The importance of subcultures in young people’s life
Acquaintance with history of the formation and development of subcultures: mod, skinhead, hippie, rocker, goth, motorcycle club, punk and emo. Research and characteristics of former subculture of the soviet union: young pioneer organization, komsomol.
| Рубрика | Социология и обществознание |
| Вид | дипломная работа |
| Язык | английский |
| Дата добавления | 24.10.2017 |
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A regular Goth character is portrayed positively on the American television series NCIS. Abby Sciuto, played by Pauley Perrette, is uniquely Goth, but works firmly on the side of the protagonists as a highly skilled forensic scientist.
Visual art influences
The Goth subculture has influenced different artists - not only musicians - but also painters and photographers. In particular their work is based on mystic, morbid and romantic motifs. In photography and painting the spectrum varies from erotic artwork to romantic images of vampires or ghosts. To be present is a marked preference for dark colours and sentiments, similar to Gothic fiction, Pre-Raphaelites or Art Nouveau. In the Fine Art field, Anne Sudworth is a well known Goth artist with her dark, nocturnal works and strong Gothic imagery.
Some of the graphic artists close to Goth are Gerald Brom, Nene Thomas, Luis Royo, Dave McKean, Jhonen Vasquez, Trevor Brown as well as the American comic artist James O'Barr. H R Giger of Switzerland is one of the first graphic artists to make serious contributions to the Gothic/Industrial look of much of modern cinema with his work on the film "Alien" by Ridley Scott.
Ideology
Defining an explicit ideology for the gothic subculture is difficult for several reasons. First is the overwhelming importance of mood and aesthetic for those involved. This is, in part, inspired by romanticism and neoromanticism. The allure for goths of dark, mysterious, and morbid imagery and mood lies in the same tradition of Romanticism's gothic novel. During the late 18th and 19th century, feelings of horror, and supernatural dread were widespread motifs in popular literature; the process continues in the modern horror film. Balancing this emphasis on mood and aesthetics, another central element of the gothic is a deliberate sense of camp theatricality and self-dramatization; present both in gothic literature as well as in the gothic subculture itself.
Goths, in terms of their membership in the subculture, are usually not supportive of violence, but rather tolerance. Many in the media have incorrectly associated the Goth subculture with violence, hatred of minorities, white supremacy, and other acts of hate. However, violence and hate do not form elements of Goth ideology; rather, the ideology is formed in part by recognition, identification, and grief over societal and personal evils that the mainstream culture wishes to ignore or forget. These are the prevalent themes in Goth music.
The second impediment to explicitly defining a gothic ideology is Goth's generally apolitical nature. While individual defiance of social norms was a very risky business in the nineteenth century, today it is far less socially radical. Thus, the significance of Goth's subcultural rebellion is limited, and it draws on imagery at the heart of Western culture. Unlike the hippie or punk movements, the Goth subculture has no pronounced political messages or cries for social activism. The subculture is marked by its emphasis on individualism, tolerance for diversity, a strong emphasis on creativity, tendency toward intellectualism, a dislike of social conservatism, and a mild tendency towards cynicism, but even these ideas are not universal to all goths. Goth ideology is based far more on aesthetics than ethics or politics.
Goths may, indeed, have political leanings ranging from left-liberal to anarchist, but they do not express them specifically as part of a cultural identity. Instead, political affiliation, like religion, is seen as a matter of personal conscience. Unlike punk, there are few clashes between political affiliation and being "goth".
For the individual Goth, involvement with the subculture can be extremely valuable and personally fulfilling, especially in creative terms. However, it also can be risky, especially for the young, partly because of the negative attention it can attract due to public misconceptions of Goth subculture. The value that young people find in the movement is evidenced by its continuing existence after other subcultures of the eighties (such as the New Romantics) have long since died out.
Individualism and consumerism
Paul Hodkinson's book, Goth: Identity, Style and Subculture, explores how the Western cult of individualism, usually expressed via consumerism, is drawn on by goths and other subcultural groups. Many who are drawn to the culture have already failed to conform to the norms of existing society, and for its participants the gothic subculture provides an important way of experiencing a sense of community and validation not found in the outside world. Hodkinson shows how inside the gothic subculture status can be gained via enthusiastic participation and creativity, in creating a band, DJ-ing, making clothes, designing, creating art, or writing a fanzine. He suggests that the self-conscious artificiality of a subculture is a valid alternative choice in a post-modern world, compared to submitting to the invisible manipulations of popular consumerism and the mass media.
Religious Imagery. While there is no one common religious tie that binds together the goth movement, spiritual, supernatural, and religious imagery has frequently played an important part in gothic fashion, song lyrics, and visual art. In particular, aesthetic elements from Catholicism play a major role in Goth culture. Reasons for donning such imagery vary between individuals, and range from expression of religious affiliation, satire, or simply decorative effect.
Fashion
Goth fashion is stereotyped as a dark, sometimes morbid, eroticized fashion and style of dress. Typical gothic fashion includes dyed black hair, dark eyeliner, black fingernails, black period-styled clothing; goths may or may not have piercings. Styles are often borrowed from the Elizabethan, Victorian or medieval period and often express Catholic or other religious imagery such as crucifixes or ankhs. The extent to which goths hold to this style varies amongst individuals as well as geographical locality, though virtually all Goths wear some of these elements.
