр., Институт Центрально-Восточной Европы, Польша, Люблин humanities researcher polish academic school

В статье впервые в историографии комплексно исследуется научная деятельность польских ученых-гуманитариев: филологов, историков, философов, литературоведов, правоведов, работавших в университетах Киева, Харькова и Одессы во второй половине XIX -- начале XX в. Среди них были Альфонс Валицкий, Леопольд Воеводский, Витольд Клингер, Леонард Колмачевский, Эдмунд Ливский, Витольд Новодворский, Осип Пеховский, Лев Шепелевич, Владислав Юргевич, Генрих Якубанис (историкофилологические факультеты), Евгений Васьковский, Конрад Дыновский, Александр Мицкевич, Иван Собестьянский, Антон Станиславский, Лев Федорович (юридические факультеты). Анализируются траектории академических карьер преподавателей и устанавливается продолжительность их работы в упомянутых учебных заведениях. Охарактеризован вклад польских исследователей в российскую науку, а также в создание и развитие гуманитарных университетских научных школ. Самую значительную группу преподавателей составляли специалисты по классической филологии (пять профессоров). В основном они концентрировались на тематике Древней Греции, изучая древнегреческую поэзию, историю, историографию, фольклор, мифологию и нравственность. Обращение ученых к отдаленным историческим эпохам можно объяснить желанием дистанцироваться от острой политической ситуации в стране и от оценок событий недавнего прошлого. Следующие по численности группы (по два преподавателя в каждой) состояли из специалистов по западноевропейской литературе, всеобщей истории и римскому праву. По одному человеку представляло разные области юриспруденции, а именно: энциклопедию права, историю русского права, гражданское право и гражданское судопроизводство, политическую экономию и статистику. Параллельно с исследованиями по предмету своей специализации некоторые преподаватели занимались также переводами с греческого, немецкого, итальянского, французского, английского, шведского языков как на русский, так и на польский языки. Публикация переводных сочинений значительно обогатила российскую и польскую науку и способствовала популяризации известных произведений зарубежных поэтов, философов и ученых. Исследование, представленное в статье, является шагом к дальнейшему изучению участия польских ученых в научной жизни Российской империи.

Ключевые слова: университет Св. Владимира, Харьковский университет, Новороссийский университет, ученый-гуманитарий, преподаватель, поляк, научная школа.

Kiev, Kharkov and Novorossiya universities played a significant role in the Russian system of higher education. Along with St. Petersburg, Moscow, Dorpat, Kazan and other universities, they attracted many students and academics of Polish origin. The article focuses on the scholarly activity of Polish researchers in humanities: philologists, historians, philosophers, literary critics and jurists who lectured at Kiev, Kharkov, and Novorossiya universities in the second half of the 19^th and early 20^th centuries. The paper gives an overview of their academic careers and scholarly activities during their work at these educational institutions. It analyses the contribution of Polish researchers in humanities to the development of humanities and jurisprudence in Russia, and to the creation of academic schools in the field of humanities.

In recent decades, the achievements of Poles at Kiev, Kharkov, and Novorossiya universities have been studied by Russian, Polish and Ukrainian historians. Among the first was a monograph by Jan Tabis about Poles at the University of St. Vladimir in 1834-1863 Tabis J. Polacy na Uniwersytecie Kijowskim, 1834-1863. Krakow, 1974.. The author concentrated mainly on the socio-political activities of students and paid relatively little attention to the scientific achievements of Poles in Kiev. Artur Kijas published a number of important studies, which examined in detail the work of professors of Polish origin at Kharkov University in 1805-1917 Kijas A.: 1) Polacy na Uniwersytecie Charkowskim 1805-1917. Wydanie drugie poprawione i uzu- pelnione. Poznan, 2008; 2) Polscy profesorowie na Uniwersytecie Charkowskim do 1917 roku // Wroclaw- skie Studia Wschodnie. 2011. No. 15. P 47-64.. Oleg Domin Domin O. Pol's'ka profesura Novorosiis'koho universytetu (1865-1920 rr.) // Poliaky na Pivdni Ukrainy = Polacy na Poludniowej Ukrainie / science eds T. Tsysel's'kyi, V. H. Kushnir. Odessa [et al.], 2006. P 157-159., Konstantin Vasilev Vasilev K. Poliaki v Odesse: vrachi i farmatsevty (do 1920 g.) // Ibid. P 111-123. and Via- cheslav Kuznetsov Kuznetsov V. O. Vnesok pol's'koi intelihentsii u rozvytok mikrobiolohichnoi naukovoi shkoly v Odes'komu (Novorosiis'komu) universyteti imeni I. I. Mechnykova // Poliaky na Pivdni Ukrainy ta v Kry- mu = Polacy na Poludniowej Ukrainie i Krzymie / eds T. Tsysel's'kyi, E. Chapevs'kyi, V. Kushnir. Odessa [et al.], 2007. P. 264-276., in their turn, focused on Polish professors at Novorossiya University.

