Idiomatic/phraseological expressions should not be mixed up with different fixed/set prepositional, adjectival, verbal and adverbial phrases the meaning of which is not an actual sum of meanings made up by their constituent parts either: by George, by and by, for all of, for the sake of, cut short, make believe; or compounds like: topsyturvy, higledy-piggledy; coordinate combinations like: high and dry, cut and run, touch and go; Tom, Dick and Harry, etc. These and a lot of other stable expressions can very often be treated as standardized collocations. Their meaning can be rendered in a descriptive way too, like that of genuine idiomatic expressions: fifty-fifty так собі; ні добре ні погано; О. К, все гаразд, на належному рівні; cut short обірвати, присікти/припинити щось (поїздку), обірвати (розмову).

Such and the like stable expressions, like most of other standardized collocations, have usually a transparent meaning and are easier to translate than regular idioms (the so-called phraseological fusions). Meanwhile it is next to impossible to guess, for example, the meaning of the English idiom Hobson's choiceirom the seemingly transparent meanings of its componental parts. Only a philological inquiry helps establish the meaning of the name and the real sense of the idiom - "no choice whatsoever", "acceptance of what is offered" жодного вибору.

Many other English and Ukrainian picturesque idioms, proverbs and sayings, which have national literary images must also be similarly treated and they also reflect the traditions, customs, the way of conduct or the mode of life of a nation. Their meaning, due to absence of similar idioms in the target language, can be rendered descriptively, i. e. through a regular explication. The latter, depending on the semantic structure of the source language idiom, may be sometimes achieved in the target language with the help of a single word. Cf.: English: an odd/queer fish дивак; Canterbury tale небувальщина, вигадка; blue bonnet ("синій берет") шотландець; ніде курці клюнути crammed; зубами тертяка вибивати to be chilled. Most often, however, the meaning of this kind of idioms is conveyed with the help of free word-combinations: to dine with Duke Humphrey залишитись без обіду (нічого не ївши); to cut off with a shilling позбавити когось спадщини. Similarly in Ukrainian: ноги на плечі to go quickly (or very quickly) on one's feet; зуби з'їсти на чомусь to have great experience in something; кивати/накивати п'ятами to run away quickly/hurriedly[24, p.318].

It goes without saying that none of the phraseologisms above can be translated word-for-word since their constituent images would lose their connotative, i. e., metaphorical meaning in the target language. So, пообідати з герцоґом Гамфрі or обрізати шилінґом could be understood by the Ukrainian language speakers in their literal meaning. The same can be said about our idiom ноги на плечі та й гайда, i. e., * with one's legs on the shoulders which would never be understood, when translated literally, by the English language native speakers. Therefore, the componental images, when mechanically transplanted to the target language, may often bring about a complete destruction of the idiomatic expression.

2.1 Idioms and stable phrases and expressions in English Language

What is the difference between a phrase, an idiom and an expression? I am looking for the context where one is more appropriate than the rest. I've been using idiom and phrase more or less interchangeably.

A phrase is “a small group of words standing together as a conceptual unit”, while an idiom is “a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words”. So, the difference is that an idiom as an established meaning not directly linked to the individual words. Any idiom is a phrase.

As an example, “raining cats and dogs” is both an idiom and a phrase. “A herd of cats” is a phrase but not an idiom.

Expression has about the same meaning as phrase, except it is usually used of a phrase which is in common use.

So an idiom is a certain sort of expression, which in turn is a subset of phrase: idiom > expression > phrase.

We have three terms here: expression, idiom and phrase.

An expression is a saying. It may be a colloquial, less formal (or more polite) way of expressing something in less literal terms:

How do you do? is an expression. You don't expect someone to actually tell you how he is doing; he should just say How do you do? because it means little more than "hello"

A phrase is a semantically meaningful sequence of words. A phrase is not typically a complete sentence. I consider a phrase to be more like a grammatical construct e.g.

· needless to say

· causing permanent bodily harm

· way of the world

Idiom is more subtle. It can be informal or merely non-literal, and either a phrase or a complete sentence. Here are two examples of idioms that are also phrases:

· brick and mortar (a traditional business, in contrast to e-commerce)

· town and gown (when a school or university is in close proximity with a surrounding community, this is a way of distinguishing between academicians or students versus local residents who are not affiliated with the school)

Here's the subtle part: It requires an idiomatic understanding of language to use these non-obvious forms of speech correctly. Idioms resemble metaphors, but are more general.

