Diagnosing and psycho-educational support of children with ADHD

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Diagnosing and psycho-educational support of children with ADHD

Kazachiner Olena Semenivna Doctor of Education, Full Professor, Professor of Human Health, Rehabilitology and Special Psychology Department,

S.Skovoroda Kharkiv National Pedagogical University, Kharkiv

Boychuk Yuriy Dmytrovych Doctor of Education, Full Professor, Correspondent Member of National Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of Ukraine, Professor of Human Health, Rehabilitology and Special Psychology Department, Rector, H.S.Skovoroda Kharkiv National Pedagogical University, Kharkiv

Halii Alla Ivanivna PhD in Biology, Docent, Head of Human Health, Rehabilitology and Special Psychology Department, H.S.Skovoroda Kharkiv National Pedagogical University, Kharkiv



Abstract

In the article it was described that the number of children diagnosed with ADHD has increased significantly. Researchers are unclear as to why this is, but suspected is at least in part due to more widespread recognition of ADHD by physicians, as well as the public.

ADHD is a disorder that makes it difficult for a person to pay attention and control impulsive behaviors. He or she may also be restless and almost constantly active.

ADHD is not just a childhood disorder. Although the symptoms of ADHD begin in childhood, ADHD can continue through adolescence and adulthood.

The types of ADHD are predominantly an inattentive type, predominantly hyperactive type, combined an inattentive hyperactive type.

People with ADHD show a persistent pattern of inattention and / or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development:

Inattention. 2. Hyperactivity and Impulsivity.

Children and adults with ADHD need guidance and understanding from their parents, families, and teachers to reach their full potential and to succeed.

Mental health professionals can educate the parents of a child with ADHD about the condition and how it affects a family. They can also help the child and his or her parents develop new skills, attitudes, and ways of relating to each other. Examples include: parenting skills training teaches parents the skills they need to encourage and reward positive behaviours in their children; stress management techniques can benefit parents of children with ADHD by increasing their ability to deal with frustration so that they can respond calmly to their child's behaviour; support groups can help parents and families connect with others who have similar problems and concerns. attention impulsive behaviors

Adding behavioural therapy, counselling, and practical support can help people with ADHD and their families to better cope with everyday problems.

Keywords: children and adults with ADHD; reasons of ADHD; diagnosing; symptoms of ADHD; types of ADHD; psycho-educational support



Казачінер Олена Семенівна доктор педагогічних наук, професор, професор кафедри здоров'я людини, реабілітології і спеціальної психології, Харківський національний педагогічний університет імені Г.С.Сковороди, м. Харків

Бойчук Юрій Дмитрович доктор педагогічних наук, професор, член-кореспондент НАПН України, професор кафедри здоров'я людини, реабілітології і спеціальної психології, ректор, Харківський національний педагогічний університет імені Г.С.Сковороди, м. Харків,

Галій Алла Іванівна кандидат біологічних наук, доцент, завідувач кафедри здоров' я людини, реабілітології і спеціальної психології, Харківський національний педагогічний університет імені Г.С.Сковороди, м. Харків

ДІАГНОСТУВАННЯ ТА НАДАННЯ ПСИХОЛОГО-ПЕДАГОГІЧНОЇ ДОПОМОГИ ДІТЯМ ЗІ СДУГ

Анотація

У статті описано, що кількість дітей із діагнозом СДУГ значно зросла. Дослідникам незрозуміло, чому це так, але вони припускають, що принаймні частково це пов'язано з більш широким визнанням СДУГ лікарями, а також громадськістю.

СДУГ - це розлад, який заважає людині концентрувати увагу та контролювати імпульсивну поведінку. Він або вона також може бути неспокійним і майже постійно активним.

СДУГ - це не просто дитячий розлад. Хоча симптоми СДУГ починаються в дитинстві, СДУГ може тривати в підлітковому та дорослому віці.

Типи СДУГ - це переважно неуважний тип, переважно гіперактивний тип, комбінований неуважний гіперактивний тип.

Люди зі СДУГ демонструють постійну модель неуважності та / або гіперактивності-імпульсивності, яка заважає функціонуванню або розвитку: 1. Неуважність. 2. Гіперактивність та імпульсивність.