Of particular interest in this article are the publications that study in a comprehensive way the activities of Poles in all the three universities. Among these researches is Jerzy Roziewicz's monograph on Russian-Polish academic relations in 1725-19 1 8 RoziewiczJ. Polsko-rosyjskie powi^zania naukowe (1725-1918). Wroclaw [et al.], 1984.. To the author's credit, he worked out the criteria for counting Poles in the higher education institutions of the Russian Empire. Roziewicz also made a list of these professors and lecturers and presented their academic careers. He defined the following criteria for determining Polish identity: religion, geography, onomastics, as well as the existence of links with Poland and Polish culture. The scope of his research did not include those who descended from Polish-Russian families or whose grandparents were Polish. In the early 1990s, Ukrainian scholars Irina Marushkina Marushkina I. M. Nauchno-prepodavatel'skaia deiatel'nost' pol'skikh uchenykh v universitetakh Ukrainy (konets XIX -- nachalo XX v.) // Kul'turnye i obshchestvennye sviazi Ukrainy so stranami Evropy. Kiev, 1990. P 195-211. and Ivan Lisevych Lisevych I.T. U zatinku dvohlavoho orla (pol's'ka natsional'na menshyna na Nadniprians'kii Ukraini v druhii polovyni XIX -- na pochatku XX st.). Kiev, 1993. published some works, which only briefly examined the activity of Poles at Kiev, Kharkov and Novorossiya universities in the second half of the 19^th and early 20^th century. However, these studies have not been further developed during the following decades. The overwhelming majority of publications have explored the life and activities of individual Polish professors, above all, the most outstanding of them. Thus, despite a relatively large number of works, the professional activities of Polish researchers in humanities at aforementioned universities have not become a subject of a detailed study of them as a separate group yet.

Polish academics at Kiev, Kharkov and Novorossiya universities

The history of the University of St. Vladimir in Kiev is closely linked to the fate of Polish people. The university was founded by the decree of Nicholas I on November 8, 1833 after Kremenets Lyceum and Vilna University had been closed following the Polish Uprising of 1830/31. Many Polish academics moved to the new university: seventeen from Kremenets and two from Vilna Poles constituted 36 % of the university professors and instructors before 1839. -- Martseniuk R. Poliaky v Universyteti sv. Volodymyra (1834-1839): problemy kul'turnoi adaptatsii // Acta Polono- Ruthenica. 2011. No. 16. P 91.. However, after a couple of years almost all of them were either transferred to other educational institutions, or fired. The discovery of the secret organization of Polish patriots among university students in 1839 (the case of Szymon Konarski) became the reason for dismissing the Polish professors Marushkina I. M. Nauchno-prepodavatel'skaia deiatel'nost' pol'skikh uchenykh v universitetakh Ukrainy... P. 195..

It is worth mentioning that the University of St. Vladimir had always been under the special control of the Russian government in view of its territorial and historical ties with Poland. The political situation in the Kingdom of Poland and Polish Insurrection of 1863/64 prompted a response by the Russian government in relation to universities. A series of decrees and orders, which prevented the Poles from working at higher education institutions, were made. On September 27, 1868 a new order was issued about not appointing Roman Catholic persons of Polish origin native to the Kingdom of Poland and the western provinces to positions in educational institutions of the Ministry of Public Education. However, this ruling did not apply to Warsaw and Dorpat educational districts Lisevych I.T. U zatinku dvohlavoho orla. P. 42-43..

The restrictions on the acceptance of Polish researchers to the University of St. Vladimir were finally lifted during the revolution of 1905-1907. As a result, three Poles (Jakubanis, Klinger, Nowodworski) were allowed as instructors at the Faculty of History and Philology in 1908. However, each new appointment would meet a resistance. It is important to mention here the case of a graduate of this university, philologist Witold Klinger. In 1912, he became an Associate Professor of the Department of Classical Philology. However, the conservative Kiev press launched a campaign against the scholar. As a sign of protest against the unjustified harassment, Klinger refused to hold the office and sent a letter to the Ministry of Public Education denouncing the practice of oppression of Polish cadres at the university. Only in 1917, Klinger achieved the position of the Professor of the Department of Classical Philology at Kiev University Ibid. P 47; Marushkina I. M. Nauchno-prepodavatel'skaia deiatel'nost' pol'skikh uchenykh v univer-sitetakh Ukrainy. P. 198-199..

The analysis of the distribution of academics of Polish origin throughout the faculties of Kiev and Kharkov universities in the second half of the 19^th and early 20^th century enables to conclude that most of them worked at the faculties of Medicine. The peculiarity of Novorossiya University was the concentration of Poles at the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics, mainly at the Division of Natural Sciences. This was due to the fact that the Faculty of Medicine was founded there only in 1900. There were significantly fewer academics at the faculties of History and Philology, as well as at the faculties of Law. That can be explained by the unwillingness of Russian government to give the Poles access to these spheres of education. The number of identified Polish academics is sixteen. Only three of them worked at the Faculty of History and Philology at the University of St. Vladimir in Kiev over the period of study (Henryk Jakubakis, Witold Klinger, Witold Nowodworski); and there was not a single one at the Faculty of Law. In Kharkov, six Poles lectured at the Faculty of History and Philology (Wladyslaw Jurgiewicz, Leonard Kolmaczewski, Edmund Liwski, Jozef Piechowski, Leon Szepielewicz, Alfons Walicki), and the other three -- at the Faculty of Law (Alekander Mickiewicz, Jan Sobestyjanski, Antoni Stanislawski). At the same time in Odessa: two Poles worked at the Faculty of History and Philology (Wladyslaw Jurgiewicz, Leopold Wojewodzki) and three ones worked at Law (Konrad Dynowski, Leon Fiedorowicz, Eugeniusz Waskowski). Seven of them were graduates of

Kiev (Dynowski, Jakubakis, Klinger), Kharkov (Liwski, Sobestyjanski), and Novorossiya (Szepielewicz, Waskowski) universities.

Classical Philology and Philosophy

Specialists in classical philology formed a significant group of Polish professors. Alfons Walicki (1806(8?)-1858) was one of the most famous professors of Kharkov University. He worked at the Department of Greek Literature and Antiquities from 1835-1858. In 1837, he became a Full Professor In this article, the author uses modern equivalents of the prerevolutionary posts: the full professor (Ordinarius), the associate professor (Extraordinarius), the assistant professor (Dozent), and the instructor (Privatdozent). and served as a Dean of the first division of the Faculty of Philosophy (1841-1845). Walicki was a talented speaker and an outstanding connoisseur of classical antiquities. In 1832, he published a thesis on the Roman historian Cornelius Nepos (“De Cornelio Nepote”. Dorpat, 1832), written in fine Latin. The author established the years of Nepos's life, presented his biography and re-established the content and sequence of individual parts of Nepos's work “On Famous Men”. The study proved that Nepos lived and wrote in the 1^st century BC.