Confusion with heavy metal fashion
Goth fashion is often confused with heavy metal fashion outsiders often mistake fans of heavy metal for Goth, particularily those who wear black trenchcoats or wear "corpse paint" (a term associated with the black metal music scene).
Controversy
The gothic fascination with the macabre has raised public concerns regarding the well-being of goths. The mass media has made reports that have influenced the public view that goths who are people associated with this subculture, are malicious; however this is disputed and the Goth subculture is often described as non-violent. Some individuals who have either identified themselves or been identified by others as Goth, whether correctly or incorrectly, have committed high profile violent crimes, including several school shootings. These incidents and their attribution to the Goth scene have helped to propagate a wary perception of Goth in the public eye.
The Dawson College shooting, in Canada, also raised public concern with the Goth scene. Kimveer Gill, who killed one and injured nineteen, maintained an online journal at a web site, VampireFreaks.com, in which he "portrayed himself as a gun-loving Goth." The day after the shooting it was reported that "it are rough times for industrial / goth music fans these days as a result of yet another trench coat killing", implying that Gill was involved in the goth subculture. During a search of Gill's home, police found a letter praising the actions of Columbine shooters Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold and a CD titled "Shooting sprees ain't fun without Ozzy and friends LOL". Although the shooter claimed an obsession for "Goth", his favorite music list was described, by the media, as a "who's who of heavy metal".
Mick Mercer, author, noted music journalist, and world's leading historian of Goth musicstated, of Kimveer Gill, that he was “never a Goth”. The bands he listed as his chosen form of ear-bashing were relentlessly Metal and standard Grunge, Rock and Goth Metal, with some Industrial presence.", "Kimveer Gill listened to metal", "He had nothing whatsoever to do with Goth" and further commented "I realise that like many Neos this idiot may even have believed he somehow was a Goth, because they're only really noted for spectacularly missing the point." Mercer emphasized that he was not blaming heavy metal music for Gill's actions and added "It doesn't matter actually what music he liked".
Another school shooting that was wrongly attributed to the Goth subculture is the Red Lake High School massacre. Jeff Weise killed 7 people, and was believed by a fellow student to be into the Goth culture: wearing "a big old black trench coat," and listening to heavy metal music. Weise was also found to participate in neo-nazi online forums.
Other murders which are attributed to people suspected of being part of the goth culture include the Scott Dyleski killing, and the Richardson family murders, although neither of these cases raised the same amount of media attention as the school shootings.
In part because of public misunderstanding and ignorance surrounding gothic aesthetics, goths sometimes suffer prejudice, discrimination, and intolerance. As is the case with members of various other controversial subcultures and alternative lifestyles, outsiders sometimes marginalize goths, either by intention or by accident. Goths, like any other alternative sub-culture sometimes suffer intimidation, humiliation, and, in extreme cases, physical violence for their involvement with the subculture.
In 2006 four goths were attacked in San Diego California by a Navy man and his brother resulting in one Goth, Jim Howard, having to be rushed to the hospital to undergo surgery in order to repair the damage that was done. The perpetrators of this attack were found guilty in August of 2007 on four related accounts, two of which were felonies. It was made clear that the goths were assaulted due to their subculture affiliation. This can be otherwise known as a "hate crime" though the San Diego courts do not recognize this attack as such at this time.
On August 11, 2007, two goths, walking through Stubbylee Park in Bacup, Lancashire, England were attacked by a group of teenagers because they were goths. Sophie Lancaster subsequently died from her injuries.
Criticism
In contrast to postcolonialist literary and cultural critics who see goth as eurocentric and laden with racist connotations, film historian David J. Skal argues that horror cinema has always served as a socially acceptable outlet for subversive social criticism, and thus neither horror imagery nor (by extension) the Gothic subculture adhere to the description suggested by these critics.
Cartoonist Jhonen Vasquez has satirized the Goth subculture in his comics Johnny the Homicidal Maniac, I Feel Sick, and Fillerbunny. Vasquez depicts it as showing tendencies towards backbiting, unoriginality, and conceit. At the same time, his work is also self-mocking, particularly when it touches on issues such as murder and depression (common in Johnny the Homicidal Maniac), which are topics of interest in Goth subculture.
1.6 Motorcycle club
A motorcycle club (MC) is an organized club of dedicated motorcyclists who join together for camaraderie, strength of numbers, and peer group acceptance. Motorcycle clubs have a group of elected officers, a probationary period for new members, and a measure of privacy about their internal structure, bylaws, and membership. As part of becoming a full member, an individual must pass a vote of the membership and swear some level of allegiance to the club. Each club has a unique club patch (or patches) adorned with the term "MC" that are worn on the riders vest, known as colors. Membership in an MC is much different than membership in a motorcycle riding club, because it is the pinnacle of the counterculture, "outlaw" biker lifestyle.
Motorcycle clubs are historically divided into two types: One-percenters, and everyone else (or 99-percenters). One-percent clubs were named in a famous statement attributed to the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA), describing certain troublemakers as only one percent of motorcyclists. There are a great many clubs for motorcycle riders who refer to themselves generically as motorcycle clubs. Though technically correct, these clubs are not considered MCs by members of "outlaw" MCs, i.e clubs who wear an MC patch, who regard these other clubs as motorcycle riding clubs. In the UK they are designated as MCCs.
History
The oldest motorcycle clubs in the U.S. are the Yonkers MC, founded in 1903, the San Francisco MC, founded 1904, and the Oakland MC, founded in 1907.
