Interaction between Yazychnytstvo and Christianity in Kyivan Rus: reflections on the japanese experience of forming a combined religious tradition

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Interaction between Yazychnytstvo and Christianity in Kyivan Rus: reflections on the japanese experience of forming a combined religious tradition

Взаємодія між язичництвом та християнством у Київській Русі: роздуми про японський досвід формування комбінованої релігійної традиції

Mostipan O.M.,

candidate of Political Sciences, Associate professor of the Department of Sociology and Political Science, National Aviation University

(Ukraine, Kyiv)

Мостіпан O. M.,

кандидат політичних наук, доцент кафедри соціології та політології, Національний авіаційний університет (Україна, Київ)

The theoretical basis of this study is the concept of «parallel development». A good example of the application of this concept in socio-political studies is Hajime Nakamura's book «A Comparative History of Ideas». The general idea is that in the course of historical development, different peoples and cultural regions have had similar ideas, concepts, problems or tasks that needed to be solved. In this regard, a certain intellectual discourse was formed, which became the property of world cultural development and is the subject of research in the history of intellectual thought. Using this concept of «parallel development», it is possible to make a projection on the parallel processes that took place in cultural development in different regions and countries of the world, in particular, to study the impact of these processes on the future fate of countries and the results of the impact of public policy on these processes. In this study, the processes of penetration of world religions, namely Buddhism in Japan and Christianity in Kyivan Rus, which took place in a relatively similar time period, are considered as «parallel processes». In this regard, attention is drawn to the specifics of the state policy of Kyivan Rus regarding religious processes, their respective impact on the sphere of culture, politics and further development of the state. The article also draws parallels with the Japanese experience of attracting a new religion - Buddhism, and compares the practical results of the impact of new religions on social processes in the states. In this study, the transliteration of the term «yazychnytstvo» from Ukrainian into English will be used, although in some sources the term «yazychnytstvo» is translated into English as «paganism».

Keywords: Shintoism, Buddhism, Yazychnytstvo, Christianity, Kyivan Rus, Japan, combined religion.

Теоретичною основою цього дослідження можна вважати концепцію про «паралельний розвиток». Вдалим прикладом застосування цієї концепції у соціально-політичних дослідженнях є книга Хаджіме Накамура «Порівняльна історія ідей». Загальна суть полягає у тому, що в історичному розвитку у різних народів та в різних культурних регіонах виникали схожі ідеї, концепції, проблеми чи завдання, які потребували вирішення. У зв'язку з цим формувався певний інтелектуальний дискурс, який став надбанням світового культурного розвитку та є предметом дослідження в історії інтелектуальної думки. Використовуючи цю концепцію про «паралельний розвиток» можна зробити проекцію на паралельні процеси, які відбувались у сфері культури у різних регіонах та державах світу, зокрема, досліджувати вплив цих процесів на подальшу долю країн та результати впливу державної політики на ці процеси. У цьому дослідженні як «паралельні процеси» розглядаються процеси проникнення світових релігій, а саме: буддизму - в Японію, та християнства - у Київську Русь, що мало місце у відносно однаковий часовий період. У зв'язку з цим звертається увага на специфіку державної політики Київської Русі щодо релігійних процесів, їх відповідний вплив на сферу культури, політики та подальший розвиток держави. Також проводяться паралелі з японським досвідом залучення нової релігії - буддизму, у зв'язку з чим порівнюються практичні результати впливу нових релігій на суспільні процеси у державах. У цьому дослідженні надалі буде використовуватись транслітерація термінуОязичництво з української мови на англійськуO(yazychnytstvo), хоча в окремих джерелах можна зустріти переклад терміну «язичництво» на англійську мову як «paganism».

Ключові слова: синтоїзм, буддизм, язичництво, християнство, Київська Русь, Японія, комбінована релігія.

Introduction. The essence of Yazychnytstvo and parallels with Shintoism

religions christianity kyivan rus

Yazychnytstvo is an ancient cultural and religious tradition of the ancestors of the Ukrainian people that has hardly survived to this day. The existence of Yazychnytstvo in Kyivan Rus was reflected in the cult of natural forces and people's attempts to adjust their lives to the laws of nature. Yazychnytstvo emerged as people's experience of the fullness of life in contact with the surrounding reality, which is in line with the ideas of Shintoism. In this regard, in the beliefs of Yazychnyt- stvo, the whole world and every single part of it is seen as valuable and sacred, and therefore honored and worshipped.