Walicki was not only a distinguished scholar, but also a translator of German, Swedish, English, and Greek literature into Polish, in addition to being a poet. He produced the first translation of Goethe's “Faust” into Polish (Wilno, 1844; the second part remained in manuscript) An earlier translation of Faust's fragment was published in 1826 (translator -- Julian Korsak). and of “Frithiof's Saga”, created by Swedish writer Esaias Tegner (Part 1, Warszawa, 1841/42; Part 2 remained in manuscript). Walicki also translated ancient authors. In particular, he published “Edyp Krol” by Sophocles (Wilno, 1845), Xenophon's “Cyropedia” with comments in Russian, and a Greek dictionary (Charkow, 1848). According to Szepielewicz, the translations of “Faust” and “Edyp Krol” were made accurately, in full, and reproduced the metre of the originals. Walicki published relatively few books. Most of his works remained in manuscripts, and only a part of them survived. Among them are “Hipolit” (“Hippolytus”) and “Medea” by Euripides, “Antygona” (“Antigone”) by Sophocles, “Eumenidy” (“The Eumenides”) by Aeschylus, Goethe's “Goetz von Berlichin- gen z zelaznq r^kq”. The professor from Kharkov also wrote tragedy “Zbigniew: tragedia w pi^ciu aktach”, which remained unpublished. The first part of it is preserved in the collection of the National Library in Warsaw Btaszczyk G. Pierwsi Polacy na Uniwersytecie Dorpackim w latach 1802-1832 // Kwartalnik Histo- rii Nauki i Techniki. 2007. R. 52. No. 3-4. P 219; Rys dziejow literatury polskiej, podlug notat A. Zdanowicza oraz innych zrodel / opracowal i do ostatnich czasow doprowadzil L. Sowinski. T. IV. Wilno, 1877. P 146; Orgelbrand S. Encyklopedyja powszechna. T. XXVI. Ula -- Wikaryusz. Warszawa, 1867. P 340; Maslov M. A. Valitskii Al'fons Osipovich // Istoriko-filologicheskii fakul'tet Khar'kovskogo universiteta za pervye 100 let ego sushchestvovaniia (1805-1905) / eds M. G. Khalanskii, D. I. Bagalei. Kharkov, 1908. P 175-183; Kijas A. Polacy na Uniwersytecie... P 74-75..

Walicki was a highly erudite scholar. His contemporaries remembered the following story. In 1839, an Ambassador of France, a famous researcher and writer Baron Prosper de Barante, passed through Kharkov. Looking at the university, he expressed a desire to listen to the lecture in a language he understood. The rector advised him to attend Wali- cki's lecture, however, nobody warned the professor about this visit. When Walicki saw Baron de Barante, he instantly changed the subject of the lecture and began to speak in

Latin about the contribution of French scholars to the study of classical antiquities. A noble guest was fascinated by the brilliant improvisation. A Russian literary critic Vissarion Belinsky, after visiting Kharkov University in 1840-ies, named Walicki “a star of the highest magnitude” De-Pule M. Khar'kovskii universitet i D. I. Kachenovskii // Vestnik Evropy. 1874. No. I. P. 93-96..

Jozef Piechowski (1815-1891) was an acting Assistant Professor (since 1849), Associate Professor (1854), acting Full Professor (1859) and Full Professor (1868) at the Department of Greek Literature of Moscow University. A year later, he retired after 25 years of service and moved to Kharkov. He became an invited lecturer (1870), and later a Full Professor (1871-1885) at the Department of Greek Literature at Kharkov University. Master's and doctoral theses were the most important works by Piechowski The master's thesis of that time corresponds to the current PhD thesis.. He defended them in 1854 and 1868 respectively. Both studies were written in Latin, which the author was fluent in Derevitskii A. O. I. Pekhovskii (nekrolog) // Filologicheskoe obozrenie. 1891. Vol. 1. P. 213-214; Netushil I. V. Pekhovskii Osip Ivanovich // Istoriko-filologicheskii fakul'tet Khar'kovskogo universiteta za pervye 100 let ego sushchestvovaniia (1805-1905) / eds M. G. Khalanskii, D. I. Bagalei. Kharkov, 1908. P. 201-202.. His master's thesis examined “The Art of Poetry” (“Epistle to the Pisos”) Piechowski J. De Q. Horatii Flacci Epistola ad Pisones. Mosquae, 1853., a poem written by Horace. It is important to note that for more than two years Piechowski had worked exclusively on the Horace's text, and only after that he began to compare his conclusions with the opinions of other scholars. He determined a tripartite structure of Horace's poetics that was also supported by other researchers. The main concept was that the work of Horace is a complete poetics dedicated to all poetry as a whole, inasmuch as the writer touches upon various kinds of poetry Netushil I. Osip Ivanovich Pekhovskii. Obozrenie ego ucheno-literaturnoi deiatel'nosti i biografi- cheskie dannye. Kharkov, 1902, P. 7-9..

The second major Piechowski's study was his doctoral thesis “De ironia Iliadis” Piechowski J. De ironia Iliadis. Mosquae, 1856.. The author's goal was to collect the examples of irony in the “Iliad”, and unexpectedly he found quite a lot of them, especially in the descriptions of various battles. This led Piechowski to suppose that Homer treated the main idea of his poem with irony as well. The scholar confirmed this assumption during a detailed research of the main conflict of the “Iliad”. This, in turn, helped the scholar to explain many unclear details in the structure of the poem and to prove its unity without external criteria Piechowski J. Sylwetki filologow klasycznych w Polsce: Jozef Piechowski 1815-1891 // Meander. 1853. R. IX. No. 3. P. 143.. By using this new internal criterion the Piechowski's work became a pioneering one.