Membership
The typical internal organization of a motorcycle club consists of a president, vice president, treasurer, secretary, road captain, and sergeant-at-arms. Localized groups of a single, large MC are called chapters, and the first chapter established for an MC is referred to as the mother chapter. The president of the mother chapter serves as the president of the entire MC, and sets club policy on a variety of issues.
The membership process for most motorcycle clubs begins as a guest or "hang-around", wherein an individual is invited to some club events or meets club members at known gathering places. If the guest is interested, or a club asks the hangaround to join he may become a member. If accepted, they remain a prospective member, or prospect, for some minimum time period, participating in some club activities, but not having voting privileges, while they are evaluated for suitability as full members. Some clubs refer to a potential member as a probationary member or probate, though probationary status is usually reserved for those that already have the necessary knowledge and experience to be members. For example, if an entire chapter switches from one club to another, the members are probationary members for some period of time.
Some amount of hazing may occur during the prospecting period, ranging from the mandatory performance of menial labor tasks for full patch members to sophomoric pranks, and, in the case of some outlaw motorcycle clubs, acts of civil disobedience or crime. During this time, the prospect may wear the club name on the back of their vest, but not the full logo, though this practice may vary from club to club. To become a full member, the prospect or probate must be voted on by the rest of the full club members. Successful admission usually requires more than a simple majority, and some clubs may reject a prospect or a probate for a single dissenting vote. A formal induction follows, in which the new member affirms his loyalty to the club and its members. The final logo patch is then awarded. Full members are often referred to as "full patch members" and the step of attaining full membership can be referred to as "being patched".
Most one-percenter MCs do not allow women to become full-patch members, but women can hold special status with the club. Membership in what authorities term 'Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs' is often racist as well as sexist, and membership in the Hells Angels is closed to African-Americans, Native Americans, and Jews. MC members are not usually referred to by their given names, but instead refer to each other by nicknames, or road names, sometimes even displaying their road name on the club vest. Whether or not this practice was carried over from the military aviation history of colorful pilot callsigns is not known.
Larger motorcycle clubs often acquire real estate for use as a clubhouse or private compound. These clubs often have security features such as closed-circuit television monitors, motion detector lights, and barbed wire-topped fences. As well, the clubhouse or compound walls may be reinforced materials such as plate steel or kevlar to provide ballistic protection.
Colors
OPP Sgt. Dave Rector positions Bandidos vest seized in raids near Iona Station prior to a news conference in London, Ontario. Note MC and 1% patches.
The primary visual identification of a member of an MC is the vest adorned with a specific large club patch or patches, predominantly located in the middle of the back. The patch will contain a club logo, the name of the club, and the letters "MC", and a possible state, province, or other chapter identification. This garment and the patches themselves are referred to as the "colors", or, sometimes, "cuts", a term taken from the early practice of cutting the collars and/or sleeves from a denim or leather jacket. Many non-outlaw motorcycle riding clubs (as opposed to MCs) such as Harley Owners Group (HOG) also wear patches on the back of their jackets or vests, but the letters "MC" are nowhere to be seen on such patches. This is an important distinction, for only true motorcycle clubs sport the "MC" moniker.
The colors will either consist of a, one-piece patch, two-piece patch, or a three piece patch. The Three Piece Patch Set consists of; the top and bottom patches, usually crescent shaped, are referred to as rockers. The number and arrangement of patches is somewhat indicative of the nature of the club. Most one-percenter clubs will have a three-piece patch arrangement; few have a one-piece arrangement. Not all (or even most) clubs sporting a three-piece patch are one-percenters, however. The club patches always remain property of the club itself, not the member, and only members are allowed to wear the clubs colors. A member must closely guard their colors, for allowing ones colors to fall into the hands of an outsider is an act of disgrace and may result in loss of membership in a club, or some other punishment. Contrary to recent popular belief, a 5 Piece Patch Set does not exist. The separate designation patch (MC, VC, SBR, etc) is sometimes called the CUE Patch. Some clubs do not count it as part of the color set.
Law enforcement agencies have confiscated a clubs colors and other club paraphernalia when they raid a clubhouse or the home of an MC member, and they often display these items at press conferences. These items are then used at trial to support prosecution assertions that MC members perform criminal acts on behalf of their club. Courts have found that the probative value of such items is far outweighed by their prejudicial effects on the defense.
One Percenters
Members of motorcycle clubs are often viewed in a negative light by traditional society. This perception has been fueled by the movies, popular culture, and highly publicized incidents. One of the earliest and most notorious of these occurred in Hollister, California in 1947 and is now dubbed the Hollister riot. Whether or not an actual riot occurred is debatable, but there was a motorcycle rally in Hollister from July 4 to July 6 of that year that was attended by about 4000 people. Several newspaper articles were written that, according to some attendees, sensationalized the event and Life magazine ran an article and a staged photograph of an intoxicated subject on a motorcycle parked in a bar. The film The Wild One, starring Marlon Brando, was inspired by the event, and it became the first in a series of movies that depicted bikers and members of motorcycle clubs in this stereotypical manner. The press asked the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) to comment on the Hollister incident and their response was that 99% of motorcyclists were law-abiding citizens, and the last one percent was outlaws. Thus was born the term, "one percenter".
