Medieval philosophy

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Theme: Medieval philosophy

1. Introduction to Medieval Philosophy

medieval philosophy theology scholastica

For better orientation in space, the researchers divided the historical era into several stages. Middle Ages called the period, going after antiquity and continued until modern times. Or rather I to XV century AD.

Middle Ages - a period full of feudalism, serfdom and Christianity in Europe. It features two - feudalism and Christianity - caused the content of state and philosophy of the Middle Ages. This philosophy - theology. Medieval philosophy - too substantial and long stage in history. Movement philosophy permeated the problems of religion.

Separately, the philosophy was not even considered. She was characterized by teaching and edification. This contributed to the overall set to the value of learning in terms of progress towards salvation to God. The usual form of the treatise - dialogue wise teacher and an exemplary student assent. The philosophy of the Middle Ages was optimistic.

Its roots go back to monotheism. Thinking theocentric: God - the truth that defines all things. Strong influence on Western medieval philosophy was exactly the Christian religion. On it will be discussed. At the heart of monotheism on two principles, foreign to the pagan world: the idea of creation and the idea of revelation.

The basic teachings of Christianity of the Middle Ages were considered patristics and scholasticism.

2. Patristics

Patristics (from the Greek. РбфЮс, lat. Pater - father) - the philosophy and theology of the Church Fathers, that is, spiritual and religious leaders of Christianity to the VII century. Doctrine developed by the church fathers, have become fundamental to the Christian religious outlook. Patristic made an enormous contribution to the formation of ethics and aesthetics and Late medieval society. Allocate Roman and Greek patristic direction. Historically, traditionally hold the following division:

3. Apostolic Fathers, directly adjacent to the apostles

Apologetics (defending) fathers the II., Who tried, in particular, to prove the compatibility of Christian teaching with Greek philosophy, with sometimes they represented Christianity as a new philosophy (Justin, 100-167, then Athenagoras, the second floor. II c.). To the II century. refers a dispute with the Gnostics, the position of which goes Tatian (the second floor. II c.). Tertullian completes this period.

III c. and beg. The IV. characterized by the first attempts to systematize in theology and by extension the question of Christ, gave rise to numerous attempts to resolve it. Conflicting provisions embodied on the one hand, in the argument of Athanasius (295-378), who claimed that Christ is divine, and the other - in denying his divinity Arius. While the philosophy of Clement of Alexandria was not yet systematized, Origen, borrowed from Greek. philosophy and its concepts largely agree with the ideas of the Neoplatonists, created the first system of theology of Christianity (see. The Alexandrian philosophy).In IV. and beg. V in. Christianity first began to explore its history. The doctrine of the Trinity soon gets its final wording. Three Cappadocian Fathers engaged in systematization of theology as opposed to Arianism. From the end. IV c., T. E. With the completion of the process of formulating dogmas and strengthening the church, especially after its recognition in 313 Emperor Constantine the Great, already strikes the eye of church-political nature of patristic. After Hilary of Poitiers, "Athanasius of the West" (310-367), and Ambrose, "Latin Philo" (340-397), St. Augustine puts on the first practical theology church and its claim to leadership of the holy souls and mediation. His doctrine of the divine state ("City of God"), he lays the foundation of historical metaphysics. Against this doctrine is believed to be fought Pelagius (see. Pelagianizm).

In Russia were known and enjoyed high prestige product "church fathers", theologians and preachers: John Chrysostom, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Athanasius of Alexandria and others. A highly prized throughout the Middle Ages Russian writers gomilety (authors homilies and sermons ). The greatest authority enjoyed John Chrysostom (d. 407 g). Spiritual Heritage of the Church Fathers was called patristic (padre - father). In the history of philosophical thought representatives of the European patristic played a dual role:

1) put an end to the ancient philosophy;

2) laid the foundations of medieval philosophy.

Enslaved patristic philosophy, turning it into theology (theology) - teaching, develop and justify religious outlook.

Representatives themselves were not patristic philosophers and theologians. The content of philosophy (theology), they shall be deducted in the text of Scripture, taken from the treatises of his predecessors, the same church fathers. And so to explain to people how God created the spiritual and material world. These teachings were later called creationism (creatio - creation). According to him, the Christian God is above all and manages nature. Active creativity away from nature and attributed to God. If the pagan religions of nature and the cosmos were all-powerful and eternal, but now all it conveys God, the cosmos governed by God, and if he orders, everything will disappear and will be the first void of chaos. In place of polytheism comes monoistichesky principle: there is only one principle - God, everything else - his creations. Authentic existence has only God, and which are attributed to the pagan deities attributes: eternal, always true, and so on.