You wrote here idiomatic phrases and expressions, which do not necessarily equal idioms but they have an idiomatic, common usage touch. These are also called phrasal idioms, idiomatic/common expressions, set phrase, etc. And they have subtle meanings, given by you, which however can be obscured in common language

In addition to that, phrase and expression have additional strictly grammatical meanings. So that a phrase consists of typical two or more words. A phrase can be a sentence but usually is not. An expression is the more general case and can be a word, phrase or sentence

So at the end, actually "idiom" has the clearest definition (established meaning not directly linked to the individual words)

First, I want to thank you @Bogdan for emphasizing this question. I tried to do what others did, and classify the three terms using a transitive relationship. Not quite that simple. The more I thought about this, the closer I got to erasing my entire answer and giving up! In response to your fine comments: I did not say that phrases were random combinations of words, not semantically linked. But I remember reading that on ESL yesterday, yet can't find it now! Kate Gregory conveyed better what I meant re categorizing phrase vs expression as sentence or fragment.

Please don't erase it-note that this question had a bounty from me and you got it. I didn't say your phrase was random, on the contrary, I wanted to emphasize that it is not. So from your comment I see that you wanted to say the same thing about phrase as Kate Gregory(I misunderstood before that you diverged on that point). So now I see what you meant by semantical (which is the same as what I meant by grammatical). But note phrase could in addition mean idiomatic phrase. So there are two meanings of "phrase" and "expression".

An idiom can be a single word, if it's used in a way that isn't its literal or dictionary meaning. For example, "moonlighting" to mean having a second job is an idiom. A phrase is any clump of words ( "that dog over there", "my cousin's wife's sister", "because it was hot", "as fast as I can"), and an expression is a phrase that is an idiom[25, p.324].

So: all expressions are phrases, and all expressions are idioms. But some phrases are not expressions, and some idioms are not phrases or expressions.

Further, "just because you say it doesn't make it a saying": opinions may vary on whether a particular phrase is an expression or not..

Idiomatic/phraseological expressions should not be mixed up with different fixed/set prepositional, adjectival, verbal and adverbial phrases the meaning of which is not an actual sum of meanings made up by their constituent parts either: by George, by and by, for all of, for the sake of, cut short, make believe; or compounds like: topsyturvy, higledy-piggledy; coordinate combinations like: high and dry, cut and run, touch and go; Tom, Dick and Harry, etc. These and a lot of other stable expressions can very often be treated as standardized collocations. Their meaning can be rendered in a descriptive way too, like that of genuine idiomatic expressions: fifty-fifty ; cut short. Such and the like stable expressions, like most of other standardized collocations, have usually a transparent meaning and are easier to translate than regular idioms (the so-called phraseological fusions). Meanwhile it is next to impossible to guess, for example, the meaning of the English idiom Hobson's choice iron the seemingly transparent meanings of its componental parts. Only a philological inquiry helps establish the meaning of the name and the real sense of the idiom - "no choice whatsoever", "acceptance of what is offered".

1. Phraseological fund of the Kazakh language, which embodied all idioms over the ages, is “the mirror, which in lingua-cultural society identifies its own national consciousness”, in Telia researcher's apt words.

2. Lingual personality converts, transforms the basic fund of Kazakh idioms and creates thereby purely personal view about particular idiom. This can be seen

by referring to the discourse of oratorical verse of Biys and Akyns-Zhyrau.

3. Artistic world of the Kazakhs has striking dissimilarities with the European world view. Nomadic life in the lap of magnificent nature, full of steppe romance allows to lingual personality to form particular artistic world view, infinite in time and space. Kazakh phraseological units accumulate and translate lingual personality knowledge an about the world around, thus they reflect specific attitude of the national mentality: «Kabagynan kar jauyp, kirpiginen muz tamgan» - this idiom, giving appraisal of a Kazakh Batyr's actions in vivid impression, often used in the oratorical speech of Biys and Akyns within the meaning of anger man. The idioms «kozine topyrak shashu», «muzga otygyzyp ketu» («whelm eyes with dust», «leave to sit at ice») have the same expression and distinctive symbolism, which used in the meaning of “aldap ketu / cheating”.

4. The Kazakh lingual personality uses idioms with representation of its own, which determines his virtuosity. Absolutely artistic verse of steppe Zhyrau, which is based on idioms, became the epitome of the Turkic mentality, martial prowess and ancient Nomadic traditions.

5. Idioms in the Zhyrau verse inspire customized lingual personality, determine specific of its verbal behavior, reveal its character, intentions, life values and moral standards. Phraseology is a unique phenomenon in any language. The Kazakh language has accumulated a fabulous amount of idioms, which is constantly enriched with newly formed phraseologims, i.e. neo-idioms. Their appearance is due to the fact that occasional expressions have become consistent firstly from fictions, which are basis for the literary language development. This requires an extended description of factors, influencing on the formation of the consistency of such expressions.

Today idioms used for centuries give an oral conversation visualization, expressiveness and distinctiveness. To determine the factors, impacting on the formation of phraseological units (PUs) and predicating its consistency in the language, is of particular importance in the discourse of the oratorical verse of Akyns, makers of rimes, narrators, famous Biys (public judges) and wits, which eloquently reflect the spirit of Kazakh people. Imaginative phrases from epic and lyric- epic tales, fairy tales, historical epics and sayings uttered once by Biys or Akyns, passed from mouth to mouth, widely spread among the people. And not just spread, but still allow the speaker to transmit information or description of an event or situation giving his speech the beauty and expressiveness[26, p.267].