During the 1940s and 1950s, at rallies and gatherings sponsored by the AMA, prizes were awarded for nicest club uniform, prettiest motorcycle, and so forth. Some clubs, however, rejected the clean-cut image and adopted the "one-percenter" moniker, even going so far as to create a diamond shaped 1% patch to wear on their vests as a badge of honor. Another practice was to cut their one-piece club patches into three or more pieces as a form of protest, which evolved into the current form of three-piece colors worn by many MCs today. One-percenter clubs point out that the term "one-percenter" simply means that they are committed to "biking and brotherhood", where riding is not just a weekend activity, but a way of living. These clubs assert that local and national law enforcement agencies have co-opted the term to paint them as criminals.
Sonny Barger and others went even further than wearing the rhombus-shaped patch on their colors and had the symbol tattooed on their upper bodies. In his autobiography, Mr. Barger recalls how, early on (1950's), there was an informal agreement amongst the one-percenters, regardless of gang affiliation, with certain guidelines such as "no stealing" (from each other), no "rat-packing" (on fellow one-percenters) and so forth. However, Sonny and his fellow members soon quit the "one-percenters club" because, as he describes it in his book, they felt that the other self-described one-percenters were not of equal status to the Hells Angels, and since a Hells Angel's primary allegiance needed to be to his fellow Angels, there was no need or desire for any such further affiliation with this self-described group.
Ninety-Nine Percenters
While one-percenters garner much publicity for their activities and misdeeds, there are many, many more motorcycle clubs and bikers that instead identify as ninety-nine percenters, that is to say, not one-percenters. Indeed, as of March, 2006, the American Motorcyclist Association, an organization that is the very antithesis of one-percenters, counts 269,884 active members and many chartered clubs.
99%er MCs include police, military, and firefighter clubs (or a combination thereof) such as the Iron Pigs MC, Steel Horse Posse MC, Iron Warriors MC, Shamrocks MC, Blue Knights MC, Choir Boys MC, Knights Paladin MC, and Wind and Fire MC. Various military and veterans MCs include the U.S. Military Vets MC, the Warrior Brotherhood Vets MC, the Vietnam Vets MC, the Leathernecks MC, American Badgers MC, and the Buffalo Soldiers MC. Still other MCs include the Boozefighters and the San Francisco MC. One online directory of MCs lists 216 clubs.
In addition to the many independent and "outlaw" MCs, there are a great many motorcycle riding clubs, including those sponsored by various manufacturers, such as the Harley Owners Group, Iron Indian Riders Association, Honda Riders Club of America, BMW Motorcycle Owners of America, and several others. Other riding clubs exist for a specific purpose, such as the Patriot Guard Riders, who provide funeral escorts for military veterans.
Outlaw Motorcycle Clubs
Anthropologist Daniel R. Wolf, who wrote his PhD thesis based on original research done during his membership with the Rebels MC in Canada, defined an outlaw motorcycle club as, "technically," ... "a club that is not registered with the American Motorcycle Association (AMA) or the Canadian Motorcycle Association (CMA), which are the respective governing bodies for the sport of motorcycling in the United States and Canada. The AMA and CMA are themselves affiliated with the Fйdйration Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM), the international coordinating body for motorcycling whose headquarters are located in Paris, France." It is significant to note that this is a much broader definition than both the term "one-percenter", and the one used by law enforcement agencies in describing what they now refer to as outlaw motorcycle gangs.
Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs
Both the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Criminal Intelligence Service Canada have designated four MCs as Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMGs), which are the Pagans, Hells Angels, Outlaws MC, and Bandidos, known as the "Big Four". These four have a large enough national impact to be prosecuted under the Federal Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations statute. The FBI asserts that OMGs support themselves primarily through drug dealing, trafficking in stolen goods, and extortion. They fight over territory and the illegal drug trade. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police Gazette, quoting from the Provincial Court of Manitoba, defines these groups as: "Any group of motorcycle enthusiasts who have voluntarily made a commitment to band together and abide by their organizations' rigorous rules enforced by violence, who engage in activities that bring them and their club into serious conflict with society and the law".
The FBI asserts that OMG's collect $1 billion in illegal income annually and that street gangs, prison gangs, and OMGs are the primary retail distributors of illegal drugs in the US, with OMGs dominating US meth trade distribution. In 1985, a three-year, eleven-state FBI operation named Roughrider culminated in the largest OMG bust in history, with the confiscation of $2 million worth of illegal drugs, as well as an illegal arsenal of weapons, ranging from UZI submachine guns to antitank weapons.
Canada, especially, has, in the past two decades, experienced a significant upsurge in crime involving outlaw motorcycle gangs, most notably in what has been dubbed the Quebec Biker war, which has involved more than 150 murders (plus a young bystander killed by an exploding car bomb), 84 bombings, and 130 cases of arson. The increased violence in Canada has been attributed to turf wars over the illegal drug trafficking business, specifically relating to access to the Port of Montreal , but also as the Hells Angels have sought to obtain control of the street level trade from other rival and/or independent gangs in various regions of Canada.
Members and supporters of these clubs insist that illegal activities are isolated occurrences. They, as a whole, are not criminal organizations. They often compare themselves to police departments, wherein the occasional "bad cop" does not make a police department a criminal organization. One biker website has a news section devoted to "cops have gone badly" to support their point of view, and the Hells Angels sponsors charitable events for Toys for Tots.