The general concept of "church fathers." And who shaped the ideology of patristic. But it is impossible to list all, why stop at St. Augustine.

Bishop Augustine (354 - 430) presented a more or less complete system of Christian worldview. His interpretation was given all the world's problems. The meaning of life - waiting for the Last Judgment and the kingdom of God on earth; origin of the world - six days of creation. Augustine was a prolific philosopher and theologian. The most famous of his works - "Confessions" and "City of God". Augustine introduced the world to Christianity thought the creator and his followers. And so far in the direction of Christian philosophy there Augustinian, which follows the life of St. Augustine.

4. Scholastics

Scholastica (Gr. Учплбуфйкьт - scientist, Scholia - «School") - a systematic European medieval philosophy centered around universities and is a synthesis of the Christian (Catholic) theology and Aristotelian logic. Scholastica characterized compound teologodogmaticheskih preconditions with the rationalistic method and an interest in formal logic problems. In everyday communication is often called scholastic knowledge, cut off from life, based on of abstract reasoning, not verified by experience. The name comes from the Greek "skholazo" - teach. In the history of philosophical thought throughout the entire period of the Middle Ages designated scholasticism. This doctrine has evolved not only within the church but also by its dictates. Scholastica engaged exclusively in the interpretation and justification of all the elements of the church world. All responses referred to the fact that "the Bible says so", "and such a psalm interprets it this way." As well as writing in general is inconsistent, then the scholars have explained her speeches of a saint or the father of the Church: "It is true, because my father-so understood it so." And the fact that the father could be wrong, it was not.

Scholastics began to move away from life - locked in the four walls of the genuine interests and vehemently discuss such burning topics bordering on the absurd: "What eats Satan?", "How many angels can dance on the end of a needle?" These questions are interesting ... child. And adults do such a ridiculous question stupid and useless for religion itself.Preachers contradicted themselves: deepening knowledge of Christianity, they claimed ignorance and illiteracy. And Pope Gregory Dialogist way, canonized, argued: "Ignorance - the real mother of Christian piety."In the heyday of scholasticism first on a par with the church was born. The Church, as was seen in the previous example, ceased to be the bearer of absolute education. Under these conditions, free-born. This ideology has created a "theory of the two truths." She suffered the problem of the relation between faith and reason to the relationship of theology and philosophy. Its essence is the doctrine of the separation of philosophical and theological truths, according to which the true philosophy may be false in theology. And vice versa. It was an attempt to approve the independence of philosophy from theology, to recognize equality. The final drop in the hearts of people rescued Thomas Aquinas Church. He became a monk, refused the money and the title. Left behind a huge library. He created the doctrine of the harmony of faith and reason, which indicates that they are in perpetual struggle. Both are sent to the light, only in different ways. Draw a line between the natural and the supernatural, Thomas declared their independence. At least outwardly. When conflicts arise, however remained on the side of God's revelation. And no natural proof can not be trusted. Since the true revelation above all, that is, like philosophy became independent, but at the same time was a strict control over any pretensions to anything to contradict. The efforts of the upper church are inseparably established autocracy. Disagree with the churchmen destroyed spiritually and physically.

5. Realists and nominalists

Medieval philosophy is characterized by two trends: the realists and nominalists. Under realism implied doctrine that the true reality have only general concepts or universals. According to medieval realists universals exist before things representing thoughts and ideas in the divine mind. And only because of this human mind is capable to know the essence of things, because this essence is nothing else than the universal concept. For many realists knowledge is possible only with the help of reason, as only the mind can comprehend the total.

The opposite direction was associated with an underscore priority will over reason and was called nominalism from the Latin word «nomen» - name. According to this doctrine the general concepts - only names. They do not have any independent existence and form our minds by abstracting some of the features common to a number of things. For example, the concept of "man" turns shelving all character of each individual, and the concentration that is common to all: the man - it is a living being endowed with mind more than any of the animals had one head, two legs, and so on.

After examining the main provisions of the philosophy of the Middle Ages, it bears repeating that medieval philosophy in general theocentric: all the basic concepts of medieval thought are related to God and determined through it.

Some Nominalists even argued that the general concepts are not more than the sound of the human voice. On this particular philosopher insisted Rostselin1. He argued that the general concepts are not more than the sound of the human voice. Really only a single and common - an illusion that does not exist even in the human mind.

Controversy and public debate between realists and nominalists very often deduced relationships beyond theology. Gradually began to discuss philosophical issues that angered church leadership.

