Theoretical bases of using metaphor as a means of psychological influence on personality

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Theoretical bases of using metaphor as a means of psychological influence on personality

Maryna Leonenko

Black Sea National University named after Petro Mohyla, Mykolaiv

Iryna Lysenkova

Black Sea National University named after Petro Mohyla, Mykolaiv

The article is devoted to the theoretical study of metaphor as a means of influencing personality in psychological science and practice. The works of national and foreign researchers who have studied the phenomenon of metaphor are analyzed. The origin of the definition of the concept of metaphor have been distiguished and summarized. Approaches to the interpretation of metaphor in the psychological context are analyzed. The analysis of modern scientific psychological works about metaphor is carried out. The foreign psychologists-researchers' ideas about the effectiveness of using metaphor are summarized. An overview of the problem of the psychological phenomenon of metaphor in different areas of psychotherapy have been done.

New aspects of metaphor's using in psychotherapeutic practice by authors of different conceptions have been observed. The use of metaphor in psychological and psychotherapeutic practice is defined. The understanding of the phenomenon of metaphor in psychological counseling is found out. The mechanism of the influence of metaphor on a person and its results have been presented. A special class of metaphors, metaphors of change and visual metaphors, have been considered. Recommendations for their use in working with the client have been presented. The concept of conceptual metaphor, which deals with the study of cognitive models and gestalts, have been revealed. The peculiarities of the psychological component of the metaphor and the psychological properties of the metaphor have been determined. The systemic effect of the metaphor, which determines its psychological phenomenon: the ability to activate the emotional and intellectual spheres of the individual, have been considered. The origin of the definition of the concept of metaphor have been distiguished and summarized.

Special attention is paid to the therapeutic metaphor and the effectiveness of its use. The three main functions of metaphor and more detailed and clearly structured classification of the functions of psychotherapeutic metaphors are considered in detail. The example of working process with a metaphor in Gestalt therapy is given. The aspects of effectiveness of using metaphor as a means of psychological influence on a person are generalized and formulated. Further use of the results of this theoretical study is proposed.

Key words: metaphor, psychological influence, practical psychology, personality, psychotherapeutic resources, unconscious, therapeutic metaphor.

ТЕОРЕТИЧНІ ЗАСАДИ ВИКОРИСТАННЯ МЕТАФОРИ ЯК ЗАСОБУ ПСИХОЛОГІЧНОГО ВПЛИВУ НА ОСОБИСТІСТЬ

Марина Леоненко

Чорноморський національний університет імені Петра Могили, м. Миколаїв

Ірина Лисенкова

Чорноморський національний університет імені Петра Могили, м. Миколаїв,

Стаття присвячена теоретичному дослідженню метафори як засобу впливу на особистість у психологічній науці та практиці. Проаналізовано праці вітчизняних та зарубіжних дослідників, які вивчали проблематику феномену метафори. Проаналізовано підходи до тлумачення метафори у психологічному контексті. Проведено аналіз сучасних наукових психологічних праць, присвячених метафорі та узагальнено думки зарубіжних психологів-дослідників з питання ефективності використання метафори. Зроблено огляд проблеми психологічного феномену метафори у різних напрямах психотерапії і простежено нові аспекти її використання у власній психотерапевтичній практиці авторами різних концепцій. Висвітлено використання метафори у психологічній та психотерапевтичній практиці та розкрито розуміння феномену метафори в психологічному консультуванні. Представлено механізм впливу метафори на людину та його результати. Розглянуто особливий клас метафор - метафори змін і візуальні метафори та представлено рекомендації щодо їх використання у роботі з клієнтом. Розкрито поняття концептуальної метафори, яка займається вивченням когнітивних моделей та гештальтів. Визначено особливості психологічної складової метафори та психологічні властивості метафори. Розглянуто системний ефект метафори, що зумовлює її психологічний феномен: здатність активізувати емоційну та інтелектуальну сфери особистості. Окрема увага приділяється терапевтичній метафорі та ефективності її використання. Детально розглянуто три основні функції метафори і більш розгорнуту та чітко структуровану класифікацію функцій психотерапевтичних метафор. Наведено приклад етапів роботи з метафорою у гештальт-терапії. Узагальнено і сформульовано критерії ефективності використання метафори як засобу психологічного впливу на особистість. Запропоновано подальше використання результатів даного теоретичного дослідження.