Relationships between MCs
In the United States, many MCs have established state-wide MC confederations. These confederations are composed of MCs who have chapters in the state, and the occasional interested third party organization. The confederation holds periodic meetings on neutral ground, wherein representatives from each club (usually the presidents and vice-presidents, but not always) meet in closed session to resolve disputes between clubs and discuss issues of common interest.
The largest one-percent club tends to dominate the confederation, using their numbers to impose their will on other clubs. Sometimes clubs are forced into, or willingly accept, "support" roles for a one-percent club. Smaller clubs who resist a large one-percent club have been forcibly disbanded, e.g. told to hand over their colors or risk war. With the exception of Law Enforcement Clubs, smaller clubs usually comply, since members of a family club are usually unwilling to risk injury or worse. Another tactic used by one-percent clubs is to force smaller clubs to join the AMA and wear an AMA patch. This is considered an act of shame by some clubs, and a club thus forced may wear an upside-down AMA patch on their colors as a form of protest and to retain their dignity.
Certain large one-percent MCs are rivals with each other and will fight over territory and other issues. In 2002, members of the Mongols MC and the Hells Angels MC had a confrontation in Laughlin, Nevada at the Harrah's Laughlin Casino that left three bikers dead. Police intelligence reports indicate that the Mongols may have initiated the confrontation to bolster their status. Another melee, this time between the Hells Angels and the Pagans MC, occurred in February, 2002 at a Hells Angels convention. Police reports indicate the Pagans were outraged that the event was held on what they considered their "home turf".
Motorcycle clubs in popular culture
Part of the mystique surrounding MCs has been driven by books, movies and television, beginning with the so-called Hollister riot in 1947, about which two articles appeared in the San Francisco Chronicle, and another in Life Magazine featuring a large staged photograph of an intoxicated subject on a motorcycle parked in a bar.
A series of biker movies followed, beginning with The Wild One, starring Marlon Brando, and culminating with the award-winning Easy Rider, with its iconic Captain America chopper. Many of these were B movies, a staple of 1960s drive-in theaters. In 1966, Hunter S. Thompson (who later started the movement known as gonzo journalism) wrote Hell's Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs, giving readers their first inside glimpse into the most notorious motorcycle club of all.
The 1969 Altamont Free Concert incident thrust the Hells Angels front and center for the killing of a concert-goer by a Hells Angels member, Alan Passaro, who was, along with other club members, by some reports, providing security for the Rolling Stones at the event. Meredith Hunter, was stabbed multiple times by Passaro and other Hells Angels members. Film evidence later showed that Meredith Hunter was holding a gun. Passaro was charged with murder but was later found to be acting in self-defense and acquitted.
Since Hunter S. Thompson's ground-breaking book, more books have followed, including former Angels president Sonny Barger's, Hell's Angel: The Life and Times of Sonny Barger and the Hell's Angels Motorcycle Club, and, more recently, Edward Winterhalder's account of the Bandidos, Out In Bad Standings; Inside The Bandidos Motorcycle Club. William Queen`s “Under and Alone: The True Story of the Undercover Agent Who Infiltrated America's Most Violent Outlaw Motercycle Gang”
· The Discovery Channel has featured looks inside several MCs including the Devil Dolls. The film Beyond the Law is based on the true story of Dan Black, an undercover officer who infiltrated a one-percenter MC. The 2007 Disney film Wild Hogs tells the story of four friends who have an encounter with the fictional Del Fuegos MC. The original script used the Hells
1.7 Punk
The punk subculture is a subculture that is based around punk rock. It emerged from the larger rock music scene in the mid-to-late-1970s in the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia. The punk movement has spread around the globe and developed into a number of different forms.
Punk culture encompasses distinct styles of music, ideologies, fashion, visual art, dance, literature, and film. Punk also lays claim to a lifestyle and community. The punk scene is composed of an assortment of smaller subcultures, such as «Oi!» and pop punk. These subcultures distinguish themselves through unique expressions of punk culture. Several subcultures have developed out of punk to become distinct in their own right, including hardcore, Goth and psychobilly. The punk movement has had a tumultuous relationship with popular culture, and struggles to resist commercialization and appropriation.
History
The punk subculture emerged in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and South Africa in the mid-to-late-1970s, and has since undergone several developments. The punk subculture originated from a number of antecedents and influences. Various philosophical and artistic movements influenced and preceded the punk movement. In particular, several strains of modern art anticipated and affected punk. Various writers, books, and literary movements were important to the formation of the punk aesthetic. Punk rock has a variety of musical origins in the rock and roll genre. Previous youth subcultures also had major influences on punk.
The earliest form of punk, retroactively named protopunk, arose in the north-eastern United States in the early-to-mid-1970s. The first ongoing music scene that was assigned the punk label appeared in New York City between 1974 and 1976. Around that same time, a punk scene developed in London. Soon after, Los Angeles became home to the third major punk scene. These three cities formed the backbone of the burgeoning movement, but there were also other scenes in cities such as Brisbane, and Boston.
Starting in 1977, the subculture diversified, and factions such as 2 tone and Passi-punk came into their own. As the punk movement began to lose steam, Pop-punk, «New Wave», and No Wave gained the media's attention. Sometime around the early 1980s, punk underwent a renaissance in the form of the hardcore punk subculture. Hardcore proved fertile in much the same way as the original punk subculture, producing several new groups. These subcultures stand alongside the older subcultures under the punk banner.
