"Distributed leadership" phenomenon: social-psychological reflection of new situation

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«Distributed leadership» phenomenon: social-psychological reflection of new situation

Bazarov T.U.

Bazarova C.T.

The subject of correlation between leadership and management is the classical one in social psychology. Recently, its deliberation has been viewed whether as scholastic or abstract discussion, or as a necessary tribute to history. The matter is that different authors had separate approaches in elaboration on the question of difference between these two phenomenons: somebody identified both of them equally, somebody exempted each of it, somebody insisted on the principle of supplement.

But, at present day it is obviously the lack of existing guidance aimed at similarity and differences of the mentioned above phenomenons. The needs of contemporary management practice have been obtaining recently the features of project management, which demand new interpretation of prior regularity and research reflections on the new situation in the field of leadership and management.

Why does the leadership and management phenomenons arise scientific and practical interest along the history of communities organization? First of all, because of the fact, that in place where two or more people gather the phenomenon of leadership occurs [11]. Secondly, because people, who are in the same group can not be on the same level in relations towards each other [25]. The emergency of vast industrious undertakings possessing the key value for the whole states, the leaders of such enterprises were in the center of the research. The emergency of management as an independent research subject, symbolized the shift of attention to the leaders of small organizations.

There exists different definition of leadership. Thus, B.D. Parygin defines leadership as one of the organization and management process of the small social group, facilitating the achievement of common goals in best terms and efficiency, being determined to dominant in the social based society [24]. From G. Blondel's point of view, leadership - means certain instruction of the direction on which, finally, the action is directed [6]. Other authors consider leadership to be the process of accidental, spontaneous leadership of the group by more authoritative members of it. The Canonical understanding of leadership can be applied as the most general definition, meaning the relations of domination and subordination, influence and abidance in the system of group interpersonal relations [26]. From R. Whole's point of view, the key characteristics of leadership is that this is a peculiar form of power, narrowly connected with the form of influence - and is the ability, based on the power, to invoke voluntary accordance of followers on a wide number if questions [16].

In many cases the process of social influence in which one person can attract the assistance and support of others is referred to as leadership [8]. To summarize the mentioned above definitions, it is essential to point out that the leadership and management consideration, each time indicates on the necessity to fix the existence of the following elements in research situation: leader (manager) and his performance, followers (subordinates) and their peculiarities, as well as “social context” (organization and its external milieu, which is the condition for exercising the studies phenomenon).

Leader and his peculiarities initially is the subject of social and psychological studies in frames of different schools and theories [2,20,27]. It is assumed, that individual leader characteristics are decisive for the successful fulfillment of the leaderships activities. The given assumption corresponds to the permanent need of the society and its separate organizations to search for more successful leaders [7,19,29]. Despite, such an approach is pretty wide-spread, it remains the problematic possibility of establishing the certain list of universal manners, the accordance with which would signify the successful leadership [1,30].

The group of academicians (subordinates - in case of leadership) and its data is also viewed as the mot important determinant in the successful leadership by a number of theorists. [10,25]. Moreover, the satisfaction by the group members is considered to be one of the basic criteria to define the leader's success [3,21]. The following group data belongs to the provided element: group cohesion, the level of group development, group values, norms and expectations, role division in group, system of interpersonal relations in group itself (including the cultural one). The forms of correlation of leader and a group as a process of leadership performance appears in Western and National Psychology in the form of leader's styles [22,32], leader's target behavior [18], various veins of exchange between leaders and their followers [14,21,28].

External conditions of group functioning, as an element of leadership phenomenon, being out of other elements do not include the features of social organization, in the context of which leader and its followers exist [5,24]. Both status and powers of leaders and group, the peculiarities of their goals and aims can be related to the external conditions. The goal achievement is traditionally considered to be the second most important criteria for successful leadership.

There is some research certifying that the mentioned above issue is inseparable.

The first attempt of such a kind was endeavored by F.