Wladyslaw Jurgiewicz (1818-1898) was an expert on the history of ancient Rome and antiquities of the Northern Black Sea region. He served as an acting Assistant Professor (since 1844) and Assistant Professor (since 1847) at the Department of Greek and Roman Literature of Kharkov University. In 1858, Jurgiewicz was transferred to the Richelieu Lyceum in Odessa as a Professor of Roman literature. After the transformation of the lyceum into Novorossiya University in 1865, he became an Associate Professor, later Full Professor (1866-1872, 1882-1887) of Roman literature and the Dean of the Faculty of History and Philology (1868-1871). During 1877-1882, he continued as an invited lecturer. Jurgiewicz was a member, secretary (1875-1883) and a vice-president (1883-1898) of the Odessa Society of History and Antiquities V. N. Iurgevich [nekrolog] // Istoricheskii vestnik. 1899. Vol. LXXV P. 367-369; V. R. V. N. Iurgevich (nekrolog) // Zhurnal Ministerstva narodnogo prosveshcheniia (further -- ZhMNP). 1899. Ianvar'. P. 81-82..

The main works by Jurgiewicz were his master's and doctoral theses: “De mundiciis veterum Graecorum et Romanorum” (1847), “De Jovis Lycaei natura cognominisque hui- us ratione” (1866), as well as an article “O pozharakh i predokhranitelnykh protiv nikh merakh v drevnem Rime” (1854) V. R. V. N. Iurgevich (nekrolog). P. 82.. Immediately after moving to Odessa, he began to study the ancient Greek colonies on the Black Sea coast and medieval Italian settlements in Crimea. His research interests included epigraphy, numismatics, sigillography, history, and archaeology. Jurgiewicz examined epigraphic monuments of Olbia, Chersonese, Tire, and Panticapaeum. After analysing Greek inscriptions, he wrote a study on the pagan names mentioned in these inscriptions (“O mnimykh normandskikh imenakh v russkoi istorii”. Odessa, 1866). His works on the stamps on the handles of amphorae from the ancient centres of the Northern Black Sea region deserve a separate mention Shamanaev A. V. Vklad V. N. Iurgevicha v izuchenie i sokhranenie pamiatnikov Kryma // Antichna- ia drevnost' i srednie veka. 2011. Iss. 40. P. 411-412..

Thanks to Jurgiewicz, a school of medieval Italian epigraphy was formed at Novorossiya University. By analysing the texts of inscriptions from the Genoese cities of Crimea, he established when the fortifications of Soldaia (Sudak), Kaffa (Theodosia), and Cembalo (Balaklava) were built, and when Genoa affirmed its authority in Crimea. Jurgiewicz was the first to publish, prior to his Italian colleagues, the “Statute” of the Genoese colonies of 1449 in Latin and Russian. He also determined the specific functioning of remote Genoese colonies during the period of the decline of the power of Genoese republic in the Black Sea region [Domin O.B.] Evoliutsiia istorychnoi nauky // Odes'kyi natsional'nyi universytet imeni I. I. Mechnykova. Istoriia ta suchasnist' (1865-2015) / ed. by I. M. Koval. Odessa, 2015. P. 139.. In addition, the scholar initiated the research in medieval numismatics at the university. Jurgiewicz was one of the first explorers of Kaffa's coinage (“O monetakh genuezskikh nakhodimykh v Rossii”. Odessa, 1870). He also participated in the organization of the restoration of monuments of antiquity, in particular, the tower of Constantine in Theodosia and the buildings of Sudak fortress Ibid. P. 141; Shamanaev A. V. Vklad V. N. Iurgevicha v izuchenie i sokhranenie pamiatnikov Kryma. P. 415, 419..

Leopold Wojewodzki (1846-1901) was an outstanding specialist in ancient history and philology, a researcher who devoted most of his life to the study of ancient mythology. He was an Assistant (1875-1882) and Full Professor of classical philology (1882-1899), a secretary of the Faculty of History and Philology (1874-1876, 1882-1884) at Novorossiya University. In 1899, because of the severe consequences of pulmonary tuberculosis, he was forced to stop lecturing and resigned Berezin S. Ie. Novi materialy do biohrafii L. F. Voievods'koho // Zapysky istorychnoho fakul'tetu. 2016. Iss. 27. P. 468..

Wojewodzki's research interests included German literature (works of Heinrich Heine and other lyric writers), the history of antiquity, ancient Greek and Russian philology. He focused on simplifying Russian orthography, and was also interested in mathematics. However, the main field of his studies was ancient ethics and ancient Greek mythology Berezin S. Ie., Izbash T. O. Voievods'kyi Leopold Frantsevych // Profesory Odes'koho (Novo- rosiis'koho) universytetu. Biohrafichnyi slovnyk. T. 2. Odessa, 2000. P. 234..

In the master's thesis “Kannibalizm v grecheskikh mifakh: opyt po istorii razvitiia nravst- vennosti” Voevodskii L. Kannibalizm v grecheskikh mifakh: opyt po istorii razvitiia nravstvennosti. St. Peters-burg, 1874. Wojewodzki attempted to prove that the myth is not so much a poetic creation as a source for the history of ancient ethics and morality. Consequently, the researcher's task is to find the original core of the myth, to determine the epoch to which it corresponds, and to identify the later additions. Wojewodzki was one of the first to show that ancient myths were a kind of collection of ethical norms and rules, religious and scientific ideas. The scholar tried to dispel the existing “idealization” of everyday life and moral notions in ancient Greek society. He thought that it was enough to prove the existence of cannibalism among ancient Greeks, so everyone would believe that other wild, immoral features were common to Greeks as well as to other peoples. Despite the controversy of some of the conclusions, the author's achievement was that he showed the stadiality of the Greek society, which went through the same phases of development as those of other peoples Berezin S. E. Izuchenie antichnoi istorii v Novorossiiskom universitete: professor L. F. Voevodskii // Zapysky istorychnoho fakul'tetu. 2000. Iss. 10. P. 61-62; Derevitskii A. N. L. F. Voevodskii (nekrolog) // ZhMNP. 1901. Iiul'. P. 34-36..