The underground punk movement in the United States in the 1980s produced scenes that either evolved from punk or claimed to apply its spirit and DIY ethics to a completely different music, securing punk's legacy in the alternative rock and indie scenes. The commercial success of alternative rock gave way to another style that the mainstream media dubbed pop punk. A new movement in America became visible in the early and mid-1990s, claiming to be a revival of punk.
Music
Music is the most important aspect of the punk subculture. Punk music is called punk rock, sometimes shortened to punk. Most punk rock is performed in a specific style of rock music, although punk musicians sometimes incorporate elements from other genres. Different punk subcultures often distinguish themselves by having a unique style of punk rock, although not every style of punk rock has its own associated subculture. Most punk rock songs are short, have simple and somewhat basic arrangements and feature lyrics that express punk values. Punk rock is usually played in bands instead of by solo artists.
Ideology
Punk ideology is concerned with the individual's intrinsic right to freedom, and a less restricted lifestyle. Punk ethics espouse the role of personal choice in the development of, and pursuit of, greater freedom. Common punk ethics include the DIY (Do It Yourself) ethic, a radical rejection of conformity, direct action for political change, and not selling out to mainstream interests for personal gain.
Punk politics cover the entire political spectrum, although most punks find themselves categorized into left-wing or progressive views. Punks often participate in political protests for local, national or global change. Some common trends in recent punk politics include anarchism, anti-authoritarianism, anti-militarism, anti-capitalism, anti-racism, anti-sexism, anti-nationalism, anti-homophobia, environmentalism, vegetarianism, veganism, and animal rights. Some individuals within the subculture hold right-wing views (see Conservative punk) or other political views conflicting with the aforementioned, though these comprise a minority.
Fashion
Punks seek to outrage propriety with the highly theatrical use of clothing, hairstyles, cosmetics, tattoos, jewelry and body modification. Early punk fashion adapted existing objects for aesthetic effect: ripped clothing is held together by safety pins or wrapped with tape; ordinary clothing is customized by embellishing it with marker or adorning it with paint; a black bin liner becomes a dress, shirt or skirt; safety pins and razor blades are used as jewelry. Leather, rubber, and vinyl clothing are also popular, possibly due in part to the fact that the general public associates it with transgressive sexual practices like bondage and S&M. Punks also sometimes wear tight "drainpipe" jeans, T-shirts with risquй images, rocker jackets (which are often decorated by painting on band logos, adorning the lapels and pocket flaps with pins and buttons, and covering sections of the jacket, especially the back and sleeves of the jacket, in large numbers of carefully placed studs or spikes), and footwear such as Converse sneakers, skate shoes, brothel creepers, or Dr. Martens boots.
Some punks style their hair to stand in spikes, cut it into Mohawks or other dramatic shapes, often coloring it with vibrant, unnatural hues. Punks tend to adorn their favorite jacket or vest with pin-back buttons and patches of bands they love and ideas they believe in, telling the world around them a little bit about who they are. They sometimes flaunt taboo symbols such as the Iron Cross. Some early punks occasionally wore clothes displaying a Nazi swastika for shock-value, but most modern punks are staunchly anti-racist and are more likely to wear a crossed-out swastika symbol.
In contrast to punks who believe the fashion is a central part of the punk subculture, there are some punks who are decidedly "anti-fashion," arguing that music and/or ideology should define punk, not fashion. This is most common in hardcore punk.
Visual art
Punk aesthetics determine the type of art punks enjoy, usually with underground, minimalistic, iconoclastic and satirical sensibilities. Punk artwork graces album covers, flyers for concerts, and punk zines. Usually straightforward with clear messages, punk art is often concerned with political issues such as social injustice and economic disparity. The use of images of suffering to shock and create feelings of empathy in the viewer is common. Alternatively, punk artwork may contain images of selfishness, stupidity, or apathy to provoke contempt in the viewer. Much of the earlier artwork was in black and white, because it was distributed in zines reproduced at copy shops. Punk art also uses the mass production aesthetic of Andy Warhol's Factory studio. Punk played a hand in the revival of stencil art, spearheaded by Crass. The Situationists also influenced the look of punk art, particularity that of the Sex Pistols. Punk art often utilizes collage, exemplified by the art of Crass, Jamie Reid, and Winston Smith. John Holmstrom was a punk cartoonist who created work for the Ramones and Punk Magazine. The Stuckism art movement had its origin in punk, and titled its first major show The Stuckists Punk Victorian at the Walker Art Gallery during the 2004 Liverpool Biennial. Charles Thomson, co-founder of the group, described punk as "a major breakthrough" in his art.
Dance
The punk subculture has developed a variety of dancing styles, some which appear chaotic and violent. This has led some punk concerts to look like small-scale riots. The dance styles most associated with punk rock are pogo dancing (allegedly invented by Sid Vicious of the Sex Pistols) and moshing (known earlier as slam dancing). Stage diving and crowd surfing were originally associated with protopunk bands such as The Stooges, and have appeared at punk, metal and rock concerts. Ska punk promoted an updated version of skanking and Hardcore dancing is a later development influenced by all of these styles.
Literature
Punk has generated a considerable amount of poetry and prose. Punk has its own underground press in the form of punk zines, which feature news, gossip, cultural criticism, and interviews. Some zines take the form of perzines. Important punk zines include Maximum RocknRoll, Punk Planet, Cometbus, and Search & Destroy . Several novels, biographies, autobiographies, and comic books have been written about punk. Love and Rockets is a notable comic with a plot involving the Los Angeles punk scene.