Ключові слова: метафора, психологічний вплив, практична психологія, особистість, психотерапевтичні ресурси, несвідоме, терапевтичній метафори.

Introduction

metaphor psychological influence personality

The aspect of using metaphor as a means of psychological influence has not studied enough yet in native psychology. Psychologists actively use metaphor for the purpose of psychological influence working with clients in their practical activities, however, some researchers note that the transmission of the "specifics of psychological reality" is not defined yet and this issue is relevant nowadays. Today, the metaphor has not been sufficiently studied yet by psychologists, but it is actively used in practical psychology (Ericksonian hypnosis, NLP, art therapy, Gestalt therapy, humanistic directions) as a means of psychological influence. According to this, the theme of our research is relevant and practically significant. The relevance of the topic of this study is also due to the fact that the results will be used in preparation for the next empirical step of our research.

The aim of the article is to study and theoretically substantiate the using of metaphor as a means of psychological influence on a person.

Analysis of recent research and publications

In recent years there is an active interest to the metaphor in psychological theoretical and practice activities. However, the real history of metaphor began only in the XX century, when it became an independent object of study in various disciplines such as philosophy, linguistics, psychology. Phenomenologically, metaphor can be found in all spheres of human reality, but the first sphere is language, and many philosophical, linguistic, and psychological studies began with the study of metaphoricity. In any research work, as a rule, the approach to defining this term begins with quoting ancient works, and the beginning of research interest in metaphor is usually associated with the name of Aristotle. He described metaphor as a way of rethinking the meaning of a word on the basis of similarity in his work “Poetics” [1].

A metaphor is an expression of a concept or situation in a figurative sense. It is always directly or indirectly correlated with the real world, deepening the understanding of reality and its features. The origin of the word “metaphor” is from the Greek “metaphora”, which means a vessel for carrying something, an amphora, and it brings us closer to understanding the basic mechanism of metaphor - the transfer of properties of one object or phenomenon to another [2].

As an independent object of psychological research, metaphor has been used only since the mid-1970s. D. Gordon, J. Mills, R. Crowley, K. Jol, P. Ricker, J. Lakoff, M. Johnson, M. Black, M. Erikson, A. Brushlinskyi, O. Potebniia, V. Shadrikov and others have studied metaphor in psychology at different times. It should be noted that in psychology, metaphor and other types of indirect language were initially used only as empirical material.

The strongest incitement for understanding the psychotherapeutic resources of metaphor came from the work of S. Freud, who showed the metaphorical nature of the language of mental images. Later, C. Jung and E. Berne revealed the role of fairy tale metaphors in human life and proposed psychotherapeutic technologies using metaphors in their conceptions within the frame-work of the psychodynamic approach [3].

M. Erikson's followers D. Mills and R. Crowley also used the method of therapeutic metaphor in their psychological practices. They considered it as a basic, transformative and therapeutic factor. Scientists noted that the use of metaphor in psychotherapy is ensured by the next features: the ability to reveal one phenomenon through another and the quality of softening, facilitating the perception of painful information [4].

S. Kopp, E. Rossi, J. Zeig, R. Bendler, J. Grinder, D. Gordon, F. Barker, R. Sperry, M. Hall, B. Bodenheimer and others have also studied therapeutic metaphor.

I. Mikhina defines the therapeutic metaphor as an effective tool of reconstructing the value-sense sphere of the personality, which affects the actualization of the creative potential [2]. The metaphorical material get the basic features of projective stimulus in the projective work of a psychologist. It can become like a kind of screen, which respondents use to project their thought processes, needs, anxieties and conflicts [5].

The use of metaphorical, figurative, and symbolic material by psychologists is not accidentally. It is not without reason, J. Ortega y Gasset notes that almost all modern psychological terminology is a pure metaphor [2].

We have analyzed modern scientific psychological works about this issue and can suggest that metaphor is considered as a means of activating the mental activity of the individual and as a means of emotional influence on a person. For example, L. Shragina believes that the systemic effect of a metaphor is formed as a result of the interaction of the main and auxiliary components and determines its psychological phenomenon: the ability to activate the emotional and intellectual spheres. Also, L. Shragina considers metaphor as a universal tool for realizing the function of understanding not only the external but also the internal (mental) world. It is reasonable to think that a person communicates with inner (ideal) world through metaphor. Using comparison with something from the real world a person can verbalize own unconscious feelings and emotional status, and conscious it [6].