Діти та дорослі зі СДУГ потребують керівництва та розуміння з боку батьків, сімей і вчителів, щоб повністю розкрити свій потенціал і досягти успіху. Фахівці з питань психічного здоров'я можуть розповісти батькам дитини з СДУГ про стан і про те, як він впливає на сім'ю. Вони також можуть допомогти дитині та її батькам розвинути нові навички, ставлення та способи спілкування одне з одним. Серед прикладів: тренінги батьківських навичок навчають батьків навичок, необхідних для заохочення та винагороди за позитивну поведінку своїх дітей; методи управління стресом можуть принести користь батькам дітей із СДУГ, підвищивши їх здатність справлятися з розчаруванням, щоб вони могли спокійно реагувати на поведінку своєї дитини; Групи підтримки можуть допомогти батькам і сім'ям налагодити зв'язок з іншими людьми, які мають подібні проблеми та виклики.

Застосування поведінкової терапії, консультування та практичної підтримки може допомогти людям зі СДУГ та їхнім родинам краще справлятися з повсякденними проблемами.

Ключові слова: діти та дорослі з СДУГ; причини СДУГ; діагностування; симптоми СДУГ; типи СДУГ; психолого-педагогічна підтримка



Statement of the problem. The number of children diagnosed with ADHD has increased significantly. Researchers are unclear as to why this is, but suspected is at least in part due to more widespread recognition of ADHD by physicians, as well as the public. ADHD is now very common. It affects 6.4 million children in the United States alone. With ADHD, children experienced differences in the development of their brain, as well as their brain's activity. As a result of these differences, children with ADHD exhibit a number of undesirable behavioral symptoms. These behaviors include difficulty paying attention, trouble sitting still, and an inability to control their actions. Despite these problem behaviors, children with ADHD are typically able to understand tasks or instructions and have normal intelligence levels when compared with their peers. Although usually first diagnosed in childhood, ADHD is a chronic disorder that often last into adulthood. Scientists have not yet identified a specific cause for ADHD, but we do know that it is hereditary, meaning that it tends to run in families. Other factors associated with the development of ADHD include premature birth, brain injury at the time of birth or having a mother that smoked, used alcohol or had some degree of extreme stress during her pregnancy. ADHD is most commonly diagnosed in a primary care or specialty physician clinic. It is a difficult diagnose to make because it commonly occurs alongside other illnesses. Some of the common diagnoses that occur in children with ADHD include learning disorders, Tourette syndrome or tic disorders, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, anxiety or depression, bipolar disorder, and sleep apnea. Because these conditions commonly occur with ADHD, they should be considered any time a child is newly diagnosed. It's also important that these conditions are not misdiagnosed as ADHD since they can also occur on their own and mimic an ADHD diagnosis. There's no lab test that we use to diagnose ADHD.

Analysis of the latest research and publications shows that different kinds of problems of diagnosing and identification ADHD in children and adults were discovered by such scientists as L. A. Adler, D. M. Shaw [1], R. B. Eiraldi, T. J. Power [2], T. S. Emser, B. A. Johnston [3], K. D. Gadow [4], P. Gustafsson, E. Holmstrom [5], L. Kazda, K. McGeechan [6], B. Klein, G. Damiani-Taraba [7], C. Lugo-Candelas, C. Flegenheimer, [8],

M. McDermott [9], K. R. Overgaard, B. Oerbeck, [10], T. Widding- Havneraas, S. Markussen [11] and others.

The purpose of the article is to describe the signs and types of ADHD, the ways of diagnosing and helping such children in their education.

Presentation of the main research material. ADHD is a disorder that makes it difficult for a person to pay attention and control impulsive behaviors. He or she may also be restless and almost constantly active.

ADHD is not just a childhood disorder. Although the symptoms of ADHD begin in childhood, ADHD can continue through adolescence and adulthood. Even though hyperactivity tends to improve as a child becomes a teen, problems with inattention, disorganization, and poor impulse control often continue through the teen years and into adulthood.