This study aims to analyse the interaction between Yazychnytstvo and Christianity in Kyi- van Rus by drawing certain parallels with the experience of forming a combined religious tradition in Japan at the initial stage of the arrival of Buddhism. In accordance with this goal, the following tasks can be distinguished: 1) to identify common characteristics in Yazychnytstvo and Shinto cultural and religious traditions; 2) to study the impact of state policy on the religious sphere in Kyivan Rus and Japan in the relevant period of time; 3) to analyse the role of cultural and religious traditions in Kyivan Rus and Japan as a factor in the functioning of state institutions.

A certain inspiration for this study can be seen in the book by Hiroo Sato, in which the author speaks about the prospects of making comparisons between Shinto and religions in other countries [14, p. X]. Revealing the essence of Yazychnytstvo, A. M. Kolodny notes: «In yazychnytstvo, the sacred is manifested in the world, and there is nothing in the latter that is separated from it. Everything here has a sacred power and is worthy of worship. People who follow Yazychnytstvo pray to the environment, pray everywhere, because everything around them is a manifestation of the sacred. For them, it is not important to escape from the world, but to achieve harmony with it, because the world is not something «fallen» and sinful, but a manifestation of the sacred, which should be joined, lived with, not outside of it» [8, p. 49]. Kamata Toji defines Shinto in a similar way: «Japanese sensed the greatness and majesty of this world and of all the phenomenal universe. «Shinto» is a systematization of the lore of their humble response. It encapsulates the ways of thinking of the Japanese about the sacredness of the universe, and within it are interwoven ways of praying to and revering all things in the universe» [7, p. 20].

The climate, geographical location, and fertile soils gave rise to an ancient agricultural culture in Kyivan Rus, and it is therefore natural that the worship of natural forces became part of the culture of the local population - the ancestors of modern Ukrainians. For the population of Kyi- van Rus, the forces of nature were expressed in the material world that was close to each person, which could be felt as heat from a fire, seen in the sky as the sun, touched as the earth, and tasted as water. Revealing the idea of Yazychnytstvo, A. M. Kolodnyi quotes M. I. Kostomarov: «the essence of yazychnytstvo was the deification of nature, the recognition of some mystical power behind objects and phenomena of the environment, the worship of the sun, sky, water and earth, wind, trees, birds, stones, etc. «The religious ideas of the Slavs were partially embodied in the form of idols, but they had no temples or priests. They had rather vague ideas about a person after death; they considered the afterlife to be a continuation of real life» [8, p. 52].

Motohisa Yamakage in his work «The Essence of Shinto. Japan's Spiritual Heart» expresses a similar opinion about Shinto: «Shinto teaches to revere «Great Nature». That means that everything in nature is the transformation and creation of kami, therefore the sacredness of kami dwells within it» [16, p. 29]. The veneration of the forces of nature and the understanding of man as an integral part of it is a common characteristic of Shinto and Yazychnytstvo.

In beliefs of Yazychnytstvo, gods were a manifestation of the sacred forces of nature, and so people honored these forces through the mediation of gods. The main function of the gods is to mediate the interaction between people and the forces of nature, on which the development of agriculture and cattle breeding in Kyivan Rus, and thus the lives of many people, depended to a great extent.

Kamata Toji similarly defines the idea of the sacred in Shinto and characterizes the Japanese gods, the kami: «Kami is associated with all the reverence and knowledge about the sacred, its powers and phenomena, held by the people living in the Japanese archipelago» [7, p. 10]. The researcher characterizing the Japanese gods continues : «The kami of Japan are diverse, complicated, mysterious, and ever-changing entities. Nature and natural phenomena like the sun, moon, stars, wind, water, stones, fire, and thunder are considered to be their manifestations and workings» [7, p. 27]. More information about the nature and essence of kami can be found in «An encyclopedia of Shinto» [5].

It is interesting to note that the term «yazych- nytstvo» (in the English-speaking world is often translated as «paganism») originated within the Christian tradition to refer to all other non-Christian cultural and religious traditions and beliefs. Later on, this term became widespread and was often used in scientific research. In today's world, the term «paganism» often has negative connotations and is used to refer to obsolete and outdated beliefs, lack of faith, uncivilization, barbarism, etc. At the same time, in many scholarly studies of the period of Kyivan Rus, the term «yazych- nytstvo» is neutral and is used to refer to a local cultural and religious tradition that was deeply rooted in history and closely connected to people's everyday lives.