Especially got gifted scholasticism Peter Abelard. He is still a young man entered the debate realists and nominalists and smote all the knowledge and logic. In his speeches, he repeatedly went through the churchmen.

1 - Roscellinus (1050-1120 gg.), French philosopher and theologian, chief representative ranneskholasticheskogo nominalism. For which he was not loved in some circles. Inspirer of the Crusades Bernard Klervodssky, concurrently informer and holy, said this: "When Abelard says about the Holy Trinity, he smelled a heretic Arius, when the grace of - Pelagia heretic."

Abelard wrote an essay, "Yes and no," which brought together contradictory statements of Scripture and the Fathers of the Church. He proved, citing authoritative sources church, which is one and the same question can be more than one answer "yes" or "no." But for seditious thought was exiled and died in God-forsaken monastery.

6. Problems of body and soul

According to Christianity, the Son of God became incarnate as a man to his death, to open people's road to paradise and to atone for man's sins.

The idea of the Incarnation is not only contrary to the pagan culture, but also to other monotheistic religions - Judaism and Islam. Before Christianity, the conception of the incompatibility of the two principles - the divine and the human, because it was impossible to imagine their union. Of course, it is impossible to divine indwelling soul in mortal body. But no wonder they say that religion can not understand - need blind faith. The first philosopher who tried to bring in Christian dogma, was Origen (III century). He believed that man consists of spirit, soul and body. Spirit does not belong to man, as it were granted to him by God, and always strives to do good. The soul is his own "I" is the beginning of freedom, and the will - is a crossroads, a choice between good and evil. The soul must obey the spirit and the body - soul. Evil, by Origen, does not come from God, not from man, but from the freedom of choice. In medieval philosophy, the question arises if the body itself - the evil (so claims Origen), which is asceticism? He does not give up the flesh and causes the body to obey the spirit, the highest top. According to Christian doctrine, the Son of God - the Logos, or Jesus Christ, incarnated as a man to his death on the cross to atone for the sins of mankind and thus give people salvation.

The idea of the Incarnation was not only alien to the ancient pagan culture, but also to other monotheistic religions - Judaism and Islam. Before Christianity everywhere, the conception of the fundamental difference, the incompatibility of divine and human, and therefore there could be no thought of the possibility of merging the two began. And in Christianity, where God is conceived ascended over the world because of its transcendence, and therefore separate from Nature is much more radical than the Greek gods, indwelling of God in the human body - something very paradoxical. Not casually in revealed religion, which is Christianity, faith is put above reason: the paradoxes of the mind boggles, is required to take on faith.

Another tenet that determined Christian anthropology, was the dogma of the resurrection of the flesh. Unlike earlier, pagan beliefs in the immortality of the human soul, which, after the death of the body moves in the other body (as in Plato), medieval consciousness is convinced that the man - when the time is fulfilled - will rise as a whole, in its bodily form, because, according to Christian teaching, the soul can not exist outside the body. The dogmas of the Incarnation and Resurrection of the flesh are closely related. It is these tenets formed the basis of the medieval understanding of body and soul.The question arises: if the body in medieval philosophy and theology is not in itself the origin of evil, then where there is known to all medieval asceticism, especially characteristic of monasticism? Is not there a contradiction here? And the difference between medieval monastic asceticism asceticism of those types that were characteristic of the philosophical schools of antiquity, especially the Stoics? After a call to abstinence and moderation - common motif in practical moral philosophy of the Greeks. - Austerity Middle Ages aims not denial of the flesh itself (not by chance that in the Middle Ages, suicide is considered a mortal sin that distinguished Christian ethics, in particular, from the Stoic), and the education of the flesh in order to subdue her higher - spiritual principle.

7. Achievements thinkers of the Middle Ages

English Franciscan friar Roger Bacon, as theologian and philosopher, was persecuted colleagues in the Order for a sober mind and respect for scientific knowledge. "All clergy betrayed pride, luxury, greed, greed." Of course, for such words can be and hate. After the speeches of his 10 years imprisoned in a monastery prison, in which a scientist "idleness" wrote his main work, "The main thing." Exploring the issues of religion, Bacon came to the conclusion that Christianity is not the main and only "one of the six sects" - the religions that existed at the time. He died in prison a very old man. Another Franciscan Duns Scotus first suggested that all the angels, who, of course, there are material beings. And to think the matter can not. So, according to his theory, God - something mindless. Quite an interesting version of priests.