Researchers at the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), National Institutes of Health (NIH), and across the country are studying the causes of ADHD. Current research suggests ADHD may be caused by interactions between genes and environmental or non-genetic factors. Like many other illnesses, a number of factors may contribute to ADHD such as:

Genes

Cigarette smoking, alcohol use, or drug use during pregnancy

Exposure to environmental toxins, such as high levels of lead, at a young age

Low birth weight

Brain injuries

People with ADHD show an ongoing pattern of three different types of symptoms:

Difficulty paying attention (inattention)

Being overactive (hyperactivity)

Acting without thinking (impulsivity)

These symptoms get in the way of functioning or development. People who have ADHD have combinations of these symptoms:

Overlook or miss details, make careless mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or during other activities

Have problems sustaining attention in tasks or play, including conversations, lectures, or lengthy reading

Seem to not listen when spoken to directly

Fail to not follow through on instructions, fail to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace, or start tasks but quickly lose focus and get easily sidetracked

Have problems organizing tasks and activities, such as doing tasks in sequence, keeping materials and belongings in order, keeping work organized, managing time, and meeting deadlines

Avoid or dislike tasks that require sustained mental effort, such as schoolwork or homework, or for teens and older adults, preparing reports, completing forms, or reviewing lengthy papers

Lose things necessary for tasks or activities, such as school supplies, pencils, books, tools, wallets, keys, paperwork, eyeglasses, and cell phones

Become easily distracted by unrelated thoughts or stimuli

Forgetful in daily activities, such as chores, errands, returning calls, and keeping appointments

Signs of hyperactivity and impulsivity may include:

Fidgeting and squirming while seated

Getting up and moving around in situations when staying seated is expected, such as in the classroom or in the office

Running or dashing around or climbing in situations where it is inappropriate, or, in teens and adults, often feeling restless

Being unable to play or engage in hobbies quietly

Being constantly in motion or “on the go,” or acting as if “driven by a motor”

Talking nonstop

Blurting out an answer before a question has been completed, finishing other people's sentences, or speaking without waiting for a turn in conversation

Having trouble waiting his or her turn

Interrupting or intruding on others, for example in conversations, games, or activities

Showing these signs and symptoms does not necessarily mean a person has ADHD. Many other problems, like anxiety, depression, and certain types of learning disabilities, can have similar symptoms. If you are concerned about whether you or your child might have ADHD, the first step is to talk with a health care professional to find out if the symptoms fit the diagnosis. The diagnosis can be made by a mental health professional, like a psychiatrist or clinical psychologist, primary care provider, or pediatrician.

It's normal for all children to have trouble focusing and behaving at one time or another. However, children with ADHD struggle with these behaviors so often, that the symptoms disrupt their ability to function normally throughout their everyday lives. Children with ADHD experience a persistence of their symptoms, regardless of whether they are at home, or at school. As a result, their grades and school performance can suffer tremendously. Friendships with other children may be challenged, as well their interactions with teachers and other school staff. Parental frustrations and dysfunction in the family dynamics can also occur, this is why physicians take this disorder very seriously.

Let's talk about the common symptoms of ADHD. The diagnosis of ADHD is actually categorized into three distinct types. The types are conveniently named based upon the main behaviour symptoms that a child displays. The types of ADHD are predominantly an inattentive type, predominantly hyperactive type, combined an inattentive hyperactive type. Keep in mind that children with ADHD usually have some overlap in symptoms between the inattentive and hyperactive types. That is why we name the types predominantly inattentive or hyperactive. When there are equal number of inattentive and hyperactive behaviors, we diagnose the child with a combined inattentive hyperactive type.

First, let's talk about the predominantly inattentive presentation. In this type, a child may have difficulty organizing or finishing a task, paying attention to details, or following instructions and conversations. Children with this type are often easily distracted, and forget the details of daily routines. The inattentive presentation is not what people often imagine when they think of children with ADHD. And it's often hardest to identify, because they're not disruptive in class, or constantly running around the dinner table at home.

Children with predominantly inattentive presentation of ADHD can go under the radar for a long time.

Now, let's discuss the predominantly hyperactive and impulsive presentation of ADHD. Children with this type fidget and talk a lot. It's hard for children with this type to sit still for long, such as during a meal, or while doing homework. A child of this type may run, jump, or climb constantly. This child may be restless, and even have trouble getting along with other kids. Children with this type may interrupt others a lot, grab things from people, or speak at inappropriate times. It's very hard for children with this type of ADHD to take turns or listen to directions. Because of their impulsiveness, they may have more accidents and injuries than other children their age. As we've mentioned before, children with this type are much more commonly recognized and diagnosed than children with the inattentive type.