1. Yazychnytstvo in Kyivan Rus in the context of the advent of Christianity

Yazychnytstvo has a long history and was widespread on the territory of modern Ukraine even before the formation of Kyivan Rus. At the same time, it was during the period of Kyivan Rus that Yazychnytstvo actually suffered a severe blow after the introduction of Christianity in 988 by Prince Volodymyr and the mass baptizing residents of Kyiv.

In historical sources, one can find some evidence of attempts to baptize Kyivan Rus that took place before 988: a) Prince Askold, according to Byzantine chronicles, was baptized in 860 (867); b) Princess Olha personally converted to Christianity in Constantinople in 957; c) Prince Yaropolk sent envoys to the German Emperor Otto II, and after that envoys of Pope Benedict VII arrived in Kyiv, and the prince himself personally accepted Christianity. The process of adopting Christianity was accompanied by resistance from people and part of the political elite. For example, when Christian missionaries arrived in Kyivan Rus at the request of Princess Olha to the German King Otto, they met with considerable resistance and, fleeing death, returned. At the same time, there was no consensus among the political elite of Kyivan Rus on the adoption of Eastern or Western rite Christianity. As a result, the Eastern rite prevailed, and after the baptism of Rus in 988 it received state support. Historical sources also show that the political elite in Kyivan Rus considered other world religions as an alternative to Christianity.

With the arrival of Christianity on the territory of Kyivan Rus, a new period in the development of its culture began, marked by the processes of combining a new religious tradition with an existing one. In this regard, Ukrainian historian Oleksandr Kozholianko draws attention to the peculiarities of the geopolitical location of Kyi- van Rus at the intersection of trade and economic routes, as a place of interaction between different religions and denominations, where there was a constant need to defend their own land from conquerors, while at the same time maintaining a tolerant attitude to foreign cultural achievements [9, p. 152].

It should be noted that the spiritual and religious sphere of life in Kyivan Rus was rich and distinctive before the advent of Christianity, which was manifested in folk traditions, holidays, rituals, and beliefs. At the same time, Christianity made a significant contribution to cultural processes and had a decisive impact on a number of fundamental changes that later became an important component of cultural archetypes. Therefore, it is necessary to emphasize the special characteristics of Yazychnytstvo and Christian religious traditions.

To begin with, the beliefs of Yazychnytstvo do not contain the idea of sin in relation to the birth, life, and death of a person, as is the case in Christianity. Also, in the beliefs of Yazychnytst- vo, human life is seen as an expression of natural forces, is natural and desirable, while in Christianity it is seen as a sinful and temporary period of human suffering. In beliefs of Yazychnytstvo, food is sacred because it is a part of the world and a source of life for humans, and therefore there is no idea of asceticism, unlike in Christianity, where food is a subject of asceticism as a means to limit the sinful body. As for the vision of death: in beliefs of Yazychnytstvo, it is the completion of one natural cycle and, accordingly, the onset of another, while in Christianity it is liberation from earthly suffering and the acquisition of immortality of the soul in a better world. It should be noted that Yazychnytstvo and Christianity have similar symbolism, but often it is filled with the opposite meaning: for example, in Christianity, the cross is a symbol of death and suffering, while in Ya- zychnytstvo, the cross embedded in a circle, on the contrary, denotes the infinity of life, its continuation, and manifests the combination of male and female natural principles.

These peculiarities of Yazychnytstvo and Christianity, which were difficult to reconcile, could introduce certain contradictions into the religious consciousness and everyday life of people in Kyivan Rus. We cannot rule out a potential conflict between the two types of worldviews - those associated with polytheism in Yazychnyt- stvo and Christian monotheism. In the future, the policy of the Christian Church (during the period of Kyivan Rus and later) regarding Yazychnytst- vo's folk beliefs, traditions, rituals, and holidays was aimed at banning or incorporating of a significant part of this discourse of Yazychnytstvo into the Christian cultural world. It is likely that the Christian doctrine, with its idea of one god, could have dissolved into the folk cults of various gods of Yazychnytstvo if efforts had not been made at the time to reduce the role of Yazychnytstvo in society. Thus, Yazychnytstvo and Christianity were not only a significant factor in the cultural processes in Kyivan Rus, but also influenced the political sphere and determined the vectors of social development of the Slavic peoples in the future.