Fiedler in “contingency leadership theory” [12], uniting the individual features (goal or relations oriented), situation characteristics (power position, structures of goals), as well as the relations in the system of “leader - subordinate” The importance of F. Fiedler's theory which lie in the leadership studies was broadly acclaimed by the academia. Thus, M.Chemers in his leadership theory gives the separate characterization of “contingency theory” by F. Fiedler as “sole wandering” [8].

The interrelation of separate elements of process of leadership is also allocated in National social psychology. Thus, in B.D. Parygina's opinion, there are 3 basic steps for leadership differentiation [23]:

o by the maintenance of activity: the leader-inspirer offering the program of behavior; the leader-executor, the organizer of performance of already set program; the leader who is being simultaneously both the inspirer, and the organizer.

o by management style: authoritative, democratic elements of which and other style combining in.

o by subject activity: universal, that is constantly showing the qualities of the leader, situational, that is showing qualities of the leader only in the certain, specialized situation.

J.N. Emeljanov allocates various leaders roles on the functional basis and realization. The leader-manager (coordinates activity), the leader-scheduler (develops methods and means of achievement of overall aims), the leader-politician (the leaderexpert (a source of a trustworthy information), the leader as the representative of group in an environment (official), the leader as a regulator of attitudes inside of group (all establishes the purposes and the basic lines of conduct of group), the leader as a source of encouragements and punishments (the control over activity of group participants), the leader-arbitration as the judge and the peacemaker (settlement of relations inside of a group), the leader as a symbol of group (for interaction with other social groups), the leader as the factor cancelling an individual responsibility (it is important for members of group), the leader as a conductor of outlook (a source of group values and norms), the leader as the father (focus of positive emotions of collective), the leader as "escape goat"(a target for aggression from members of the group) [11]. Apparently from this list, the part of functions is imposed on the leader by «force of circumstances » or subordinates.

The major practice issues on which researchers in the field of leadership searched for the answer are:

- A problem of leadership efficiency what conditions provide success of leadership behaviour and as well as what the essence of concept "success" ("efficiency") consists of;

- A search problem of the effective leader, what conditions allow to predict precisely, that the concrete individual will successfully borrow a leadership position, and also will achieve a goal.

If the first problem in social and organizational psychology is resolved - so success criteria traditionally is considered as achieving a set goal by a group and satisfaction of group members [1,3,21] the problem of search of the effective leader still remains the key one. The instruction on the high importance of «situational factors» success of leadership activity (external conditions, characteristics of group, feature of interaction of the leader and group) the determinant of success of leadership does not remove, most likely, the necessity of the further research individual.

leadership management social psychology

Now, key and actual for the purposes of practical activities there is a question consisting how to select or "grow up" highly effective leaders who would embrace the features as the head, and the leader. The given problem is especially common for the large companies as the developed practice of purpose of candidates on a supervising position consists that parameters of selection of the most suitable candidate quite often does not meet the results of its work.

Why does this occur? Probably, it is connected with the fact that leaders are selected by knowledge, skills, practical experience in corresponding professional area. Thus, abundantly clear, that such approach most likely is partial since it is based on the representation that the effective management can be provided exclusively owing to expert competence of the person, making administrative the decision. However, system representation about management (since F.Fiedler's researches) not simply assumes presence of two types opposing each other competencies (expert and emotional) the head which not only are different poles of a scale, but also differ on a degree of expressiveness. At crossing these two scales, we receive four stages of development of the leader. Thus, we start to speak about the leader only in the top half of system of coordinates, i.e. at a high level of development of emotional competence. However, for the highly effective leader important simultaneous development as emotional and expert competence.