The artistic thinking of Kazakhs cannot be compared with the thinking of Europeans. Free life in the vast steppe with its amazing nature affects the mind of a person to become a sublime romantic, to dream about the beautiful life that is why the inner world of the Kazakh lingual personality can be compared to a large-scale picture, decorated with vivid expressions and metaphors.

Each nation differently pictures the world, conceives it according to its lifestyle, evaluates and describes by means of its language. For example, expressions used today as «Kabaginan kar jawip, кіrpіgіnе n muz tangan», «astingi erni jer, tirep, ustingi erni kok tirep» (lit: «to snow from eyebrows, to ice from lashes», « the lower lip rests on the ground, the upper lip is in the sky») - it is the image of warriors in epics (the phraseological meaning: the image of the severe, wrathful male); from fairy tales «kozine topyrak shashu», «muzga otyrgizip ketu» (lit: to throw dust into the eyes, leave sitting on the ice) means to deceive; from historic works «kilishtin juzimen nayzanin ushimen» (lit.: by sword, by point of the spear) -to show force, demonstrating power; «jigasi kysaydi» (lit.: the court plume is distorted) - happiness turned away, ill luck pursued a man; from the epos «Kyz Zhibek» «Kyz Jibek pen Tolegendey» means fidelity, constancy in love ; «etekten kesip, jen bolmas»(lit.: a sleeve cannot be carved out from hem) - there is a place for everything; Abay's saying «kiska kunde kirik jerge koyma koyw» (lit.: in a short time to set up warehouses in forty places) - to build obstacles by tricks and meanness, to hinder, ; as well as creations of Biys and wits from different parts of the Kazakh steppe, who became famous for their art of oratory: «awzimen kus tistegen» (lit.: biting a bird) - 1. fast (about horse);2. wit, orator ;«attiga soz, ay а ktiga jol bermegen» (lit.: neither give a word to rider, nor a road to footer) - resourceful, smart, «tili mirdin oginday» (lit.: a tongue like an arrow) - witty, nimble on tongue , «kara kildi kamshi kilgan» (lit.: to turn words into whip) - skillfully capable with words, orator, wit; all these expressions compose the golden collection of Kazakh phraseology.

Today, when written literature has reached the highest peak, when only receptive and expressive constructions can convey the power and expression of the advanced thought, how sustainable the composition of Kazakh phraseology is, whether words and collocations expressed with particular clarity can be «settled down» in the language is a very difficult question.

Kazakh lingual personality is considered as multifaceted and to present it we should carefully study the peculiarities of creativity of poets and writers, who are able to inspire and convince - well-known journalists, publicists, satirists and wits, who are capable to turn words into a weapon. These masters of rhetoric, skillfully using the whole richness of speech, are the driving force for the national language development and they contribute to the enrichment of its lexical and phraseological fund. Besides, being different from others by their social and philosophical worldview, they influence on the formation of public identity of the nation. It is therefore necessary to give full consideration to «the lingual personality» concept extending semantic perspective of the word «personality». Any of three aspects of communication and mutual understanding, realized in the process of linguistic communication between people : «speech activity», «language system», uniting all lexical items and grammatical categories of language, and «linguistic facts», a group of common texts, has relation to the linguistic identity. Verbal richness of native speakers reveals its lexical phraseological stock. In 80-90s of the twentieth century the term «the lingual personality» appeared in the anthropological linguistics After extensive consideration of the human factor in the process of humanization of social sciences the linguistic expression of speech acts of personality has served as the basis for new researches in psycho- and sociolinguistics. Polyparadigmatic science has been formed based on the results and achievements of the new linguistic research devoted to the study of the lingual personality, content, model and structure.

Thus, Yu.N.Karaulov distinguishes three levels of theoretical and epistemological model of language proficiency: verbal - semantic ingual -cognitive ( thesaurus ) and motivational - pragmatic (Karaulov 2:12) in the structure of the lingual personality[27, p.503].

Verbal - semantic or zero level characterizes words and expressions learned by man due to his natural speech abilities. Here we mean the correct use of lexical items and norms of their relationship in communicative activity, while sometimes there may be deviations from the rules of grammar .

Lingual -cognitive ( thesaurus ) level is associated with the level of human cognitive activity in the intellectual space. At the stages of formation and development of perception each personality forms his own hierarchical system which consists of awareness of cultural value, their evaluation, of accumulated experience in various kinds of social activities. This is manifested in the manner and content of speech, individual's using of words by the help of which you can find out the personality(e. g. sadness in Abay's poetry, Makhambet's inspiring, passionate poems). Intellectual personality characteristics on the cognitive level is determined by such units as the «concept», «conceptual field», «idea».