The innovative views of Wojewodzki drew sharp criticism. At the same time, the important methodological significance of his work was recognized. The author used methods of anthropology, ethnography, comparative linguistics, which helped him to depart from the traditional way of exploring the history of Greek people. However, the general critical evaluation of the publication was negative, therefore since then the scholar had studied mainly the essence and content of the myths Berezin S. E. Izuchenie antichnoi istorii... P 62..

In his doctoral thesis “Vvedenie v mifologiiu Odissei” Voevodskii L. Vvedenie v mifologiiu Odissei. Ch. 1. Odessa, 1881. Wojewodzki attempted to reduce the entire Homer's epos to the solar-lunar-stellar myth. In his opinion, “The Odyssey” was based on different versions of a single myth about the relation of the sun to the stars Ibid. P 98.. According to Wojewodzki's theory, the male characters of “The Odyssey” were the reflections of the sun, and their names were derived from different names and epithets of the solar deity. Female characters were representatives of the moon. Friends and enemies of the sun (Odysseus) were the stars that related to the protagonist as household members and servants, or guards and soldiers Berezin S. E. Izuchenie antichnoi istorii. P 63.. This research caused even a greater storm of criticism than the master's thesis.

Witold Klinger (1875-1962) was a classical philologist, ethnographer, translator and the founder of the so-called Poznan philological school. He was an Instructor at the University of St. Vladimir since 1908. From the next year onward, the scholar lectured at the Higher Women's Courses in Kiev. In 1915, he agreed to chair the Department of Classical Philology at Nezhin Prince Bezborodko Historical-Philological Institute, while retaining the position of an Instructor at the university. Klinger became a Professor at Kiev University only in 1917. In addition, he lectured at the Polish University Collegium and at one of the Polish gymnasiums in Kiev (1918), and chaired the Ethnographic Commission at the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. In 1920, the scholar moved to Poland, where he chaired the Department of Classical Philology in the newly created Poznan University. He was the corresponding member (1922) and later the full member of the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences (1930) Klinger W. Zyciorys wlasny // Meander. 1963. R. 18. No. 5. P. 210-214; Steffen W.: 1) Pami^ci Profe- sora Witolda Klingera // Meander. 1962. R. 17. No. 9. P 404; 2) Klinger Witold (1875-1962) // Polski Slow- nik Biograficzny. T XII. Wroclaw [et al.], 1966-1967. P 635-636; Wroblewski T. Profesor dr. Witold Klinger // Lud. 1962. Vol. 48. P 573-574..

Klinger was an expert in ancient folklore, an author of numerous publications on Greek poetry (especially lyrics) and historiography, a translator of the Greek lyric poetry, of Xenophon's “Hellenica”, “Letters” by Julian the Apostate, and several treatises by Hippocrates. He also published studies on Polish literature. Klinger had acquired a wide range of research interests during Kievian period of his activity. At that time, he wrote such valuable works on folklore and ethnography as: “Skazochnye motivy v istorii Gerodota” Klinger V. Skazochnye motivy v istorii Gerodota. Kiev, 1903., “Zhivotnoe v antichnom i sovremennom sueverii” Klinger V. Zhivotnoe v antichnom i sovremennom sueverii. Kiev, 1911., “Dve antichnye skazki ob orle i ikh pozdneishye otrazheniia” Klinger V. Dve antichnye skazki ob orle i ikh pozdneishye otrazheniia // Universitetskie izvestiia. 1913. No. 1. P 1-25., “Ambrozja i Styks a woda zywa i martwa” Klinger W Ambrozja i Styks a woda zywa i martwa. Studium mitologiczno-porownawcze. Krakow,

1906. etc. Studying ancient folklore, Klinger argued that Greece, not India as Theodore Benfey believed, was the original source of fairy tales, legends, stories and novels about animals. Thus, he deepened and broadened the research studies of German classical scholar Erwin Rohde Hammer S. Historia filologii klasycznej w Polsce. Krakow, 1948. P 43-45; Grzegorczyk P Z materia- low bio- i bibliograficznych pisarzy zmarlych w 1962 roku // Rocznik Literacki. 1862. R. 13. P 523.. While in Kiev, Klinger published works on Greek poets Archilochus and Semonides of Amorgos, on Alexandrian poetry and on the origin of Attic tragedy See: [Paprocki H.] Bibliografia publikacji prof. Witolda Klingera (1875-1962) // Symbolae Philologorum Posnaniensium Graecae et Latinae. 2015. Vol. XXV. Fasc. 2. P 162-167., as well as “Philomath's Album” by Jozef Kowalewski Klinger W Sztambuch filomaty. Kijow, 1916..

