Phraseology as a branch of linguistic science

If substitution is only pronominal, or restricted to a few synonyms for one of the members only, or impossible, i.e. if the elements of the phrase are always the same and make a fixed context for each other, the word-group is a set expression. According to the type of motivation and the other above-mentioned features, three types of phraseological units are suggested: phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations. Phraseological fusions (e. g. tit for tat) represent as their name suggests the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties. Phraseological fusions are specific for every language and do not lend themselves to literal translation into other languages. Phraseological unities are much more numerous. They are clearly motivated. The emotional quality is based upon the image created by the whole as in to stick (to stand) to one's guns, i.e. 'refuse to change one's statements or opinions in the face of opposition', implying courage and integrity. The example reveals another characteristic of the type, namely the possibility of synonymic substitution, which can be only very limited. Some of these are easily translated and even international, e. g. to know the way the wind is blowing.The third group in this classification, the phraseological combinations, are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively: meet the demand, meet the necessity, meet the requirements. The mobility of this type is much greater, the substitutions are not necessarily synonymical.

An interesting and clear-cut modification of V.V. Vinogradov's scheme was suggested by T.V. Stroyeva for the German language. She divides the whole bulk of phraseological units into two classes: u n i t-i e s and combinations. Phraseological fusions do not constitute a separate class but are included into unities, because the criterion of motivation and demotivation is different for different speakers, depending on their education and erudition. The figurative meaning of a phraseological unity is created by the whole, the semantic transfer being dependent on extra-linguistic factors, i.e. the history of the people and its culture. There may occur in speech homonymous free phrases, very different in meaning (c /. jemandem den Kopf waschen 'to scold sb' -- a phraseological unity and den Kopf waschen 'to wash one's head' -- a free phrase). The form and structure of a phraseological unity is rigid and unchangeable. Its stability is often supported by rhyme, synonymy, parallel construction, etc. Phraseological combinations, on the contrary, reveal a change of meaning only in one of the components and this semantic shift does not result in enhancing expressiveness[35, p.343].

he number of works of our linguists devoted to phraseology is so great that it is impossible to enumerate them; suffice it to say that there exists a comprehensive dictionary of English phraseology compiled by A.V. Koonin. This dictionary sustained several editions and contains an extensive bibliography and articles on some most important problems. The first doctoral thesis on this subject was by N.N. Amosova (1963), then came the doctoral thesis by A.V. Koonin. The results were published in monographs. Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky also devoted attention to this aspect in his book on lexicology. He considers a phraseological unit to be similar to the word because of the idiomatic relationships between its parts resulting in semantic unity and permitting its introduction into speech as something complete.The influence his classification exercised is much smaller than that of V.V. Vinogradov's. The classification of V.V. Vinogradov is synchronic. He developed some points first advanced by the Swiss linguist Charles Bally and gave a strong impetus to a purely lexicological treatment of the material. Thanks to him phraseological units were rigorously defined as lexical complexes with specific semantic features and classified accordingly. His classification is based upon the motivation of the unit, i.e. the relationship existing between the meaning of the whole and the meaning of its component parts. The degree of motivation is correlated with the rigidity, indivisibility and semantic unity of the expression, i.e with the possibility of changing the form or the order of components, and of substituting the whole by a single word. The classification is naturally developed for Russian phraseology but we shall illustrate it with English examples[36, p.416].

3.1 Classification of set expressions

Many various lines of approach have been used to classify these units. Yet the boundaries of this group, its classification and place in the vocabulary appear controversial issues in present-day linguistics. Among English scholars named can be L.P. Smith and W. Ball, who gave a more or less detailed groupings of English set expressions. However as this group of units shows much commonness in different languages, we can observe as an example a classification given for other language expressions and possibly apply it to English idioms. What concerns the Russian material those were Fortunatov, Shakhmatov and later Larin and Vinogradov who tried to classify Russian phraseology.

V.V. Vinogradov's classification illustrated with English examples is as follows:

1. phraseological fusions, which show the highest stage of blending between two or more non-motivated elements: tongue-in-cheek;

2. phraseological unities, which consist of non-motivated elements permitting a possibility of synonymic substitution: to stick to one's guns = to stand to one's guns;

3. phraseological combinations, which consist of motivated components, one used in its direct meaning, while the others in their figurative meanings: to meet the demands, to meet the requirements, to enter the details, etc.

There also exists a classification of idioms in the German language, where only unities and combinations are distinguished, while fusions are included into unities, because the criterion of motivation / demotivation seems different to different speakers[37, p.351].

A well-known classification of English idioms from different viewpoints was given by the Soviet linguist Alexander V. Koonin, the basic grouping being given according to the grammatical function of the unit. This means that every set expression can be equal or rather equalised to a separate word, and each word belongs to this or that part of speech. Hence we have:

I. Nominal phrases:

a) noun + noun (maiden name);

b) noun's + noun (cat's paw);

c) nouns' + noun (ladies' man);

d) noun + preposition + noun (a skeleton in the cupboard);

e) noun + adjective (knight errant - странствующий рыцарь);

f) noun + and + noun (lord and master - супруг).

II. Verbal phrases:

a) verb + noun (to take advantage);

b) verb + and + verb (to pick and choose - перебирать);

c) verb + one's + noun + preposition (to snap one's fingers at somebody - плевать на кого-л.);

d) verb + one + noun (to give one the bird = to give one the sack - уволить);

e) verb + subordinate clause (to see how the land lies - видеть истинное положение дел).