2. The purpose and consequences of the introduction of Christianity in Kyivan Rus

In many books on the history of Ukraine, one can find various explanations and justifications for why Christianity was introduced. These approaches can be summarized as follows: a) to centralize the state; b) to strengthen the political power of princes; c) to strengthen the position of Kyivan Rus in international relations; d) to develop the cultural sphere. Each of these arguments needs to be analyzed in detail in terms of historical validity, since some of the goals most likely pursued by the political elite with the introduction of Christianity were achieved, while others were only partially achieved.

After coming to power, Prince Volodymyr tried to reform the Yazychnytstvo's faith. The goal of this reform was to promote political centralization in the state by creating a pantheon of gods common to all territories of Kyivan Rus. According to legend, six gods were chosen to be part of this pantheon: Perun, Dazhboh, Khors, Stry- boh, Symarhl and Mokosha. Sometimes another list of gods is mentioned: Perun, Volos, Pozvyzd (Vykhor), Lado, Kupalo, Koliada [15, 2005]. In any case, it was a question of reducing the number of gods that were actually sanctioned at the state level. One way or another, this idea of Prince Volodymyr's was not supported and the desired political goals were not achieved, which probably became an additional impetus for the introduction of Christianity by the prince in 988.

One of the peculiarities of the succession of power in Kyivan Rus was that the parents and children of the princely family often held opposing views in the religious sphere: for example, Princess Olha supported the introduction of Western rite Christianity, while her son, Prince Sviatoslav, was opposed to Western rite Christians, and Sviatoslav's son, Prince Yaropolk, on the contrary, resumed the policy of Princess Olha; Later, Prince Yaropolk was murdered, and Prince Volodymyr, who was oriented toward Eastern rite Christianity, gained power in the state and went down in history as the ruler who introduced Christianity to Kyivan Rus in 988. It should be noted that the Byzantine sources do not mention such an important event as the baptism of Rus by Volodymyr in 988 [4]. Information about this event is contained in the chronicles of Kyivan Rus, for example, in «Povistvrem'ianykh lit» («A Tale of Bygone Years»).

The question arises as to why Yazychnytstvo was viewed by some members of the political elite in Kyivan Rus as a factor of danger to personal power. Obviously, the local priests and magi representing the tradition of Yazychnytstvo had a great influence on the people, and they were themselves basically the authorities. Many textbooks on Ukrainian history suggest that local priests and magi supported the authority of local rulers rather than the central government in Kyiv, which was a constant source of local feudalism. In this regard, the ideas associated with Christianity, namely «all power comes from God» and «one god in heaven, one ruler on earth,» were very attractive to rulers in Kyivan Rus who expected to receive constant support from the church on the way to centralizing state power. The logic of the Christian sanctification of secular power in Kievan Rus implied that it was a crime to oppose the ruler's authority because his power came from God. To reinforce this approach in practice, Kyivan princes could often be recognized by the church as saints. For example, there is a version of Prince Volodymyr's being canonized as a saint in the eleventh century, as evidenced by the fact that Metropolitan Ilarion in his work «Slovo pro zakon i blahodat» («A Word about Law and Grace») calls Volodymyr blessed [12]. In general, the religious factor was an important component of political processes in Kyivan Rus and was used as a means in the struggle for state power, as well as one of the mechanisms for its further realization.

Attempts to achieve the political centralization of Kyivan Rus and establish a system of public administration over a large territory by using the religious factor as the main one could have been a simplistic approach to solving a more complex problem. Certain short-term goals were achieved in this way, but over time it became clear that Christianity and the church were powerful factors in internal political processes. The partial liberation of the princely power in Kyivan Rus from dependence on the worship of local gods in the subordinate principalities and the centrifugal tendencies in the state attributed to this, resulted in the formation of a new type of dependence - on Christianity as one of the religion that was gaining global influence.

It can be concluded that the religious factor was important, but not a decisive condition for the development of strong state institutions in Kyivan Rus for a long time: the process of state decline, which conventionally began after the death of Prince Mstyslav in 1132 and led to the emergence of about 50 small principalities, lasted for about 100 years until the Mongol-Tatar invasion in 1237-1241. In most cases, the above-mentioned small principalities were headed by blood relatives of the princely family.