Finally, let's talk about the combined inattentive hyperactive presentation of ADHD. This type is diagnosed when the inattentive and hyperactive types are equally present in one child. Like we said before, most children have some features of both the inattentive and hyperactive type. But in children with a combined type, the two types of behaviours are present in equal numbers.

Deciding if a child has ADHD is a several-step process. Healthcare professionals use the guidelines in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fifth edition (DSM-5), to help diagnose ADHD. This diagnostic standard helps ensure that people are appropriately diagnosed and treated for ADHD. Using the same standard across communities can also help determine how many children have ADHD, and how public health is impacted by this condition.

People with ADHD show a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development:

1. Inattention: Six or more symptoms of inattention for children up to age 16, or five or more for adolescents 17 and older and adults; symptoms of inattention have been present for at least 6 months, and they are inappropriate for developmental level:

Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or with other activities.

Often has trouble holding attention on tasks or play activities.

Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly.

Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (e.g., loses focus, side-tracked).

Often has trouble organizing tasks and activities.

Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to do tasks that require mental effort over a long period of time (such as schoolwork or homework).

Often loses things necessary for tasks and activities (e.g. school materials, pencils, books, tools, wallets, keys, paperwork, eyeglasses, mobile telephones).

Is often easily distracted

Is often forgetful in daily activities.

2. Hyperactivity and Impulsivity: Six or more symptoms of

hyperactivity-impulsivity for children up to age 16, or five or more for adolescents 17 and older and adults; symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity have been present for at least 6 months to an extent that is disruptive and inappropriate for the person's developmental level:

Often fidgets with or taps hands or feet, or squirms in seat.

Often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is expected.

Often runs about or climbs in situations where it is not appropriate (adolescents or adults may be limited to feeling restless).

Often unable to play or take part in leisure activities quietly.

Is often “on the go” acting as if “driven by a motor”.

Often talks excessively.

Often blurts out an answer before a question has been completed.

Often has trouble waiting his/her turn.

Often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into conversations or games)

In addition, the following conditions must be met:

Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were present before age 12 years.

Several symptoms are present in two or more setting, (such as at home, school or work; with friends or relatives; in other activities).

There is clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with, or reduce the quality of, social, school, or work functioning.

The symptoms are not better explained by another mental disorder (such as a mood disorder, anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, or a personality disorder). The symptoms do not happen only during the course of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder.

Based on the types of symptoms, three kinds (presentations) of ADHD can occur:

Combined Presentation: if enough symptoms of both criteria inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity were present for the past 6 months

Predominantly Inattentive Presentation: if enough symptoms of inattention, but not hyperactivity-impulsivity, were present for the past six months

Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Presentation: if enough symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity, but not inattention, were present for the past six months.

Because symptoms can change over time, the presentation may change over time as well.

ADHD often lasts into adulthood. To diagnose ADHD in adults and adolescents age 17 or older, only 5 symptoms are needed instead of the 6 needed for younger children. Symptoms might look different at older ages. For example, in adults, hyperactivity may appear as extreme restlessness or wearing others out with their activity.

An evaluation for ADHD often starts with a routine visit to your primary-care physician, but chances are it won't end it there. As a rule, most general practitioners are not trained in the idiosyncrasies of ADHD and its overlapping conditions, or not equipped to perform the in-depth evaluation needed. One reason is time. It can take several hours of talking, test taking, and analysis to diagnose someone with ADHD.

Any good ADHD diagnosis will begin with a clinical interview to gather the patient's medical history. This is often supplemented with neuropsychological testing, which offers greater insight into strengths and weaknesses, and helps identify comorbid conditions.

There are such diagnosis steps:

ADHD Diagnosis Step 1: The Consultation

Expect the ADHD diagnosis consultation to take an hour or longer. If your child is being evaluated, the doctor will talk to you and your child, and get feedback through checklists and written information from teachers and other adults who spend a lot of time with your child. Sometimes the doctor's office will forward these forms to you before the consultation and review them with you at the initial meeting. Other doctors will meet with you first, do the interview, and give you the forms to be filled out before your next appointment.

If you are being evaluated, your doctor will interview you and someone who knows you well --your spouse, a sibling, or your parents. She may or may not use similar checklists designed to identify symptoms of adult ADHD. The doctor will use the patient interview to determine which, if any, tests might rule out other conditions that may be causing symptoms.