Emotional competence («emotional intelligence») is in detail investigated in works by Daniel Goleman which considers what exactly the high level of development of the given competence transforms usual leaders-heads into effective leaders [13]. Under emotional intelligence ability of the leader is meant to operate the emotions, and emotions of other people, skill to come into contact and to build attitudes with various types of people, to motivate them, to create «the general vision of the future». It is considered, that «the divided future» raises feeling of mutual trust in group and allows members of group to cope better with a wide spectrum both business (tool), and social (emotional) situations [17]. Researches of parity between special knowledge and mental abilities of outstanding leaders, on the one hand, and their emotional intelligence with another, spent under direction of D.Goleman, have allowed revealing essential laws. In particular, about what a level of management there was a speech; value of emotional intelligence twice exceeded importance of all other components which are necessary for achievement of objects in view. By comparison of successful heads of the top echelon of management to their colleagues who have shown "average" results, it has appeared, that almost 90 % of individual distinctions concern elements of emotional intelligence, instead of cognitive abilities [13].

So, in what image it is possible to solve a problem of leadership in the modern organizations? First, by means of search and selection of candidates at which would be to the same extent well developed both tool, and emotional competence. Secondly, to develop data of competence. Thirdly, to create such commands in which performance leadership functions has not been concentrated on one leader, and it would be distributed between all participants of group activity.

It is possible to allocate what pluses and minuses in the first approach: unconditional plus is a presence at developed enough level necessary competencies. The minus consists that such professional is very complex for finding and it can cost very dearly. What actions undertake the companies, carrying out the given approach? Many successful organizations solve this problem, creating competencies models. They start with definition of the key moments of forthcoming activity and then interview workers with the purpose of comparison of the approach of successful and not so successful workers to execution of the duties. On results of such interviews come to light key the competence of the leader. Thus, in each concrete case the set of competencies of which the model will consist, depends on the organization and from what level of leadership is obviously necessary also sufficient. Generalization of available data (on materials of final works of listeners of a rate of professional retraining faculty of psychology of the M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University for 2002-2006) testifies that in the modern Russian organizations of competence model such elements as, as a rule, include conceptual thinking, skill to train and give precise feedback, talent to work in different groups and commands, skill effectively to operate organizational culture and internal political attitudes.

Realization of the second strategy connected with development of leadership potential of employees of the organization, is not in the last instance staticized in connection with a demographic situation in the country: decrease in birth rate and increase in a share of older persons in structure of the population [9]. Many companies, facing a problem of deficiency of the staff, start to realize, that the human resource becomes the important capital of the company. If earlier heads easily made a decision on staff dismissal, during last years the value of personnel has so increased, that a prominent aspect in management becomes training and development of the personnel. First of all is a concern to development of leaders inside of the organization due to which it and becomes effective. Therefore for the majority of the organizations begins crucial to understand, how to develop leader's qualities among the employees. Researches Hay Group convincingly testifies that the organizations which most successfully develop leadership inside of the organization start with of some basic elements in the approach to development of leaders. As shown in figure, all of them include following elements: an estimation of influence of motives and styles on an organizational climate, models competency, emotional intelligence, constant development and training, encouragement of employees by results of an estimation of activity.

The third strategy can be addressed as the distributed leadership. The phenomenon of the distributed leadership is quite often described through the characteristic of a situation when all members of group (command) are completely included in process of functioning and development and flexibly apply leadership influence in style "necessarily".

The distributed leadership includes processes of mutual influence among members of commands where the intermediary and the purpose of influence change depending on the nature of a concrete situation, and also opportunities a team member.

According to T.J. Bazarova's research and its pupils lead per 2005 on a material of sports commands (manuscript), as the key moment in realization of the distributed leadership division of authority acts. And the authority is interpreted not so much in sense of influence, how much in value of opportunities and a generality of a context. The first condition of the distributed leadership is the expansion of opportunities of everyone to carry out leadership functions. Following step to development of the distributed leadership is expansion of opportunities of all team members. In a situation of the distributed leadership team members should find an opportunity really use the conditions which are created by leaders in each concrete situation.

To be the leader means «to see and be in a context». It is important to catch a context during the necessary moment and through it to influence actions of other participants. To see opportunities in a situation and to realize them for others - the core that the situational leader does. In other words, to be the leader means "to see" (opportunities) and "to operate" (to realize them through others). In the given situation the leader chooses one from set of opportunities. It creates event, transferring management of a situation of another. The leader as though speaks: «I have found, that it is necessary to do», and the others answer «Yes, we have understood. We are ready so to operate, we know, that from us it is required further». The leader can see 100 opportunities, but it chooses one (quite probably and the most simple) and gives the leadership by another which put a plan in action further.