Colorful figure was scholar John Buridan, who wrote the book "The bridge of asses" by which he wanted to reveal the principle of thinking of the foolish man. In the history of philosophy Buridan got a problem because of their passion ratio mind, feelings and will in man.

Buridan argued that human psychology is dominated by the mind that human behavior is due to his knowledge, understanding and reflection. It is thanks to him that there was such a popular expression: "Buridan donkey" or "Buridan's ass." Right and left of the donkey put on the same bundles of hay. From which he will take in the first place? Spin the head in different directions, the donkey could not decide and as a result died of starvation. Now a man unsure of his choice is named in honor of the scholar and his donkey.

After reviewing the basic provisions of the philosophy of the Middle Ages, we can confidently say that philosophy did not exist separately. It was only theology, with hints of which appeared later from her science.

Another Franciscan Duns Scotus (1270-1308) distinguished himself in philosophy, as a true materialist. Recognizing the existence of God, an angel, soul, he argued that they are material beings. He even admitted the possibility that the matter may think.

Scholastic disputes medieval theologians, philosophers large measure contributed to the development of logical thinking, the science of logic. So, poet, theologian and philosopher Raymond Lully (1235-1315) was designed "logical machine" - a distant ancestor of today's computers - by which intended for several months to train all the learning of everybody else.

William of Ockham (1300-1350) proposed a heuristic principle of scientific research, which entered the golden fund of the methodology of science. In the statement of the principle of Occam's written as: "Entia non sunt multiplicanda preater necesitatem" (Entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity). In practice, this skholastizirovannoe expression means: "In the study of things and phenomena must discard all the assumptions that are unnecessary to explain the essence of things and phenomena." This principle is known as "Occam's Razor" (guided by it, "cut unnecessary"), which, along with the laws of conservation of matter and energy, entropy, Euclid's postulate has become an essential factor in effective, heuristic, scientific research. If we, for example, are interested in the problem of the origin of the universe and let us assume (allow) that the universe was created by God, and that such an assumption would be redundant, which must be discarded, cut. For if God created the universe, then certainly there is a question: "Who created God?" 2A who created the one who created this God? "And so on to infinity. In addition to shifting the question of" Who created the universe? "God - "God created the universe?" not only brings the matter to infinity, but also creates additional difficulties to solve the problem. Indeed, instead of solving the problem of the origin of the universe, we will now have to perform additional and more complex questions: "Why is God created the universe? "" and why so, it was such a kind, and not the other, and not another type of the universe was created by God? "Thus, excessive speculation does not help to solve scientific problems, but only complicate their decision.

Conclusion

Middle Ages - a period of undivided domination of feudalism, serfdom. Middle Ages - is at the same time during the undivided domination of the Christian religion in Europe. These two features and two factors - feudalism and Christianity - led to a content, status and social position of philosophy of the Middle Ages. We already know that the whole spiritual world of the general population in the historical past and relied grow on the soil of the religious worldview. In the first century AD the Roman Empire and the religion of its population is in deep crisis. Christianity at that time was both a reflection of the religious crisis and out of it.Christianity has been a qualitative leap forward; became a fundamentally new stage in the history of religion. Instead of a belief in many gods (polytheism) Christianity offered belief in one God (monotheism); instead of the existing religions Christianity everywhere to offer humanity the world, a cosmopolitan religion. As a fundamentally new religion, Christianity could not resist, and to establish itself in its capacity as the only event that it will vigorously and comprehensively deny - at least in the initial stages of its existence - not compatible with the quality of the Greco-Roman world.For these reasons, Christianity break the chain of continuity in the history of the whole culture of mankind. A number of prominent researchers, among which is a considerable number of theologians - Christianity 1,000 years has slowed social and cultural progress of humanity. This was the result of the fact that Christianity has destroyed the entire ancient culture as pagan culture, as anti-Christian culture. Christians destroyed the Greek temples, toppled statues of their gods; banned from theaters and sporting events; burned pagan stacks, including - the famous Library of Alexandria. Together with the ancient culture were destroyed, and ancient philosophy. Decree holy and Christ-Byzantine Emperor Justinian last ancient school of Neo-Platonism in Athens was eliminated in the 529 year.

List of literature

1. Алексеев П.В. История философии: - учеб. - М.: ТК Велби, Изд-во Проспект, 2005 - 240 с

2. Лекции по философии

3. Коханский В.П. История философии -учебник для высших учебных заведений -Изд-во Феникс , 2011

4. Brentano , “ The Distinction between Mental and Physical Phenomena”, translated by D.B.Terrell, in Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint,1874

5. Gallatin,H.K., Medieval Intetellectual Life and Christianity

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