ADHD Diagnosis Step 2: Testing, Testing

Most clinical interviews include completing one or more of the ADHD rating scales, as well as other tests. A proper ADHD test should do two things: determine whether a person has ADHD and rule out or identify other problems -- learning disabilities, autism, auditory processing disorders, or mood disorders. Depending on your doctor's concerns, tests may take from an hour to more than eight hours and may require several appointments.

Common tests used in diagnosing ADHD include:

ADHD rating scales. These questionnaires can identify specific symptoms of ADHD that may not emerge in the clinical interview. Answers to the questions can reveal how well a person functions at school, home, or work. The scales are specifically formatted for children, adolescents, and adults.

Intelligence tests are a standard part of most thorough evaluations because they not only measure IQ but can also detect certain learning disabilities common in people with ADHD.

Broad-spectrum scales screen for social, emotional, and psychiatric problems, and they may be ordered if the doctor suspects that a patient has a mood disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, or another condition in addition to ADHD.

Tests of specific abilities - such as language development, vocabulary, memory recall, motor skills - may also be recommended to screen for learning disabilities or other processing problems. The doctor may decide which tests to do based, in part, on which kinds of tasks you or your child find easy or difficult.

Computer tests are becoming popular because patients enjoy taking them, and because they can screen for attention and impulsivity problems, which are common in people with ADHD. These “continuous performance tests” (CPT) challenge the patient to sustain attention. A series of visual targets appear on the screen, and the user responds to prompts while the computer measures his ability to stay on task. In practice, some experts have found that these tests are better at identifying impulsive symptoms and less successful at flagging symptoms of inattention.

Brain scans. Neuro-imaging procedures, such as positron emission tomography (PET) scans, SPECT scans, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRIs), have long been used in research studies of ADHD. But their use in diagnosing ADHD has not yet been validated with conclusive scientific research. They have revealed, though, that certain parts of the brain appear different in people who have ADHD than in people who don't have the condition.

ADHD Diagnosis Step 3: Learning How to Manage Symptoms

After the clinical interview and the recommended tests are completed, most doctors will call you into the office to go over the results of your ADHD evaluation. This is the best time to ask the doctor questions. When you leave that appointment, the doctor should have formulated an action plan to manage symptoms. It should include:

A list of accommodations for work (or school) that will help you (or your child) perform well

A plan for follow-up therapy with a psychologist, therapist, ADHD coach, or another expert

Recommendations for ADHD medication, if considered appropriate

A schedule of follow-up appointments with the diagnosing physician or your primary-care doctor to see how well the treatment plan is working

The following are a few common ways in which an evaluation for ADHD may go awry or arrive at a false conclusion.

Not taking enough time. A thorough evaluation for ADHD can't be done in a 15-minute visit. Rushed visits raise the likelihood that you or your child will be misdiagnosed, or that the doctor will miss a secondary diagnosis that may be important to treat.

Diagnosing the symptoms, not the underlying problem. “Physicians sometimes misdiagnose secondary symptoms as the person's primary problem, without looking for coexisting ADHD,” says Patricia Quinn, M.D., cofounder of the National Center for Girls and Women with ADHD. In many cases, when the ADHD is treated, the secondary symptoms also improve.

Thinking that academic failure is intrinsic to ADHD. Many children with ADHD do well at school because they work hard, and teachers and doctors will not suspect they have the condition.

Thinking that a high IQ means your child doesn't have ADHD. Your child may score well on an IQ test, but her grades are mediocre and teachers “diagnose” her as being lazy or undisciplined. An evaluation by an outside psychologist may indicate that she has ADHD and/or a learning disorder.

Sticking with a doctor you don't like. If you don't feel a positive connection with your doctor - if he doesn't seem to respond to you as a person or if he reprimands you for asking too many questions - you won't have confidence in his diagnosis and ADHD treatment won't go well.

Children and adults with ADHD need guidance and understanding from their parents, families, and teachers to reach their full potential and to succeed. Mental health professionals can educate the parents of a child with ADHD about the condition and how it affects a family. They can also help the child and his or her parents develop new skills, attitudes, and ways of relating to each other. Examples include:

Parenting skills training teaches parents the skills they need to encourage and reward positive behaviours in their children.