Examples of punk poets include: Jim Carroll, Patti Smith, John Cooper Clarke, Seething Wells, Raegan Butcher, and Attila the Stockbroker. The Medway Poets performance group included punk musician Billy Childish and had an influence on Tracey Emin. Jim Carroll's autobiographical works are among the first known examples of punk literature. The punk subculture has inspired the cyberpunk and steampunk literature genres.
Film
Many punk films have been made, and punk rock music videos and punk skate videos are common. The use of stock footage typifies punk film. Several famous groups have participated in movies, such as the Ramones in Rock 'n' Roll High School and the Sex Pistols in The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle. Some well-known punks have even had biopics made about them, such as Sid and Nancy, which tells the story of Sid Vicious (portrayed by Gary Oldman) and Nancy Spungen (portrayed by Chloe Webb).
Original footage of punk bands is also often used in music documentaries. The seminal punk documentary is The Filth and the Fury, detailing the rise of the Sex Pistols. In addition to the members of that band and its affiliates (Malcolm McLaren, Vivienne Westwood, Nancy Spungen, etc.) it also features archival footage of Billy Idol, Sting, Shane McGowan, and a young teenaged girl who would grow up to be Siouxsie Sioux, among others. One of the highlights of the movie is footage of the Sex Pistols playing "God Save the Queen" on a barge in the middle of the Thames during the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II, and their subsequent arrest.
The No Wave Cinema and Remodernist film movements owe much to punk aesthetics. Derek Jarman and Don Letts are notable punk filmmakers. Many other films are associated with punk, such as 24 Hour Party People, which presents the evolution of punk rock into New Wave and Madchester, and Threat, which focuses on militant Straight edge punks in the New York hardcore scene.
Lifestyle
Punks can come from any and all walks of life and economic classes. The subculture is predominantly male, with the exception of the riot grrrl movement. Compared to some alternative cultures, punk is much closer to being gender equalist in terms of its ideology. Although the punk subculture is mostly anti-racist, it is vastly white (at least in predominantly-white countries). However, members of other groups (such as Blacks, Latinos, Asians and Cambodians)have also contributed to the development of the subculture. Substance abuse has sometimes been a part of the punk scene, with the notable exception of the straight edge movement. Violence has also sometimes appeared in the punk subculture, but has been opposed by some subsets of the subculture, such as the pacifist strain of anarcho-punk.
Community
Punks often form a local scene, which can have as few as half a dozen, or as many as thousands of members. The local scene usually has a small group of dedicated punks surrounded by a more casual periphery. A typical punk scene is made up of bands, fans, zine publishers, visual artists, clothing makers, and those who work at music venues or independent record labels. Squatting plays a role in some punk communities, providing shelter and other forms of support. Squats and punk houses sometimes provide bands a place to stay while on tour. There are some punk communes, such as the Dial House. The Internet has been playing an increasingly larger role in punk, specifically in the form of virtual communities and file sharing programs.
Subcultures within punk
The punk subculture is made up of a diverse assortment of subgroups that distinguish themselves from one another through different attitudes, music, and clothing styles. Some of these groups are antagonistic towards one another, and there is widespread disagreement within punk whether or not some are even part of the larger subculture. An individual punk may identify with several of these factions or none in particular.
|
Subculture |
Origins |
Music |
Major bands |
Ideology & Lyrics |
Fashion |
|
|
Anarcho-punk |
1970s and 1980s United Kingdom |
Range of punk music styles |
MDC, Crass, Conflict, Flux of Pink Indians, Subhumans |
Anarchism and other political and social themes |
Anarchist symbolism, often all-black militaristic dress |
|
|
Art punk |
Mid-1970s New York City |
Protopunk, art rock |
Television, Wire, Suicide |
Bohemianism, abstract lyrics |
||
|
Celtic punk |
1970s Ireland and United Kingdom |
Punk rock, Celtic music, Oi!, Celtic rock |
Dropkick Murphys, Flogging Molly, The Real Mckenzies, The Pogues |
Scottish, Irish or Welsh themes, various spiritual or social issues, working class pride |
Includes a variety of punk and skinhead styles, as well as influences from Celtic heritage |
|
|
Christian punk |
Early 1980s American hardcore |
Hardcore punk and a range of other punk styles |
Headnoise, The Crucified, Crashdog, Flatfoot 56 |
Various spiritual, political and social themes. Some profess as Christian Anarchists |
Variety of punk styles, such as Anarcho/Crust punk, DIY, anti-fashion, and hardcore punk |
|
|
Crust punk |
Late 1980s to early 1990s anarcho-punk |
Similar to grindcore; uses elements of d-beat; fuses anarcho-punk, heavy metal, hardcore |
Amebix, Doom, Nausea, Antisect |