T.U. Bazarov allocates five basic conditions of the distributed leadership:

Balance of power. It can not be that someone has the power and someone not.

The divided purpose. Members of a command can use different tactics, but build in them one context.

Division of the responsibility. Each member of a command is responsible for work of a command. Each member of a command accepts active participation in a common cause and is responsible for the individual contribution.

Respect for each member of a command. Each member of a command brings in valuable skills and knowledge.

Creation of opportunities where each can act for each other. Members of a command transfer each other a role of the leader according to requirements of the given moment. Everyone is ready both to be the soloist, and to act in a role of accompaniment in relation to the partner.

Development of the distributed leadership assumes constant effort from members of the command, directed on inclusion in lider's behavior (and influence on a command). Such price can be paid and won in following situations: when the context of a situation demands the wide mutual adaptation and support. The vivid example where the distributed leadership as a soccer team is necessary. Why is the distributed leadership so important in football? What distinctive features of problems at which there is a distributed leadership? In opinion of members of a group of authors, it is a question of those problems of joint activity which are characterized by interdependence of participants, necessity to solve complex creative problems in the limited time interval.

The higher is the level of interdependence between tasks which are available for team members, the more is the necessity for development of the distributed leadership. In case of football, it is obvious, that removal of one player from a field conducts to reorganization of all game of a command. Interdependence in a command consisting of 11 people is an excessive problem for one leader. Here players are dependent from each other: protection against an attack and half-backs, each defender from other defender, attacking from another attacking, and the goalkeeper from protection. Interdependence is impossible without the effective organization of leadership.

The more is the problem facing the team faces is creative and original, the more is the necessity for distributed leadership development. The Soccer team solves set of creative problems for game. Football is often compared with chess. Such games as «football chess», «intellectual football» are not casually popular, where "players" (as chess players) solve for players on a virtual floor whom «to give a pass» and «how to be reconstructed», having an opportunity to think even more than day. And the most important, that "players" in a football chess decide what to do for each of the player, bearing in mind that one common decision to which they can subordinate each player in "field". Here, there is only the one leader the "player" as the God, in real football in order to solve creative tasks there must be many leaders.

The more a challenge above which the command works, the less possibly, that one member of a command can effectively conduct all command to its decision. Than more crucial the task for a command is represented, the importance of success more increases, the necessity for development of the distributed leadership is more shown.

Leadership is invariable accompanied by the responsibility. And it is frequent the responsibility lays down on shoulders of the leader. But only not in football! Here everyone is responsible for result, the mistake of any player leads to loss, the success or a successful choice of strategy leads to a victory of all command.

The more urgent task is the more is the necessity for development of the distributed leadership. There are only 90 minutes and for this time all is solved «or anything». Situations and a mini-problem demand shares of second. At counterattacks while contenders had not time to be reconstructed, to the player with a ball, it is necessary to become the leader: quickly to choose the best opportunity and to make all for its execution.

In modern conditions a parity of concepts leadership and a management undergoes a number of changes. First, from modern heads display leader's qualities is expected. It is supposed, that success of a management is connected not only with a high level of knowledge of the leader of the organization in professional area, but also considerably depends on a level of development of emotional intelligence. Secondly, one of the basic problems with which the leader in a new situation collides, necessity of constant updating of programs of activity of the organization is. Activity of the modern leader is subject to serious tests: long-term programs which have demanded serious expenses, quite often appear senseless in a situation of sharp changes. Thirdly, the new situation assumes use of new forms of collective activity. In the organizations living in a changing world, the centralized management gives up the place to the distributed leadership representing to followers (subordinates) a necessary degree of freedom in a choice of ways of individual activity, under condition of achievement of the joint result corresponding set parameters.

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