The mechanism of blood kinship, which Prince Volodymyr tried to establish as a way to make state governance more effective, was not a sufficient condition for political centralization. It is known that when Prince Volodymyr finally established himself in power, he transferred various territories to his twelve sons, which had previously been headed by local princes [15]. This step can hardly be called an administrative reform, as it did not lead to systemic changes in the formation of state institutions. At the same time, to a certain extent, this became a factor of political stabilization for a short period of time and in parallel contained a number of additional prerequisites for centrifugal tendencies in the future: the former feudal princes, their heirs, and the close elite, who kept the memory of their lost positions of power, were joined by the direct heirs of Prince Volodymyr and their descendants, who also competed for power. The existence of such a large number of feudal state entities, which often fought among themselves, could not ensure a common defense policy and protection of the vast territory of Kyivan Rus, for example, from the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars. The introduction of Christianity was not a sufficient unifying factor for the implementation of a common defense policy of the small principalities within Kyivan Rus. Thus, the conditionally stable period of Kyivan Rus' functioning lasted less than 150 years, from 988 to 1132. It should be noted that in books on the history of Ukraine, the period of relatively prosperous political development and major cultural achievements of Kyivan Rus is associated mainly with the names of two princes, Volodymyr Velykyi (Eng. Volodymyr the Great) (980-1015) and Yaroslav Mudryi (Eng. Yaroslav the Wise) (1019-1054).

After the introduction of Christianity, the cultural sphere received a new impetus for development and the position of Kyivan Rus in the system of international relations of the time was strengthened. At the same time, the goal of centralizing state power was obviously never fully achieved, and the reasons for the collapse of Kyivan Rus as one of the largest states in Eastern Europe at the time were feudal fragmentation, bloody power struggles between relatives of the princely family, and the use of external factors in internal political struggles. The feudal fragmentation of Kyivan Rus was the result of the lack of institutional regulation of the mechanism of transfer or inheritance of power within the ruling family: as a result, the power of princes was mainly based on personal charisma and military strength. The use of the religious factor, namely the introduction of Eastern Rite Christianity, helped some of the political elite to assert personal power in the short term, although it was not enough to create strong state institutions in the long term. It can be assumed that part of the political elite that supported Yazychnytstvo lost their positions of power and, possibly, their lives.

3. Reflections on the interaction of Yazychnytstvo and Christianity in the context of the Japanese experience of the coexistence of Shinto and Buddhism

The introduction of Christianity at the state level affected the local autochthonous cultural and religious tradition of Yazychnytstvo: a large layer of rich ancient folk culture was lost forever. It is known that Shinto and Buddhist temples in Japan are often located next to each other, in fact, bordering each other, also in the modern period.

In Kyivan Rus, there was no simultaneous development of Yazychnytstvo and Christianity on a harmonious basis, as, for example, Shinto and Buddhism. This can be explained by the fact that the idea of combining Yazychnytstvo and Christianity was not seen by the political elite as a likely source of power and cultural development in Kyi- van Rus, which determined the provision of state support to one religious tradition. Christianity, relying on state support, did not allow the idea of forming a combined religious tradition on the territory of Kyivan Rus, but was focused on creating a dominant discourse, and therefore Yazychnyt- stvo began to decline rapidly. At the same time, in an effort to take root in the new territory and gain the support of the population, Christianity incorporated some of the ancient folk beliefs and traditions associated with Yazychnytstvo into its own rite. This is partly why a rich layer of ancient Ukrainian culture has survived to this day. The subsequent processes of transformation in the religious sphere of Kyivan Rus showed consistency with the social processes that took place in other countries of the European continent, where the Christian worldview, values, and civilizational discourse were formed.