Pragmatic level is determined by the objectives of the speaker, peculiarities and conditions of the communicative situation. This parameter of lingual personality which depends on the «communicative - activity requirements» associated with the speaker's personal attitude is a major factor, particularly revealing the man, his personality. These features are due to the level of the individual logical reasoning, his knowledge and emotional situation. Such comprehensive description of lingual personality is not easy to produce. In terms of verbal communication it becomes clear through words the voice speaking opportunities, while to identify pragmatic language personality structure accurately, organize it with psycholinguistic and social position is very difficult, because the concepts, ideas of lingual -cogntive level are implemented taking into account the level of «communicative activity- related needs» of pragmatic level .

Individual linguistic human consciousness that distinguishes its qualities cannot develop in isolation. Any individual initially absorbs the verbal richness of earlier generations. Further, his speech improves, produces individual language features, the manner of speech perfects and on the cognitive basis of deepening knowledge the lingual personality is formed which differs from others .

Despite the fact that the need to transfmit information from the sender to the recipient is a natural spiritual human need, not every native speaker of the language is the lingual personality. Analysis of the nature of the lingual personality, comprehensive description of its levels show that the lingual personality must be highly intelligent and, above all, must completely master national cultural values of its people. Only then the lingual personality, possessing qualities, which meet the spiritual needs of communication, is able to convey to the listener's consciousness high expression of linguistic units, capable of expressing the force of its thoughts. Therefore, the concept of «the lingual personality» is inseparable from the concept of «national identity «and» social identity» and should be considered in this trinity. ( Continuity of combination of these concepts can be seen in such personalities as Abay, A.Baytursynov , K.Zhubanov etc.)[28, p.402].

2.2 Difference and similarities between English and Kazakh idioms

Every nation keeps its own unique culture, tradition, history and religion. They are an integral part of the national personality, and reveal its basic nature. To explore these all things we must learn their language deeply. As it reflected and influenced in their mother language. Idiom is a certain unique regular expression way of language form in the course of using. The idiom of this paper is broadly-defined including idioms, proverbs, truncated witticism, allusion, etc. English-Kazak bilingual history is long, including a large number of idioms. They are impeccable, humorous, serious, refined. They are not only compendious, but also it is vivid, they can give somebody a kind of beautiful enjoyment. Because of the geography, history, religious belief, living custom, etc. the difference of the English-Kazakh idiom is bearing the weight of the people's national culture characteristic and culture information.

In this study I'm going to show English-Kazakh proverbs, idioms and sayings about livestock, also find differences and similarities between them and try to answer to these questions: why the camel is more respectful in Kazakh landscape than it is in England? Why meaning of the saying 'black sheep' have good meaning in Kazakhstan and bad meaning in England?

Also I'm going to discus historical and cultural meaning of having a profound respect for horses and role of livestock in both countries.Historical and cultural meanings of livestock in Kazakhstan and in England are vivid and very important for each country. Through history pages Kazakh people had traditional nomadic life and a livestock-based economy was dominated in the steppes. Still, livestock is one of the most important agricultural goods. In the past each type of livestock (there are four types: camel, sheep, horse, cow) was transport, food, clothes and

riches. An immense experience accumulated by generations' everyday practice, is referred to in popular expressions, such as:

Tuye - bailyk, Camel is fortune,

Koi -myrzalyk, Sheep is prevalence,

Zhylky - sandik, Horse is beauty,

Siyr -- aktyk. Cow is abundance.

For European people livestock are also having importance. Evidence for these things we can say such idioms:

On the sheep's back - it means that someone live on sheep breeding or wool trading because in Australia sheep breeding is one of the main field in agriculture Also, Salt the cow to catch the calf- to achieve your goals in a round about way Kazakh people are very rich for traditions and customs.

Nomadic way of life had been influenced to creating of these things. For example traditions related with livestock, called 'Bes zhaksy' which means five valuable things. "Bes zhaksy' was traditionally gifted to the most respected people, bais, myrzas (lords), batyrs, and biis as an evidence of respect and friendship. LBes zhaksy' included:

1) a camel - 'kara nar';

2) a fast racer - 'zhuirik at';

3) an expensive (Persian) carpet - 'kaly kilem';

4) an expensive sword - 'almas kylysh';

5) a sable fur coat - 'bulgin ishik'.Kazakh people are not counted goats for livestock, since Kazakhs dislike them:

Eshkinin eti et bolmas, Goafs flesh will not be meat, Saudager kisi dos bolmas. Trader cannot be a friend. The same in England's animal husbandry: Separate the sheep from the goats -to distinguish the good (sheep) from the bad (goat)The animals' meat is the main means of nourishment among the Kazakhs. When winter comes a horse is in for it as its meat is considered the best energy provider during the cold season. A young bull's meat is considered the best dish for spring, and ram's meat is available all year through. Their meat tastes particularly good in summer, when they are being kept on herb meadows and are practically fattened. As it expressed in Kazakh idiom:

Zhylky suti(kumys) sheker, eti bal Horse's milk is sugar, meat is honey Or in Kazakh saying: The first treasure is fitness , The second is heart's first treasure is fitness, The second is heart's mistress, The third is some milksheep. For European people meat of horse or any type of livestock not very bright expressed in language than it is in Kazakh language: Salt horse - salted / corned beef; Three times the galley had been washed out, and the men... contented themselves with hard tack and cold salt horse. (J. London, "The Mutiny of the 'Elsinore" A herd of brown camels scattered on the steppe, from time to time a yurt as well -... before his eyes horsemen rushed by, many of them still with pointed caps as in times of old' Chingis Aitmatov. Camel has always played an important role in the life of pastoral nomads who migrated in the Steppe. Its usefulness, primarily as a transportation animal, was so immense that there seems to be no aspect of everyday life in which it is not involved. There is no end to linguistics demonstrating this. All caravans were moved by camel on the tracks of the Silk Route. In Abdizhamal Nurpeiisov's novel 'Kanmenter' (blood and sweat), he also emphasizes the importance of camels[29, p.382].

Tuye 60 kun ashtykka Camel can survive in 60 days 30 kun sholdikke shydaidy without food, 30 days without water. Tuye - dala kemesi Ship of the desert is the camel Europeans have the same idiom with different meaning; when walking, the camel moves both feet on one side of its body, then both feet on the other. This gait suggests the rolling motion of a boat, explaining the camel's 'ship of the desert' nickname Or: He ship of the desert - it was doubtless an ingenious idea to call the camel the ship of the desert... (G. Eliot, 'The Mill on the Floss', book H) Also: Strain at gnats and swallow camels - to criticize other people for minor offences while ignoring major offences. Plain as the hump on a camel - obvious Or: 'A camel's hump is an ugly lump, which well you may see in the zoo..." Richard Kipling's quote. But in Kazakh steppes camel has much more importance, because of nomadic way of life which was related with yurts, made by boiled camel's wool, and using camel as a transport. As it beautiful described in such saying:

Zhatqan zheri daladai, When lying, it occupies a field, Eki orkeshi baladai. Two humps of it, like two boys, Azu tisi qaladai, Its teeth, like a fence's sticks,

Quiyrygy qamshydai, With a tail, like a whip, Bura soigan ne sumdyq! When slaughtered, how much it is!

Also camel's milk is used in treatment, as the best remedy called shubat. It proves in Chingis Aitmatov's one of the best novel 'Borandy Bekef, main character Kazangap underline the shubat's gorgeous quality. From ancient time Kazakh people have a profound respect for horses. Kazakhs worship the horse as the noblest and majestic creation of Mother Nature. It drinks only clean water and eats only good grass. Its smell is dearest to a true steppe man. The horse bears no negative associations, being an ideal animal, the affectionate mutual understanding and coherence between man and horse is amazing. Horse is one of the seven kazyna(treasure). Also: At erdi saktaidy Horse saves a man At adamnyn - kanaty Horse is wing of a human Zhylky - tulik patshasy Horse - leader of livestock

The history of the horse in England is inseparable from the history of the English people. Horses influenced the way the early inhabitants of Great Britain worked, traveled, and fought. The monarchy, soldiers, and invaders influenced the bloodlines, size, and speed of the animals. Therefore, to examine the horse's history, human history must be examined simultaneously. To ride the high horse - to act pretentiously so in the 14^th century persons of high rank were mounted on "high" horses meaning they rode the heavy chargers used in battle or tournament. Man of horseback -- strong, powerful person. Look a gift horse in the mouth - having bad manners when accepting a gift. One can tell how old a horse is by looking into it's' mouth - it is equivalent to looking for the hallmark sign on the back of a greeting card. The same meaning in Kazakh saying:

Maldyn tisine karap, zhasyn ait By looking to teeth of beast, say his age. Sheep have had a strong presence in many cultures, especially in areas where they form the most common type of livestock. In the English language, to call someone a sheep or ovine may allude that they are timid and easily led, if not outright stupid: Gentle as a lamb - describes a gentle, harmless personality or person refers to the non-aggressive disposition of sheep. Quiet as a lamb - as quiet as a lamb, e.g. film 'The silence of the lamb' Directed by Jonathan Demme, actors Jodie Foster and Anthony Hopkins. In Kazakh, sheep has much stronger importance and good meaning than it is in English:

Mai osirsen, qoi osir, Of livestock - sheep is the best, Paidasy onyn kol-kosir Its goodness and benefits are blessed[30, p.374].