Н. Pezeshkian concludes that the client's understanding of their own problems can be achieved easily by visual, imaginative thinking and emotionally colored imagination. This fact justifies the use of metaphors in his own psychotherapeutic practice is very difficult to perceive psychotherapeutic topics in an abstract way for many people find. In his opinion, the metaphorical material in the form of life examples, myths and parables helps to create a distanced attitude to one's own problems, when used purposefully [7].

According to O. Svirepo and O. Tumanova, metaphor helps a person to make accents in a new way and rethink about own experience, to look at everything from a distance; it allows to simplify a complex problem and make it more accessible for understanding. Metaphor is used when it is necessary to express something that is difficult to express clearly [8].

The Erickson's approach uses numerous metaphors, there have been distinguished metaphors of change as a special class among them. The metaphor of change can be represented by visual, verbal (myth, fable, fairy tale, parable, etc.) and color-spatial content [9].

Together with verbal metaphors, visual metaphors are used in psychological and psychotherapeutic practice. According to this point, O. Svirepo and O. Tumanova mean a graphic transmission of a message based on the principle of analogy, similarity, and comparison [8].

It can be a variety of images. It is important, they are meaningful and have a sense for the client. The authors know the opportunities of using visual metaphors, when the expressing of any information by client is extremely painful or impossible. From their point of view, subconscious conflicts and internal experiences are easier to express with visual images than verbally, because there is no conscious censorship.

According to L. Shragina's point of view, the psychological phenomenon of metaphor is the ability to activate the emotional and intellectual spheres, due to a person becomes able to study own leading motives [6].

S. Rubinstein notes that the whole meaning of a metaphor based on the new expressive shades, that are added in a metaphorically. The value of a metaphor is in the fact that it contains more than the formulation of a thought itself. It transforms the world of objects into a world of meanings through the features of some objects [8].

The works by L. Vyhotskyi have a special role in the study of metaphor nature as a psychological phenomenon. He believed, a metaphor, as a work of art, has a similar origin and evokes an emotional reaction based on form and content [10].

Cognitive psychology studies cognitive models and gestalts and conceptual metaphors are important there. In J. Lakoff's and M. Johnson's opinion, conceptual metaphors “can create coherent global-level conceptual structures - “cognitive models” [11, р.11].

So, no matter how diverse the approaches to interpreting the definition "metaphor", there is no doubt that metaphor corresponds to the human ability to capture and create similarities between very different classes of objects. In the psychological context, it is defined as an extension, a transfer of one reality of discourse or content to another, the ability to reveal one phenomenon through another. Metaphor is a tool for creating and representing a picture of the world, researching it, generating personal meanings, and forming the conceptual sphere of consciousness [12].

Results of the theoretical study

Taking into account the analysis of the literature, we will consider the use of metaphor in psychological and psychotherapeutic practice. A metaphor is understood as a way of metaphorically expressing a problem, experience, and personality of the client for the purpose of their therapeutic processing In psychological counseling. Metaphor specifies the content, makes information more visual and acceptable for perception. It can be called a tool for creating a picture of the world, exploring it, generating personal meanings of orientation in this world, and forming the conceptual sphere of consciousness [13].

It is believed that each person has own individual set of basic metaphors that structure his or her perception of the object and social worlds around this person. People often do not even realize that the metaphorical image of their world is very different from the images of others. Due to metaphor, a person gets the ability to see own person, own life, own work, own relationships with other people differently than usual, and thus to discover new features and depths in himself and in the world around him.

The entering of the phenomenon of metaphor into psychology gives a suggest that this stylistic way is increasingly defined as a key to understanding the foundations of thinking and the processes of creating a picture of the world, its universal image, because a person not only discovers similarities, but creates it. The metaphor generates meanings and it is perceived by the mind, creating an image and appealing to the imagination. Metaphor is a product of such a feature of thinking as associativity, which establishes connections based on similarity, adjacency, or opposition.