Among Polish researchers in humanities there was also a historian of philosophy Henryk Jakubakis (1879-1949). Since 1907, he lectured at Zhekulina's Higher Women's Courses. In the following year, he became an Instructor, and then an Associate Professor (1917) at the Department of Philosophy at the University of St. Vladimir. After a mission abroad (1909-1912), Jakubakis lectured at the university, as well as at the Higher Women's Courses and Polish University Collegium in Kiev (1916-1918). After the revolution and civil war, he emigrated to Poland, where in 1922 he became a Professor at the Department of Classical Philology, and a year later -- a Professor at the Department of Philosophy at Lublin Catholic University. During 1924/25 academic year, he was the Dean of the Faculty of Humanities Tkachuk M. Iakubanis Henrikh-Roman Ivanovych // Filosofs'ka dumka v Ukraini. Biobibliohrafich- nyi slovnyk. Kiev, 2002. P 238; Pastuszka J. Henryk Jakubanis (1879-1949). Wspomnienie posmiertne // Roczniki Filozoficzne. 1949/1950. Vol. 2/3. P 345-346; Klinger W. Jakubanis Henryk Roman (1879-1949) // Polski Slownik Biograficzny. T. X. Wroclaw [et al.], 1962-1964. P 374..

Kievian period was of particular importance in the professional life of Jakubanis. During that time he published his main works. The scholar's research interests included ancient philosophy, logic, and aesthetics. He consistently adhered to the culturological approach to the history of philosophy and used this approach while studying the worldview of ancient Greek thinker Empedocles See: Tkachuk M. L. Istoryko-filosofs'ke antychnoznavstvo v Kyievi XIX -- pochatku XX st. // Na- ukovi zapysky NaUKMA. Vol. 21. Filosofiia ta relihiieznavstvo. 2003. P. 49-59.. Jakubanis found the key to Empedocles's “mystery” in the inner tragedy of the personality, caused by the “fatal ratio” between the general intellectual state of Hellas and the spirituality of the thinker Iakubanis G. Empedokl filosof, vrach i charodei. Dannye dlia ego ponimaniia i otsenki. Kiev, 1906. P. 53-54.. The additional value of Jakubanis's monograph lies in providing his own versions of the translation of all of Empedocles's fragments known at the time in both verse and prose, with a critico-ex- egetical commentary. According to philosopher Alexander Makovelsky, the translation in verse was more artistic, and the one in prose was extremely precise Makovel'skii A. Dosokratiki. Pervye grecheskie mysliteli v ikh tvoreniiakh, v svidetel'stvakh drevno- sti i v svete noveishikh issledovanii. Istoriko-kriticheskii obzor i perevod fragmentov, doksograficheskogo i biograficheskogo materiala Aleksandra Makovel'skogo. Ch. 2 (Eleatovskii period). Kazan, 1915. P V.. The translation made by Jakubanis has been published repeatedly since.

History of Western European Literature

Two Polish professors specialized in the history of Western European literature. Leonard Kolmaczewski (1850-1889) was a historian of literature and a philologist. He was a lecturer in German language (since 1874), an Assistant Professor of the Department of World Literature (since 1883) and an Associate Professor at the Department of History of Western European Literature (since 1884) at Kazan University. In 1886, he moved to the similar department at Kharkov University, where he taught until 1889 Solov'ev S. V. Kolmachevskii Leonard Zenonovich // Istoriko-filologicheskii fakul'tet Khar'kovsk- ogo universiteta za pervye 100 let ego sushchestvovaniia (1805-1905) / eds M. G. Khalanskii, D. I. Bagalei. Kharkov, 1908. P 239..

Kolmaczewski's master's thesis “Zhivotnyi epos na zapade i u slavian” became his major work Kolmachevskii L. Zhivotnyi epos na zapade i u slavian. Kazan, 1882.. As a supporter of the `theory of borrowings' (the so-called `migration theory'), the scholar believed that the animal epos originated in the East, namely, in India, and began to spread into Europe through Byzantium even before the 5^th century BC. Consequently, Russian tales about animals originated either from East Byzantine, or from Western sources. In Kolmaczewski's opinion, the `animal sagas' did not exist. First there was an `animal' tale, and the fable was the development of a separate episode of such a tale. He explained the affinity between fairy tales about animals or their single motifs among the diverse peoples by uniform mental development, literary borrowing or by the dominance of oral tradition. At the same time, he supposed an independent origin of fairy tales: both in Europe and in other parts of the world. Kolmaczewski divided the plots of the Slavic tales about animals into nine main groups, considering that all other tales were more or less original versions of these groups. While in Kharkov, Kolmaczewski studied thoroughly the issue of authenticity of Ossian's poems. However, a serious disease and early death prevented him from finishing this work.

Leon Szepielewicz (1863-1909) was a historian of literature and archaeologist. He was an Associated Professor (1896-1904) and Full Professor (1904-1909) at the Department of History of Western European Literature of Kharkov University. The scholar had very broad research interests: he published works on Western European literature, as well as on material and spiritual culture of Belarus Shepelevich L. Iu. Lazarevich-Shepelevich Lev-Mikhail Iulianovich // Istoriko-filologiches- kii fakul'tet Khar'kovskogo universiteta za pervye 100 let ego sushchestvovaniia (1805-1905) / eds M. G. Khalanskii, D. I. Bagalei. Kharkov, 1908. P. 241; Kijas A. Szepielewicz Leon Michal // Polski Slownik Biograficzny. T. XLVIII. Warszawa; Krakow, 2012-2013. P 206-207.. In his early works Szepielewicz examined the issues of medieval West European literature. His master's thesis “Apokrificheskoe Videnie sv. Pavla” (Kharkov, 1891-1892) was highly appreciated by the specialists. In his doctoral thesis Szepielewicz studied German epic poem “Kudrun” (Kharkov, 1894-1895). The author came to the conclusion that the poem was of Bavarian origin and consisted of three independent parts. At the same time, he stressed the need to examine the strophes of “The Nibelungenlied” in order to determine the origin of the first part of the literary monument he analysed. At the end of the research Szepielewicz provided an excellent translation of the second part of “Kudrun” Solov'ev S. L. Iu. Lazarevich-Shepelevich (Nekrolog) // ZhMNP 1909. Mart. P 38..