It is known that at the initial stage of Buddhism's arrival in Japan, the Buddha began to be perceived as one of the gods of Shintoism. This ensured a certain integration of the new religion into public life, along with state support, the nonconflict nature of Buddhism itself, and the regulation of the functions of this religion in Japanese society. Thus, a combined religious culture was formed in Japan. Kamata Toji writes about this: «For more than thirty years I have made the case that a religious view based on «kami-buddha combination» (shinbutsu shugo) forms the mainstream of Japanese culture and that «kami-kami combination» underlies it» [7, p. 5]. Sokyo Ono also writes about the formation of this combined tradition, noting that at the initial stage of the arrival of Buddhism and Confucianism in Japan, there was a conflict between Shinto and Buddhism, but it was later resolved [13, p. 85]. A detailed description of the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, as well as a chronology of related processes, can also be found in the book by Richard Bowring [2]. One example of this combined religious culture in Japan can also be seen in the symbiosis of Buddhist rituals with the Japanese ancient folk belief in seasonal visits of the spirits of the dead [3, p. 81]. As Kamata Toji notes, in the religious consciousness it was manifested that «kami are emanations of Buddhist devinities, or that Buddhist devinities are emanations of kami» [7, p. 7]. The result of this interaction was the interpenetration of the two religious traditions and the overall enrichment of Japanese national culture. The government's balanced approach to Buddhism, understanding of its role and functions, and reliance on the ancient folk faith of Shinto allowed Japan to benefit from the introduction of a foreign religious tradition while preserving and developing the national cultural and religious tradition of Shinto.

One of the versions of the rather rapid penetration of Christianity into the territory of Kyivan Rus can be formulated as follows: in the religious consciousness represented by beliefs of Yazych- nytstvo, at the very beginning, the Christian god could be perceived as one of many different gods, which gradually became the main one. At the same time, in Kyivan Rus, there was no orientation toward creating a combined religious culture that would become part of the state policy of attracting new things and preserving the existing ones.

The conversion to Christianity in Kyivan Rus lasted several centuries, and therefore Yazych- nytstvo and Christianity coexisted for a long period of time. The specifics of the coexistence of a new religion and a local one are well described in Ukrainian literature, and the term «dvovir'ia» (Eng. «dual faith») is used to describe this [6, p. 6]. At the same time, after 988, Yazychnytstvo began to gradually decline, as Christianity was supported by the state and considered by the princely authorities as an important factor in the political process. Perhaps the decline of Yazychnytstvo was also due to the fact that it did not have an institutionally organized structure, unlike Christianity, which had a well-organized structure in the form of the church. In fact, Yazychnytstvo continued to live on as part of the folk culture and worldview, which was expressed in holidays, traditions, beliefs, and rituals. In general, Yazychnytstvo began to experience all kinds of oppression from Christianity, and its representatives were persecuted by the state. It is known that in the initial stages of the introduction of Christianity in Kyivan Rus, followers of Yazychnytstvo held their own meetings in Christian religious buildings, for example, in St. Sophia Cathedral (other commonly used name - St. Sophia in Kyiv), but later this was prohibited [10, p. 9]. The arrival of Christianity on the territory of Kyivan Rus had a significant impact on Yazychnytstvo, which, having deep cultural roots, was constantly transforming and adapting to new conditions, continuing its life in folk traditions and beliefs.

4. Common features of Shinto and Yazych- nytstvo's beliefs

Shinto in Japan and Yazychnytstvo in Kyivan Rus are ancient religious traditions of peoples that express the peculiarities of their cultures. Shinto in Japan has survived to the present day and continues to be an important part of the national culture. Yazychnytstvo, which began to gradually disappear under the influence of the state policy of Kyivan Rus, has hardly survived to this day. Certain manifestations of Yazychnytstvo that emerge in modern Ukraine or emerged as a result of the spiritual quest of Ukrainian emigrants abroad, are few in number and are often perceived in the public consciousness as religious sects.

A common characteristic of Shinto and Ya- zychnytstvo is that in both religious traditions there are a large number of different gods and deities, the exact number of which is difficult to count. Shinto is said to have «eight million gods and goddesses» [7, p. VII]. For example, we can mention some gods in Shinto: Izanagi and Izana- mi - at first they were separate, later they were husband and wife, gave life to other gods and created the Japanese islands; the sun goddess - Ama- terasu; the god of rice and fertility - Inari Okami; the god of thunder - Raijin; the god of wind - Fu- jin; the god of wealth and longevity - Fukurokuju; the god of luck - Ebisu. There are probably fewer of them in Yazychnytstvo, but it is also difficult to say the exact number. For example, we can mention the following gods in Yazychnytstvo: the sun god - Dazhboh; the god of the sky and rain - Perun; the god of abundance - Veles; the god of fire - Svarog; the god of wind - Stryboh; the god and patron saint of the family - Rod; the goddess of fertility - Mokosha; the god of trade, wealth, and cattle - Veles; the god who personified the arrival of spring, male power, and the awakening of nature - Yarylo. In this regard, the concept of «polytheism» can be used to study Yazychnytstvo and Shinto to some extent, although this concept is only a methodological tool that can help us explore the essence of these multicomponent phenomena, but at the same time, it should not limit us to a general framework of understanding or diminish the special characteristics of both cultural and religious traditions.