Or: Qoidin suti qorgasyn Sheep's milk is a lead Europeans have ugly, foolish and stupid association with black sheep, because they have old belief that black sheep hallmark with devil: Black sheep of the family - an ostracized, most troublesome or badly behaved member of a family or group. But Kazakh people have absolutely different meaning of “black sheep”. In the past nomads use black sheep's meat for reducing energy of women after childbirth(it's called kalzhalau). In South part of Kazakhstan people say: Qara qoi - qazaqy qoi Black sheep - Kazakh sheep "Whoever takes interest in Kazakh culture, one of the most original and richest cultures in Eurasia, pays tribute to a nation which even during the hardest years offered refuge to my people."Nursultan Nazarbayev Through studying we see there are many differences and similarities between English-Kazakh idioms. And as we learn English language, we should explore their geography, history, religious belief, living custom, etc. The most interesting way of studying these things are comparing with your mother language.

2.3 Translating by choosing absolute or complete equivalents

This is the method of translating by which every componental part of the source language idiom is retained in the target language unchanged. The componental parts include all notionals and also the lexically charged functional which contribute to the lexical meaning of the idiomatic/phraseological expression. The notional components also create the main images (the picturesqueness), the expressiveness and the figurative (connotative) meanings of idiomatic expressions. Translating with the help of equivalents is resorted to when dealing with idioms which originate from the same source in both the languages in question. These sources may be:

1) Greek or other mythology: Cassandra warning - застереження Кассандри (застереження, на які не звертають уваги, але які збуваються). We have found only one expression, which partly expresses the subject information.

ancient history or literature. We did not find any stable and idiomatic expressions concerning subject information neither in English, nor in Ukrainian.

the Bible or works based on a biblical plot: to cast the first stone at one першим кинути у когось каменем. This expression is used to symbolize the conversation, which started with quarrel.

A great many absolute equivalents originate from contemporary literary or historical sources relating to different languages (mainly to French, Spanish, Danish, German, Italian, Arabic). German: da ist der Hundbegraben ось де собака заритий (It is used to notify that someone learned a secret, that the information was disclosed).

Translating with the help of absolute equivalents are very often made use of when dealing with the sentence idioms containing the subject, the predicate, and some other parts of the sentence, though some minor alterations in their structure/word order may not be excluded altogether. Such alterations, however, do not change either the denotative meaning or the componental images, the picturesqueness, expressiveness or connotative meaning of idioms: out of the mouths of babies speaks the truth (wisdom) устами немовлят говорить істина/мудрість; walls have ears стіни мають вуха, etc.

As has been said, the target language variants of absolute equivalents may sometimes slightly differ in their structure or in the order of words from the source language idioms (e. g hold one`s tongue тримати язика на припоні). These minor changes in the structural form, however, do not influence in any way the meaning and the expressiveness or picturesqueness of absolute equivalents in the target language.

Not only regular idioms but also many so-called standardized word-combinations, which may often originate in the two languages from a common source, can be translated by absolute equivalents. Due to this, they retain in the target language the semantic identity and the componental structure of the source language units: a word spoken is past recalling - слово не горобець, вилетить - не спіймаєш; to throw light проливати світло, shoot off one's mouth - вистрелити з рота etc.

Standardized word-combinations, as will be shown below, can also be translated in some other ways, which is an obvious testimony to the unchangeable inconsistency of the way identified as "translation by means of loans" ("кальки", "калькування")[31, p.417].

2.4 Translation of idioms by choosing near equivalents

The meaning of a considerable number of phrase idioms and sentence idioms originating in both languages from a common source may sometimes have, unlike absolute equivalents, one or even most of their components different, than in the target language. Hence, the quality of their images is not identical either, though not necessarily their picturesqueness and expressiveness (if any): measure twice, cut once сім раз одміряй, один раз одріж; to go in one ear and out of the other - в одне вухо влетіло, з іншого вилетіло.

The slight divergences in the near equivalents as compared with the source language idioms can manifest themselves also in some other aspects, as for example:

in the structure of the target language variant (e. g to make a long story short сказати коротко);

in the omission (or adding) of a componental part in the target language (e. g to come up against a blank wall - говорити, ніби до глухої стіни);

in the substitution of a feature (or image) of the source language phraseological/idiomatic expression for some other (more fitting or traditionally expected) in the target language: to find common ground - знайти спільну мову;

Similar componental substitutions, both semantic and structural, can be observed in regular standardized collocations and in comparative proverbs or saying as: to throw/shed light проливати світло; to ask smb. humbly; to go cap in hand to smb бити чолом (пояснювати певну інформацію); to listen open-mouthed розвісити вуха.

Therefore, faithful translation may be achieved by different methods. Moreover, it must be evident now that "translating by means of loans" may refer to any method of rendering phraseologisms/idioms which are or may become regular loans in the target language.

In other words, translation of idiomatic expressions "by means of loans" does not always fully justify the essence of the term[32, p.303].