At the same time the scholar studied the contemporary Western European and Polish literature. He would regularly give public lectures on the relevant literary subjects. He devoted a series of these lectures to Henryk Sienkiewicz's novels. Subsequently, they became a part of the book “Nashi sovremenniki” (St. Petersburg, 1899), which also included sketches about Paul Bourget, Guy de Maupassant, Йdouard Rod, Gerhart Hauptmann, and Йmile Zola. On top of that, Szepielewicz also published articles on the history of Spanish literature, which became his favourite subject of research from 1898 and on. His painstaking study of the monuments of Spanish Renaissance literature resulted in two books: “Zhizn Servantesa i ego proizvedeniia” (Kharkov, 1901) and “Don Kikhot” Servan- tesa” (St. Petersburg, 1903), as well as articles about Cervantes and his time. These works were the first major research studies on the history of the Spanish Renaissance in Russia.

Szepielewicz was also focused on the issues of the contemporary Spanish and Portuguese literature. Moreover, he analyzed the writings of Shakespeare, Byron, Boccaccio, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Goethe and other authors. During the last years of his life, he studied the works of the 19^th-century Italian poet Giosuи Carducci Ibid. P 39-40.. Finally, it is important to mention that Szepielewicz collaborated with Warsaw magazines “Ateneum”, “Wisla” and “Przeglqd Tygodniowy”, and published notes in Polish in St. Petersburg newspaper “Kraj” Kijas A. Szepielewicz Leon Michal. P 206..

World History

There were two historians in the universities under study. Witold Nowodworski (1861-1923) was a specialist in the history of Poland and Polish-Russian relations. He taught History at First Cadet Corps (since 1885) and other secondary schools in St. Petersburg. Then, he served as an Instructor at the Faculty of History and Philology of St. Petersburg University (1900-1906). In 1906, Nowodworski became an Associate Professor at the Department of World History at Nezhin Prince Bezborodko Historical-Philological Institute. At the same time, he lectured at the University of St. Vladimir (since 1908), at Kiev Commercial Institute and at Zhekulina's Higher Women's Courses. During the years of the Russian revolution and civil war, Nowodworski actively participated in the Polish cultural and educational movement. The scholar was one of the co-founders of Polish University Collegium, where he gave lectures on the history of Poland and Lithuania. In 1921, he became a Professor at Stefan Batory University in Vilna Samoilenko A. Istoriia i istoriki Pol'shy v nauchnom nasledii V. V. Novodvorskogo // Rocznik In- stytutu Polsko-Rosyjskiego. 2012. No. 2. P. 45-46, 50-52; Nowodworski W. Witold Nowodworski (1861-- 1923) jako teoretyk historii // Roczniki Humanistyczne. 1978. Vol. XXVI, iss. 2. P. 191--193..

Nowodworski's master's thesis “Bor'ba za Livoniiu mezhdu Moskvoi i Rech'iu Po- spolitoi (1570-1582). Istoriko-kriticheskoe issledovanie” is considered to be one of the best works of the historian, and is among the most valuable studies on this issue. The author described in detail the course of the Moscow-Polish confrontation and concluded that the Livonian War was an important phase in the political evolution of Eastern Europe. The war shattered the socio-political organization of the Moscow state and interrupted for a while its expansion towards the West. At the same time, the war greatly strengthened the position of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in Eastern Europe Novodvorskii V. Bor'ba za Livoniiu mezhdu Moskvoi i Rech'iu Pospolitoi (1570--1582). Istoriko-kri-ticheskoe issledovanie. St. Petersburg, 1904. P. 303.. Later Nowodworski continued to investigate the activities of the Polish King Stefan Batory and wrote several extensive publications on the life and activities of prominent Polish statesman, the Grand Hetman Jan Zamoysky Nowodworski W Jan Zamojski, jego zycie i dzialalnosc polityczna. Petersburg, 1898 etc..

After moving to Nezhin, Nowodworski switched the focus of his research on world history, publishing a manual for the students on the history of Western Europe of the Early Modern period Novodvorskii V. V. Istoriia Zapadnoi Evropy v nachale novogo vremeni (Proiskhozhdenie politiche- skogo i sotsial'no-ekonomicheskogo stroia, srednevekovaia kul'tura, religioznaia zhizn, gumanizm). Poso- bie, izdannoe iskliuchitel'no dlia studentov Kievskogo kommercheskogo instituta. Kiev, 1914.. His interest in sociology and historiosophy resulted in a voluminous work on historical materialism, which ruthlessly criticized Karl Marx's theory Novodvorskii V. V. Istoricheskii materializm. Doktrina Marksa i Engel'sa. Opyt istoriko-kritiches- kogo issledovaniia // Izvestiia Istoriko-filologicheskogo instituta kniazia Bezborodko. 1914. Vol. 29. P. 1--112; 1916, vol. 31. P. 113--232; 1918, vol. 32. P. 233--300.. In Nowodworski's opinion, that theory did not introduce any new creative elements and was only a one-sided development of the known historical concepts. The scholar's last publication was his introductory lecture on the essence and objects of the world history, which he delivered at the University of Stefan Batory on October 22, 1921. In this lecture Now- odworski pointed out that history, as a concrete science, should avoid risky hypotheses, especially metaphysical ones, and accept the recognition of various factors, which affect the development of mankind Nowodworski W Istota i zadanie dziejow powszechnych. Wilno, 1924. P. 38..