Anarchism |
Anarchist symbolism, DIY clothing |
|
|
Deathrock |
Late 1970s California punk |
Punk and post-punk-influenced west coast United States Goth rock |
Christian Death, 45 Grave, Cinema Strange |
Horror film themes, Nihilism |
Black clothing, torn fishnets, makeup, deathhawks, Doc Martins |
|
|
Embryo punk[citation needed] |
late 1990s in Amsterdam the Netherlands |
A mix of anarcho-punk and hardcore punk, mostly influenced by American west coast hardcore. |
Gewapend Beton, Brat Pack, Antidote, NRA |
Anarchism, Left-wing politics |
Hardcore punk fashion, similar to late-1970s UK punk style |
|
|
Folk punk |
Late 1970s United Kingdom |
Fuses folk music and punk rock |
The Pogues, Attila the Stockbroker, Billy Bragg, Defiance, Ohio, The Levellers |
Various themes, including leftist ideologies |
Various styles, usually plain |
|
|
Glam punk |
Early 1970s north-eastern United States |
Protopunk, glam rock |
New York Dolls, Hanoi Rocks, D Generation |
Aestheticism, dandyism, narcissism, recreational drug use |
Cross-dressing, cosmetics, fetish fashion |
|
|
Garage punk |
late 1980s detroit, early 1990s Japan |
Faster version of Garage rock, mixed with elements of Surf Rock, power pop, Hardcore punk, Psychedelia and Stoner rock |
Guitar Wolf, New Bomb Turks, The (International) Noise Conspiracy |
Working Class Pride, Back To Basics, Independent Labels, Leftist ideologies, Angst, cars, girls, drinking, partying, adolescent abandon |
Rocker fashion mixed with punk and grunge fashion |
|
|
Hardcore punk |
Early 1980s to Now North America and United Kingdom |
Faster and heavier version of punk rock |
Black Flag,DOA,Bad Brains, |
Various themes, sometimes political |
Plain working class clothing, anti-fashion, athletic wear; usually short hair (with the exception of dreadlocks). |
|
|
Horror Punk |
Late 1970s New Jersey |
Punk or hardcore punk with elements of doo-wop and lyrics themed upon horror movies. |
The Misfits, The Undead, Wednesday 13, Blitzkid, Samhain |
Horror film and science fiction themes |
Black clothing, corpse paint, devilock, Skeletal bones. |
|
|
Nazi punk & Rock Against Communism |
Late 1970s punk, 1980s Oi! and hardcore |
Typical punk, Oi!, hardcore and heavy metal music styles |
Skrewdriver, Landser, RaHoWa |
neo-Nazism, racism, white nationalism |
Nazi symbolism with typical punk, skinhead, hardcore and metal fashions |
|
|
Oi! |
Pub rock, glam rock, football chants, late 1970s punk rock |
Typical rock band instrumentation, sing-along choruses, simple melodies |
Cock Sparrer, Cockney Rejects, Angelic Upstarts, The 4-Skins, The Blood, Sham 69. |
Patriotism, populism, socialism, football hooliganism and other working class themes. Oi! bands that play humorous songs have been called punk pathetique.[10] |
Includes styles associated with 1980s UK punks and skinheads, such as: Dr. Martens, flat caps, Levi' jeans, rocker jacket or flight jacket |
|
|
Pop punk |
Late 1970s United Kingdom and United States |
Punk rock fused with various styles of pop music |
Ramones, Buzzcocks, Green Day, The Queers, The Offspring |
Off-color and toilet humour, relationships |
Rocker jackets, Chuck Taylor All-Stars, trucker hats, neckties, elements of other punk fashions |
|
|
Queercore |
Mid 1980s American hardcore punk |
Range of punk styles |
God Is My Co-Pilot, The Dicks, Pansy Division, Team Dresch, Limp Wrist, |
Homosexuality, gay rights, marginalized sexuality, Љtefan ml. |
Similar to hardcore styles |
|
|
Riot grrrl |
Early 1990s Seattle, Olympia, and Washington, D.C. hardcore punk |
Alternative rock-influenced punk |
Bratmobile, Bikini Kill, Free Kitten, Sleater-Kinney |
Feminism, female empowerment, and some themes similar to queercore |
Kinderwhore |
|
|
Scum punk |
1990s American hardcore punk and shock rock artists like Alice Cooper |
Intentionally abrasive and loud, with poor musicianship |
GG Allin, The Scumfucs, Antiseen |
Transgressive art, sexual and violent lyrics with taboo subjects |
||
|
Ska punk |
1980s North America and United Kingdom |
Typical punk instrumentation plus brass instruments and other wind instruments; influenced by 2 Tone, hardcore punk, pop punk and reggae rock |
Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Operation Ivy, Goldfinger, Less Than Jake,Reel Big Fish |
Anti-racism, unity, light personal themes |
Styles influenced by the 2 Tone, pop punk and hardcore punk scenes |
|
|
Skate punk |
Early 1980s California skateboarding and surfing scenes |
Similar to hardcore punk |
JFA, Big Boys, Suicidal Tendencies, Drunk Injuns, Septic Death (to some degree) |
Anti-authoritarianism, extreme sports |
Sagging clothes, skate shoes, trucker hats |
|
|
Straight Edge |
1980s Washington, D.C. hardcore punk |
Hardcore, heavy metal and metalcore |
Minor Threat, Youth of Today, Slapshot, Earth Crisis |
Abstinence from alcohol, tobacco, recreational drug use, and promiscuity |
Athletic apparel, camouflage shorts, black X drawn on hand |
|
|
UK82 |
1980s United Kingdom |
Elements of Oi! and hardcore; fast, angry and rough |
The Exploited, Charged GBH, The Virus, Clit 45 |
Working class life, inner-city themes; sometimes political |
Includes styles associated with 1980s UK punks ... |
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