The metaphor, as a method of unobtrusive influence, focuses on the unconscious, has an important property: the ability to remove resistance. This happens because the transferring to an object, image or situation disables possible stereotypes of thinking, behavior and reaction that are traditionally for typical situation. Distraction from the problem makes a person freer in their thoughts, decisions and actions, revealing the huge potential of creative forces, that opens the way to solving the situation [Gordeeva, 2009].

Metaphor involves not only imagination, but also feelings and intellect. The use of metaphor actually activates all human mental systems: from perception to self-awareness.

As for the peculiarities of the psychological component of metaphor. Metaphors are most often used when thinking in the searching of a solution to a problem does not have the ready means for a typical solution or a known unambiguous answer, the metaphor isn't a tool of creating an image, it turns into a way of forming meanings and acts as a universal weapon of thinking and cognition of the world in all spheres of activity. The effectiveness of understanding through metaphor is caused by its psychological essence - the ability to activate the emotional and intellectual spheres [8].

Three main functions of metaphor, which are determined by the general methodological context of its understanding, is defined in modern psychological research. Firstly, it is the aesthetic function of metaphor. A metaphor as an aesthetic phenomenon should provoke positive emotions. A metaphor makes a speech expressive, evokes a sense of novelty and surprise, thereby realizing the idea of beauty. The aesthetics of a metaphor is only one side of it, we can say, its appearance, which makes to pay attention to it and admire its beauty (especially if the metaphor is unexpected, non-standard). But the external form often hides a diverse and rich content.

Secondly, the psychological function of metaphor. According to Aristotle, metaphor involves the process of human perception of the world into an atmosphere of psychological stability. Formed on the basis of common words, it facilitates the visual representation of information. It is transferred in the form of images. The metaphor "represents the inanimate with the animate", providing abstract concepts with dynamics and vital content. It is a tool for creating and representing a picture of the world, its research, generating personal meanings of orientation in this world, and forming the conceptual sphere of consciousness [3].

And, thirdly, the cognitive function of metaphor. The cognitive function of metaphor is realized, first of all, by its clarifying activity. Being both a cultural and a psychological phenomenon, a metaphor can be used as a natural tool of cognition, with the help of which a person creates individual image of the world and himself or herself in this world. Internal and external representation of personal meanings is successfully carried out using the metaphor [2].

Understanding and interpreting metaphors enable a person to discover not only different aspects of own life, but also to comprehend them more deeply. The depth of comprehension and non-standard interpretations of metaphors demonstrate not only the level of intellectual development of a person, but also the versatility of inner world, own value and meaningful attitude to reality and to oneself. The real existential nature of a personality is revealed in such intuitive, imaginative, emotional expression. Metaphor is an effective means of cognition, when a new concept is comprehended by comparing it to an old, already known one. Metaphor allows avoiding verbosity in judgments and contributes to their concise expression. By establishing the relationship of a concept with a certain semantic context, it specifies its meaning [9].

More detailed and clearly structured classification of the functions of psychotherapeutic metaphors is given by D. Trunov. He identifies next functions:

- expressive function is reflected in the fact that it is easier for a client to express a difficult to verbalize experience (mood, feelings, impressions, etc.) with the help of a metaphor;

- diagnostic function is based on the images chosen by the client; they are determined by own conscious and unconscious motives; it gives the grounds therapist for some diagnostic conclusions;

- dissociating function is in its externalization, i.e. moving the problem from the client's internal field to the external one, which allows the client to "see from the outside" the problem and find the ways of decision, and the psychologist to do various therapeutic interventions;

- explanatory function - due to the symbolic substitution of abstract concepts, the perception and assimilation of psychological laws and theories is greatly facilitated; metaphor allows to translate some abstract psychological theories and concepts into a visual and therefore more understandable form for the client;

- manipulative function means a more or less soft influence on the client. The client can be oriented in any way optimal chosen by psychotherapist through indirect assessment, or with the help of a metaphor etc;

- developmental function is aimed at expanding the client's existing cultural and behavioral orientations and stereotypes; enables the client to learn and get new cultural and behavioral norms and models [14].

This classification is opinionated, because metaphors are mostly multifunctional, their role depend on the context of the situation and the psychologist.