Stress management techniques can benefit parents of children with ADHD by increasing their ability to deal with frustration so that they can respond calmly to their child's behavior.

Support groups can help parents and families connect with others who have similar problems and concerns.

Adding behavioural therapy, counselling, and practical support can help people with ADHD and their families to better cope with everyday problems.

Some schools offer special education services to children with ADHD who qualify. Educational specialists help the child, parents, and teachers make changes to classroom and homework assignments to help the child succeed. Public schools are required to offer these services for qualified children, which may be free for families living within the school district.



Conclusions

The number of children diagnosed with ADHD has increased significantly. Researchers are unclear as to why this is, but suspected is at least in part due to more widespread recognition of ADHD by physicians, as well as the public.

ADHD is a disorder that makes it difficult for a person to pay attention and control impulsive behaviors. He or she may also be restless and almost constantly active.

ADHD is not just a childhood disorder. Although the symptoms of ADHD begin in childhood, ADHD can continue through adolescence and adulthood.

The types of ADHD are predominantly an inattentive type, predominantly hyperactive type, combined an inattentive hyperactive type.

People with ADHD show a persistent pattern of inattention and / or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development: 1. Inattention. 2. Hyperactivity and Impulsivity.

Children and adults with ADHD need guidance and understanding from their parents, families, and teachers to reach their full potential and to succeed. Mental health professionals can educate the parents of a child with ADHD about the condition and how it affects a family. They can also help the child and his or her parents develop new skills, attitudes, and ways of relating to each other. Examples include: parenting skills training teaches parents the skills they need to encourage and reward positive behaviours in their children; stress management techniques can benefit parents of children with ADHD by increasing their ability to deal with frustration so that they can respond calmly to their child's behaviour; support groups can help parents and families connect with others who have similar problems and concerns.

Adding behavioural therapy, counselling, and practical support can help people with ADHD and their families to better cope with everyday problems.



References

Adler, L. A., Shaw, D. M., Kovacs, K., Alperin, S., & Spencer, T. (2015). Diagnosing ADHD in children and adults. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults and children, 16-23.

Eiraldi, R. B., Power, T. J., & Karustis, J. L. (2000). Assessing ADHD and Comorbid Disorders in Children: The Child. Journal of clinical child psychology, 29(1), 3-16.

Emser, T. S., Johnston, B. A., Steele, J. D., Kooij, S., Thorell, L., & Christiansen, H. (2018). Assessing ADHD symptoms in children and adults: evaluating the role of objective measures. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 14(1), 1-14.

Gadow, K. D., & Nolan, E. E. (2002). Differences between preschool children with ODD, ADHD, and ODD+ ADHD symptoms. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 43(2), 191 -201.

Gustafsson, P., Holmstrom, E., Besjakov, J., & Karlsson, M. K. (2010). ADHD symptoms and maturity-a follow-up study in school children. Acta paediatrica, 99(10), 1536-1539.

Kazda, L., McGeechan, K., Bell, K., Thomas, R., & Barratt, A. (2023). Increased diagnosis of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder despite stable hyperactive / inattentive behaviours: evidence from two birth cohorts of Australian children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 64(8), 1140-1148.

Klein, B., Damiani-Taraba, G., Koster, A., Campbell, J., & Scholz, C. (2015). Diagnosing attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children involved with child protection services: are current diagnostic guidelines acceptable for vulnerable populations?. Child: care, health and development, 41(2), 178-185.

Lugo-Candelas, C., Flegenheimer, C., McDermott, J. M., & Harvey, E. (2017). Emotional understanding, reactivity, and regulation in young children with ADHD symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45, 1297-1310.

Overgaard, K. R., Oerbeck, B., Friis, S., Pripp, A. H., Aase, H., Biele, G., ... & Zeiner, P. (2023). Attention-deficit / hyperactivity disorder from preschool to school age: change and stability of parent and teacher reports. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(10), 1947-1955.

Rivera, F. B. (2023). Issues in the identification, assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with ADHD. Analisisy modificacion de conducta, 49(180), 55-68.

Widding-Havneraas, T., Markussen, S., Elwert, F., Lyhmann, I., Bjelland, I., Halmoy, A., ... & Zachrisson, H. D. (2023). Geographical variation in ADHD: do diagnoses reflect symptom levels? European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(9), 1795-1803.

Література:

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