2.5 Translation by choosing genuine idiomatic and approximate analogies

An overwhelming majority of English idiomatic expressions have similar in sense units in Ukrainian. Sometimes these lexically corresponding idiomatic expressions of the source language may also contain easily perceivable for the target language speakers combinations of images as well as similar or identical structural forms. These idiomatic expressions, naturally, are in most cases easily given corresponding analogies in the target language. As a matter of fact, such expressions are sometimes very close in their connotative (metaphorical) meaning in English and Ukrainian as well. Any common or similar traits of idiomatic expressions are the main proof of their being genuine analogies. The latter in each of the two languages comprise also proverbs and sayings as well as the so-called standardized and stable collocations: to have the ready tongue за словом у кишеню не лізти; beat a dead horse товкти воду в ступі.

Many of such and the like idiomatic expressions may often have two and more analogies by sense variants in the target language. The choice of an analogy rests then with the translator and is predetermined by the style of the text: to poke/thrust one's nose into smth., to pry into smth. - пхати свого носа в чужу розмову, to go in one ear and out of the other - в одне вухо влетіло, з іншого вилетіло. The number of analogies (similar by sense) expressions for an idiom in the target language may reach a regular row as it is the case with the Ukrainian phraseological expression розвісити язика, мати язик без костей, розпустити язика, etc. This idiom may have the following substitutes in different contextual environments: to fall victim to smb. 's tongue, to be always on smb. 's lips, you can get anywhere if you know how to use your tongue; a clever tongue will take you anywhere, he has a ready/glib tongue, he is itching to say it, the word is on the tip of my tongue, he wears his heart on his sleeve, he cannot keep his thoughts to himself, he has a long/loose tongue, he is too fond of talking, to have a quick/ready tongue, to be quick-tongued, to loosen the tongue, to wag one's tongue, to talk too glibly, it slipped out, to babble on and on, to jabber away, to throw words around, etc.

Some source language idiomatic and stable expressions may have a peculiar nature of their componental parts or a peculiar combination of them and thus form nationally peculiar expressiveness and picturesqueness of componental images. The latter constitute some hidden meaning, which is mostly not quite explicit and comprehensible, not transient enough for the foreigner to catch it.

As a result, there exist no genuine phraseological analogies for the units in the target language. Since it is so, their lexical meaning can be expressed by means of only approximate analogies or through explication in a descriptive way. These analogies are only to a slight degree similar to the source language idioms, although they may be no less picturesque and expressive than the source language variants: kind words butter no parsnips годувати байками солов'я; to lose one's breath кидати слова на вітер; etc.

No need to emphasize that selection of approximate analogies for a translator is no easy task, as the source languages idioms/ phraseologisms often bear some characteristics of a language's traits having no correspondence in the target language.

Many idioms have obscure origin/etymology and selecting of approximate equivalents as any other corresponding semantic variants often requires a linguistic investigation on the part of the translator. For example: to come under fire means to be angrily criticized It may be translated into Ukrainian as закидати камінням[33, p.406].

3. Set Expressions and proverbs in a Phraselogical units

Set Expressions (Phraseological Units - was first introduced by Vinogradov) are word-groups that can't be made in the process of speech; they exist in the language as ready-made units. Like words, they express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. American and British lexicographers call such units idioms. Free word-groups are each time built up anew in the speech.

1. Professor Smirnitsky worked out Structural Classification of Phraseological Units. He compared phraseological units with words, singled out:

2. one top units (which he compared whith derived words)

3. two top units (which he compared with compound words)

Among one-top units he pointed out 3 types:

- «to give up» type, that is verb+preposition f.e. to bring up, to art up

- units of the type «to be tired of». Some of these units remind the Passive Voice, but they are used with different prepositions f.e. to be interested in, to be surprised at

- prepositional-nominal type, that is preposition+noun f.e. in time, on the doorstep. In these units there is no grammatical centre and their semantic centre is the nominal part. Among two-top units Smirnitsky pointed out the following groups:

- verb-nominal type f.e. to read between the lines, to catch cold. The grammatical centre in such units is the verb, the semantic centre is mostly the nominal component.

Very close to such units are word groups of type «to have a swim». These units are non-ideomatic and are treated in grammar as a special syntactical combination, a kind of Aspect f.e. to have a glance, to have a smoke.

- attributive-nominal type f.e. a month of Sundays, grey matter

II. Academician Vinogradov worked out Semantic Classification according to the degree of motivation of the meaning. He singed out:

4. phrasiological fusions (ideom)

The degree of motivation is very low. We can not guess the meaning of the whole from the meaning of the components. They are highly idiomatic and can not be translated word for word f.e. rad tape, to rain cats and dogs, at sixes and sevens

The main peculiarities are: inside them can be archaic words that are not known nowadays, new words are not acceptable in an idiom, it is not possible to change places of the wordes, one can not use the words separately

5. phrasiological unities

The meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meaning of the components, but the meaning is metaphorical. They are near to idioms f.e. to burn bridges, to have other fish to fry, an old salt, to play the first fiddle. The main peculiarities are:

one component can not be replaced with the other the semantic of different components remains their emotional capacity is the most important there can be synonyms with other words or other set expressions

6. phrasiological collocations (combinations) are sets with free or phraseological meaning, where words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages f.e. cash and carry, in a big way. Such sets are semantically devided and they are near to free word combinations.