The mechanism of a metaphor's influence on a person can be described as follows: the metaphor structures life experience in such way that the solution is crystallized from the available fragments of experience and becomes obvious [15]. The moment of semantic resonance of a metaphor is experienced as recognition, clarification. If this happens, then the metaphor is perceived as significant, evoking special feelings. The result of such perception can be a changing of own opinions about the situation, role and place in the world.

The work process with metaphor in Gestalt therapy includes the following stages [16]:

Step 1. Creating a metaphor. Telling a story about the metaphor.

After creating a metaphor, the therapist offers the client to tell (in the third person) about it. It is proposed to use as many adjectives as possible to describe the objects of the metaphor, their relations, and ways of interaction.

During this process, the client studies own vision of the situation. It corresponds to the phase of working with conflation (merging with one's experience) and working with introjection (beliefs).

Step 2. Contacting. Work on assimilating projections.

The therapist helps the client to clarify the meaning of the metaphor by offering to talk about metaphor in the first person. The main task of this round is to clarify the client's blocked needs. Therefore, special attention is paid to the main character (central fragment) of the metaphor. You can use the following questions: What does the main character do? How does he do it? Why does he need it? It is important to find out: which need is frustrated?

The client can identify not only with the main character, but also with different parts of the metaphor (projective images) and assimilate the feelings and desires that belong to him. According to F. Perls, this is work with parts of the projected image, where the client becomes each of the parts in turn and at the same time lives them holistically. The polarities of each of the poles can be clarified. The therapist motivates the client to stay with the sensations and feelings that are evoked by the metaphor or image.

Step 3. Full contact. Searching the ways to satisfy needs.

When the client's projections are assimilated and introjects are analyzed, the person is able to navigate in own needs and look for new ways to satisfy them.

In this period, it is important to clarify actions the client avoids and the reasons of it. Active creative search, experimentation to expand the limits of the "acceptable", and enrichment of the repertoire of behavior are appropriate. Then work is usually going on with internal phenomenology or therapist-client contact work.

Thus, based on the above material, let us formulate the parameters of the effectiveness of using metaphor as a means of psychological influence on a person:

- is focused on the client's unconscious;

- is used as a one-time therapeutic technique and as a stable image that accompanies the entire process of psychotherapy;

- combines logical and sensory perception of the world;

- is viewed as a subject of thinking and understanding of oneself and the world;

- allows the use of the client's language without deviations and introduction of any concepts, images and concepts into map of reality;

- always refers to personal experience;

- is not a concept, but is its transmitter;

- allows to distance oneself from the problem;

- provides understanding that precedes knowledge;

- solves problems of confrontation and psychological resistance;

- can be effectively used in various activities of practical psychology.

So, it can be stated that metaphor is a qualitative method of studying the subjective world of the individual, an effective means of developing self-awareness and activating the mental activity of the individual. The various possibilities of metaphor determine its use as a diagnostic, psychotherapeutic, and developmental method. The authors of different concepts research metaphor as a multifaceted phenomenon, and its use in psychological work is very diverse and effective. Metaphor makes it possible to make each person's own inner life an object, a subject of contemplation and influence, removing the person from the problem, bypassing own instinctive defense mechanisms, shifting the focus of attention from seeing obstacles to seeing opportunities and ready-made action algorithms. The competent using of metaphorization can accompany the practical work of a psychologist from the moment of collecting information to the last behavioral check of the intervention.

Conclusions

Thus, as a result of the analysis of metaphor in psychological science and practice, we can affirm its effective use as a diagnostic, psychotherapeutic, and developmental method. The authors of different concepts consider metaphor to be a multifaceted phenomenon, and its use in psychological practice is very diverse and effective. The effectiveness of using metaphor as psychological influence for a person is confirmed by many scientists and motivates to do empirical research, which we plan to do in the next stages of our work.

The results of this theoretical research can be used in the educational process for lectures and practical classes of such as disciplines "Art Therapy", "Psychological Counseling", "Psychocorrection", "Psychology of Creativity" and in the system of training and advanced training of psychological and psychological-pedagogical personnel. Also, on the basis of the article, it is possible to further thoroughly study the psychological aspects of metaphor in psychodiagnostics and psychocorrection and the development of a methodology for psychocorrection of the emotional state of a person in conditions of uncertainty.

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