Both Shinto and Yazychnytstvo have a certain hierarchy of gods, which we learn about in Shinto from the works «Kojiki» and «Nihon Shoki», and in Yazychnytstvo we reconstruct from the literature of the period of Kyivan Rus, as well as from folk tales that were later recorded by collectors of folklore. «Velesova Knyha» (Eng. «The Veles Book») may also be of some importance for the study of the period of Kyivan Rus, but this book has an interesting and at the same time confusing history of appearance in the twentieth century, and therefore some scholars consider it a forgery about the history, culture, and religion of the Slavic tribes. In view of this, «Velesova Knyha» is a separate area of research, and its appearance is evidence of interest in the ancient history of the Slavic peoples and the history of Kyivan Rus, but at present this book cannot be considered a relevant historical source.

In general, in Shinto and Yazychnytstvo, belief in various gods and deities appears as an expression of the sacred. Accordingly, gods could be considered supernatural forces, spirits, ghosts, etc. This is the basis for the rich cultural traditions of Shinto and Yazychnytstvo, which is expressed in festivals, rituals, and folklore. That is why rituals are important for Shinto, which is reflected in a large number of folk festivals and customs. In Yazychnytstvo, folk festivals were also very common and, according to the solar calendar, corresponded to the seasons, with the new year beginning in the spring on March 1.

At the same time, Shinto and Yazychnytstvo manifest themselves by honoring the forces of nature and perceiving humans as part of this world. Belief in the forces of nature had a practical orientation, as it was focused on the knowledge of the world and the human desire to understand the place of man in it. This belief is reflected in a sense of human fear of the greatness of natural forces and, at the same time, a sense of joyful empathy for being part of them. It follows that both religious traditions have certain objects of nature that are considered sacred. In Shinto, for example, the ginkgo and sakaki trees are sacred, while in Yazychnytstvo, oak, birch, and linden are sacred. In this sense, the size of the tree also matters - large and old trees are most honored, and trees that have dried up lose their sacred power. Also, the honoring of the forces of nature in Shinto and Yazychnytstvo was reflected in various seasonal festivals related to agricultural labor. More details can be found in the book by Richard Dorson [3, p. 210] and the article by S. P. Boian-Hladka [l, p. 69].

A common feature of both Shinto and Yazych- nytstvo is that there is no formulated doctrine that all believers must adhere to. In this regard, Kamata Toji writes about Shinto: «... there was no need for traditional culture or for «Shinto» to be explained in words, since the «Way» transmitted naturally into the peoples's minds (this was later connected with the phrase ishin denshin, transmission of the teaching from mind to mind without depending on words)» [7, p. 19]. In Yazychnytstvo, beliefs were maintained through rituals, ceremonies, and festivals that were part of folk culture, as is the case with Shinto in the modern period. In this regard, the path to the gods was individual for each person and required participation in various folk events and celebrations. Therefore, people's beliefs in Yazychnytstvo in the past were a part of people's daily lives, just as it is in Shinto today.

Shinto and Yazychnytstvo are characterized by the absence of targeted activities aimed at spreading their own beliefs. Since there are so many different gods, it is difficult to say that someone's beliefs are more true or right than those of other people. In this respect, Shinto and Yazychnytstvo are quite tolerant of other religious beliefs, as they do not deny other gods or call them untrue, but honor their own.

A similar feature of Shinto and Yazychnytstvo is that man himself, as a part of nature, has never been seen as sinful and impure, whose body must be subjected to various ascetic practices. Of course, the idea of purification is very important in Shinto, but the human body is honored as part of the natural world, not denied through various practices.

Shinto and Yazychnytstvo have similar views on death, namely, the understanding of it as a component of the cyclical manifestation of life. It is from these views that the belief in the continuation of life after death stems. Another common feature of Shinto and Yazychnytstvo is that burial rites were often performed by cremating the body. In Kyivan Rus, for example, a mound-grave was built on the site of a funeral pyre, symbolizing a connection with the sky.