Edmund Liwski (1817-1888) was a teacher at the district schools of Belaya Cerkov and Kupyansk, at Kharkov district school (since 1855) and Kharkov provincial gymnasium (since 1858). Over 1860-1862, he was an Assistant Professor at Kharkov University. His lectures on ancient history were popular among students. However, in view of the fact that Liwski failed to write his master's thesis, he was dismissed. He later taught in Kharkov secondary schools, and after his retirement in 1877, started to work as a publicist. Despite the ambitious plans and erudition, Liwski did not leave any substantial publications. He wrote short articles for Warsaw (mainly “Dziennik Warszawski”) and Lvov newspapers, for “Slownik geograficzny Krolestwa Polskiego” and encyclopaedias. Some of his works remained manuscripts, in particular, biographical sketches about different people related to the Basilian school in Uman, and to Kiev and Kharkov universities Kijas A. Polacy na Uniwersytecie... S. 139-140; Dziwik K. Liwski Edmund // Polski Slownik Biogra- ficzny. T. XVIII. Wroclaw [et al.], 1972. P 500; Viazigin A. S. Livskii Edmund-Karl-Iulian Iosifovich // Istori- ko-filologicheskii fakul'tet Khar'kovskogo universiteta za pervye 100 let ego sushchestvovaniia (1805-1905) / eds M. G. Khalanskii, D. I. Bagalei. Kharkov, 1908. P 281-282..

Roman Law

During the period under review, six Polish lawyers worked in three universities: three in Kharkov University and three in Novorossiya University. Alekander Mickiewicz (1801-- 1871), the brother of Polish poet and publicist Adam Mickiewicz, specialized in the Roman Law. At the start of his career he lectured at Kremenets Lyceum (1828-1832). Later on, the scholar became the Associate Professor (1835) and Full Professor (1836) of Roman Law at the University of St. Vladimir. He served as the Full Professor at the Department of Roman Law (1838-1858) and the Dean (1849-1850) of the Faculty of Law at Kharkov University. In 1858, Mickiewicz left Kharkov and settled in Gubernia estate near Kobrin in Belorussian Polesie, not far from the place where he was born and spent his childhood.

Uneasy life circumstances, frequent redeployment, the need to alter lecture courses and to translate them from Polish and Latin into Russian were the main reasons why Mickiewicz left only a few publications. Among them, one should mention the student's work on the influence of Roman law on Polish and Lithuanian legislation (it was published in “Dziennik Warszawski” in 1825) and his master's thesis “De nominis pignore” (1827). Following his retirement, the scholar was preparing to publish the encyclopaedia of law and the course on Roman law, but these plans had never been realized. His course of lectures on Polish civil law and its history, which he delivered at Kremenets Lyceum in 1829, also remained a manuscript. Mickiewicz was unable to pursue his ideas because of health problems: in the last years of his life he lost his sight Martseniuk R. Lytva -- Ukraina -- Lytva: zhyttievyi ta tvorchyi shliakh profesora Oleksandra Mitskevycha // Visnyk of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv. Ser. History. 2016. No. 1 (128). P. 43-46; I-v E. Mitskevich Aleksandr Nikolaevich // Istoriko-filologicheskii fakul'tet Khar'kovskogo uni- versiteta za pervye 100 let ego sushchestvovaniia (1805-1905) / eds M. G. Khalanskii, D. I. Bagalei. Kharkov, 1908. P 171-172. Makowiecka Z. Mickiewicz Julian Aleksander (1801-1871) // Polski Slownik Biograficzny. T. XX. Wroclaw [et al.], 1975. P 706..

Konrad Dynowski (1862-1930) was a well-known jurist and practitioner. Over 18891905, he had been the Instructor of Roman law at Novorossiya University, where he also taught the course on Russian civil law. The scholar served later as the Instructor at the Department of Russian Civil and Commercial Law and Legal Procedure at St. Petersburg University (1905-1910), and lectured at Alexander Lyceum. At the same time, Dynowski was a Member of Odessa District Court, a Member of Odessa Trial Chamber, a Legal Adviser to the Ministry of Justice and an Assistant of the Chief Prosecutor of the Cassation Department of the Senate, a Legal Advisor to the Ministry of Finance and a Consultant to the Ministry of Justice. A number of successful international legal proceedings are connected with the name of the scholar. After the revolution, Dynowski moved to Kiev, where he had earlier graduated from the University of St. Vladimir. Since 1920, he had been the Professor at the Department of Civil Procedure at Warsaw University Mioduszewski J. Dynowski Konrad (1862-1930) // Polski Slownik Biograficzny. T. VI. Wroclaw [et al.], 1948. P. 67-68..

The issues of Roman law, international law and Russian civil law were at the center of Dynowski's research interests. His main works were: “Zadachi tsivilisticheskogo obrazovaniia i znachenie ego dlia grazhdanskogo pravosudiia” Dynovskii K. Zadachi tsivilisticheskogo obrazovaniia i znachenie ego dlia grazhdanskogo pravosu-diia. Odessa, 1896. and “Voprosy protsessual'noi politiki v dele voznagrazhdeniia sudebnykh pristavov po takse” Dynovskii K. Voprosy protsessual'noi politiki v dele voznagrazhdeniia sudebnykh pristavov po tak-se. Odessa, 1904.. The earlier publication contributed to the understanding of the importance of practice in legal education. Referring to the German experience of training lawyers, Dynowski wrote about the acute problems in the practical training in civil law, recognizing at the same time its sufficiency in the criminal law Dynovskii K. Zadachi tsivilisticheskogo obrazovaniia... P. 46.. In the latter publication, the scholar revised a fee rate for bailiffs. In 1910, he published a work on the international procedural law, in which he examined the issue of inadmissibility of enforcement from the foreign countries [Dynovsky C. von, Meili F., Laband P., Zorn P et al.] Unzulдssigkeit einer Zwangsvollstreckung gegen auslдndische Staaten: Gutachten der Professoren Meili, Laband, Zorn. [u. a.] / eingeleitet und her-ausgegeben von C. V Dynovsky. Berlin, 1910.. It is important to add that the legal practice of Dynowski improved the civil justice and civic procedural norms in Russia.