The main peculiarities are: one of the components can be replaced f.e. a bosom friend-a bosom buddy the components can change their places f.e. Adam's apple-an apple of Addam one of the components is used freely and the other is used traditionally f.e. a bosom friend (an animy can't be bosom)

adjectives can be involved f.e. he frowned his thick eyebrows a synonym of the main word can be used f.e. a pitch battle-a fierce battle

III. Professor A.V.Koonin classified phraseological units according to The Way they are Formed. He singled out:

1. primary ways (when a unit is formed on the basis of free word group)

2. secondary ways (when a unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit) Among primary ways he pointed out the following groups:

- the most productive in English, it is the formation of phraseological units by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups f.e. launching pad-in its direct meaning стартовая площадка, in its transferred meaning отправной пункт; to link up-стыковаться or знакомиться.

- a large group of phraseological units was formed from free word groups by transferring their meaning (simile, contrast, metaphor) f.e. granny farm-пансионат для престарелых, as old as hills-старый как мир, more or less-более или менее

- by means of alliteration f.e. a sad sack-несчастный человек, culture vulture человек интересующийся искусством

- by means of rhyming f.e. by hook or by crook-by any possible means, high and dry-left without help

- by using synonyms f.e. to pick and choose- to be terribly choosy, really and ruly-quite honestly

- by means of expressiveness, it is especially characteristic of interjections f.e. My aunt! Hear, hear!

- by means of distorting a word group f.e. odds and ends- was formed from-odd ends

- by using archaisms f.e. in brown study-means-in gloomy meditation-wher both components preserve their archaic meanings

- by using a sentence in a different sphere of life f.e. that cock won't fight-can be used as a free word-group when it is used in sports (cock fighting), but it becomes a phraseological unit when it is used in everyday life, because it is used metaphorically

- they can be formed when we use some unreal image f.e. to have butterflies in the stomach-испытывать волнение, to have green fingers-преуспевать как садовод любитель

- by using expessions of writers and politicians in everyday life f.e. corridors of

power (Snow), American dream (Alby) Among secondary ways he pointed out the following groups:

- conversion f.e. to vote with one's feet-expressing a protest by going away

- changing the grammar form, a sentence, f.e. to make hay while the sun shines

- analogy f.e. curiosity killed the cat-care killed the cat

- contrast f.e. thin cat-a poor person into fat cat-a rich person, kiss of death-kiss of life

- shortening of proverbs or sayings f.e. you can't make a silk purse out of a sow's ear- the phraseological unit to make a sow's ear was formed with the meaning to make a mistake

- borrowing phraseological units from other languages f.e. living space (German),

to take the bull by the horns (Latin)

3. Arnold suggested Syntactical classification according to their part-of-speech meaning[34, p.489].

- Noun phraseologisms denoting an object, person f.e. bullet train-скоростной поезд,

- Verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state, feeling f.e. to make headlines-прославиться

- Adverb phraseological units f.e. with a bump-резко, in the soup - в трудном положении

- Prepositional phraseological units f.e. in the course of, on the stroke of

- Interjection phraseological units f.e. Catch me! Well, I never!

Phraseological expressions include only the components with the direct meaning. There are many proverbs, sayings etc. Which have not any allegorical meanings f.e. live and learn, easier said then done.

Set expressions find their use in everyday life, in literature and media. They can be used as expressive means and have stylistic effect of humour f.e. It was raining cats and dogs and 2 kittens and a puppy... To smoke or not to smoke- built on analogy with to be or not to be

The term set expression is on the contrary more definite and self-explanatory, because the first element points out the most important characteristic of these units, namely, their stability, their fixed and ready-made nature. The word "expression" suits our purpose, because it is a general term including words, groups of words and sentences, so that both ups and downs and that's a horse of another colour are expressions.

Set expressions have sometimes been called "word equivalents", and it has been postulated by A.I. Smirnitsky that the vocabulary of a language consists of words and word equivalents (word-groups), similar to words in so far as they are not created in speech but introduced into the act of communication ready-made. It is most important to keep in mind that here equivalence means only this and nothing more.Set expressions are contrasted to free phrases and semi fixed combinations. All these are but different stages of restrictions imposed upon co occurrence of words, upon the lexical filling of structural patterns which are specific for even' language. The restrictions may be independent of the ties existing in extralinguistic reality between the objects spoken of and be conditioned by purely linguistic factors, or have extralinguistic causes in the history of the people. In free combinations the linguistic factors are chiefly connected with grammatical properties of words.

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