Shinto and Yazychnytstvo share a common idea of purification. Purification can be applied to all areas of human life and is performed in order to achieve spiritual purification through material purification. Traditional practices of purification are those that use, for example, water or salt. For example, in Shinto, salt is used to purify a room in a house. Water was a traditional source of purification in Yazychnytstvo, and this is still preserved in the folk traditions of the Ukrainian people.

Thus, Shinto and Yazychnytstvo, despite having developed in different cultural regions, have certain common characteristics that can be compared and studied.

Conclusions and further discussions

The scholarly discourse that has emerged in sources on the history and culture of Ukraine regarding the coverage of events related to the religious reform in Kyivan Rus and its significance for culture, economics, and politics requires a more thorough study. In particular, we can draw attention to the possible loss of the potential to support state-building processes in Kyivan Rus by the cultural and religious tradition of Yazychnytstvo after the introduction of Christianity. Perhaps the failure to include the ancient local religious tradition of Yazychnytstvo, which covered a wide layer of folk culture and beliefs, in state-building processes was a factor that limited the functioning of Kyivan Rus as a state in time. Yazychnytstvo as a mirror of folk culture, which was subjected to restrictions by the state, continued to exist outside the sanctioned cultural discourse and therefore was a weak factor in supporting the functioning of the state institutions of Kyivan Rus. While the new religious tradition that came to Kyivan Rus could not fully support the functioning of state institutions because it was not yet based on folk culture at that time.

Thus, in Kyivan Rus there was an internal contradiction between the folk culture, which had its source in beliefs and traditions of Yazychnytstvo, and the new culture, which was initially formed as an elite culture under the influence of Christianity and supported by princely power. This imbalance in the cultural and religious sphere of Kyivan Rus was a strong internal factor that weakened the functioning of state institutions and made them poorly protected from external threats, such as the Mongol-Tatar invasion. To use modern terminology, we can say that the institutions of the state in the form of princely power did not have sufficient legitimacy for long-term stable functioning, although they had all the necessary legal means for this. Over time, Christianity became fully rooted in the territory of the declining Kyivan Rus, and Yazychnytstvo almost disappeared, remaining in the form of certain elements of folk culture that were incorporated into the local Christian tradition to strengthen its influence.

A comparative analysis of Shinto and Yazychnytstvo allows us to identify certain common characteristics in religious beliefs that were formed in different parts of the world at approximately the same time. This research opens up further opportunities for studying the impact of autochthonous cultural and religious traditions on state-building processes in terms of the influence of world religions, in particular, Christianity. The conclusions obtained as a result of the retrospective nature of the study create a basis for making predictions about the transformation of the cultural sphere in modern states in connection with the processes of globalization and regionalization that are taking place simultaneously in the modern world.

With the advent of Buddhism in Japan, Shinto continued to develop, and as a result, Japan has a rather harmonious combination of the two religious traditions. This historical example is interesting because Japan has received a new impetus for the development of national culture, while at the same time preserving its autochthonous cultural and religious tradition - Shinto. The experience of Kyivan Rus showed that the advent of Christianity created a new impetus for cultural development, but it significantly affected the functioning of Yazychnytstvo, which has since begun to decline. Thus, cross-cultural comparisons of Japan and Kyivan Rus make it possible to identify the influence of state institutions on the functioning of cultural space in terms of religious policy and, at the same time, to compare the results of this influence.

Each of the cultural and religious traditions, Shinto and Yazychnytstvo, has its own long and rich history and associated special features that are unique to them. At the same time, there are a number of common characteristics that I have tried to highlight in this study. It is possible that such research could reveal similarities in the beliefs of people in different parts of the world. This study does not claim to be a complete coverage and comparison of all the multifaceted aspects of Shinto and Yazychnytstvo, but rather to reveal basic common characteristics and to raise interest in the possibility of research in this area. Understanding the peculiarities and cultural background of the religious beliefs of other nations allows us to better understand the religious sphere of our own people. In this regard, cross-cultural research makes it possible for different peoples to better understand themselves, their history and traditions, as well as to look at themselves through the eyes of researchers from other cultural regions. I hope that this is the basis for the formation of cultural values in the modern world that allow us to preserve and develop our own cultural traditions, as well as to learn and respect the traditions of other nations.

References

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