III. Adjectival phrases:

a) adjective + and + adjective (high and mighty, meek and humble);

b) as + adjective + as + noun (as mad as a hatter);

IV. Adverbial phrases:

a) noun + noun (tooth and nail - изо всех сил);

b) preposition + noun (of course, by heart);

c) preposition + noun + or + noun (by hook or by crook);

d) conjunction + clause (before one can say Jack Robinson - глазом не успеете моргнуть).

V. Prepositional phrases:

preposition + noun + preposition (in consequence of, in case of, on the ground of, in the event of).

VI. Interjectional phrases:

God bless me, bless my soul, etc[38, p.347].

3.2 The Origin of Set Expressions in Modern English

The sources of Modern English phraseology are extremely versatile. In accordance with their etymology all such units may be divided into two large groups: those of the English origin and borrowings. The borrowed idioms are further divided into inter-lingual and intra-lingual borrowings. A special group is made of those idioms, which may be named foreign phraseological insertions. Thus, the classification of idioms may consist of four principle groups, which are:

1. Idioms of the English origin;

2. Inter-lingual borrowings;

3. Intra-lingual borrowings (mainly American loans);

4. Foreign insertions.

The first group falls into:

1. Idioms reflecting English customs: baker's dozen - this expression was invented by bakers, because according to the old English tradition, bread-sellers received from bakers thirteen loaves instead of twelve, the thirteenth one being their profit.

2. Idioms associated with the peculiarities of the English life: blue stocking - a Blue Stocking Meeting was named a literary society of 18^th century London, because the scientist Benjamin Spellingflith always appeared in it in blue stockings.

3. Idioms where personal names are used: a good Jack makes a good Jill - у хорошего мужа и жена хороша.

4. Idioms associated with beliefs and prejudices: a black sheep - because in old times a black sheep in a herd was believed to be marked by devil.

5.

6. Idioms associated with astrology: to curse one's stars - проклинать судьбу, to be born under a bad star.

7. Idioms associated with actual historical events: as well be hand for a sheep as a lamb - если суждено быть повешенным за овцу, почему бы не украсть и ягненка - according to an old English law the theft of a sheep was punished by hanging.

8. Idioms of terminological origin: to cut the painter, to hit below the belt.

9. Shakespeare's idioms: many modern English idioms come from the writings of the past, but their majority is linked with the name of this great playwright - a fool's paradise (“Romeo and Juliet”), the green-eyed monster (“Othello”), to one's heart content (“Merchant of Venice”).

The inter-lingual borrowings also fall into the following groups:

1. Biblical loans: to saw the wind and reap the whirlwind - посеешь ветер, пожнешь бурю, a millstone about somebody's neck - камень на шее, a wolf in sheep's clothing.

2. Foreign loans coming from antique mythology: the apple of discord, a labour of Sisyphus, the thread of Ariadne.

3. French borrowings: after us the deluge (from French aprиs nous le deluge), appetite comes with eating, castles in Spain, the fair sex, the game is not worth the candle.

4. German borrowings: blood and iron (from German Blut und Eisen), speech is silvern, silence is golden (Sprechen ist silbern, schweigen ist golden), storm and stress (Sturm und Drang).

5. Spanish borrowings: the fifth column, to tilt at windmills.

6. Russian borrowings: the sick man of Europe - европейская страна, пребывающая в тяжелом экономическом положении - this way Nickolas I called Turkey in 1853.

Apart from these, the English phraseology contains some few loans from Danish, Dutch, Italian, Chinese, and Arabic.

Intra-lingual (American mainly) borrowings: time is money - this phrase came from the book Advice To The Young Tradesman by Benjamin Franklin; to sell like hot cakes, to sit on the fence - занимать выжидательную, нейтральную позицию, to spill the beans - выдать секрет, to feel/look like a million dollars.

Foreign insertions which are mainly Latin and French phrases: terra incognita, ad hoc - для данного случая (normally in written speech), status quo, curriculum vitae, infant terrible, objet d'art[39, p.438].

The principal way of borrowing has always been translation, or calking, whose cases may be:

1. Complete translation: make believe < faire croire, vicious circle < circulus vitiosus, divide and rule < divide et impera.

2. Semi-translations: on the qui vive (начеку) - from French sur le qui-vive.

3. Idioms imitating the foreign semantic structure: by all that's blue - черт возьми < French parbleu (euphemism used instead of par Dieu), May Day < m'aider (“Help me!” in French).

Today I decided to touch upon set expressions connected with time. Proverbs, sayings and set expressions about time that absorbed folk wisdom are really worth knowing.

1. Sorrows and grieves often fade away in course of time, that is why we say that:

Time cures. (Время лечит.) Time is the best healer. (Время -- лучший лекарь.)

Time works wonders. (Время творит чудеса.)

2. People are usually pressed for time, so there are lots of ways to say that there is no time to waste. Time is money. (Время -- деньги.) Procrastination is the thief of time. (Промедление смерти подобно.) Sands of time are running out. (Время на исходе.) Time flies. (Время летит.)

3. There is nothing permanent under the moon. Things come and go. That makes people ponder over the inconstancy of the world. A time to be born and a time to die. (Время рождаться и время умирать.) To everything there is a season. (Всему свое время.) Time will tell. (Время покажет.) There is time and place for everything. (Всему свое время и место.) There is no time like present. (Живи настоящим.) And one more... off topic, but nice, isn't it? Third time lucky. (Бог любит троицу.)

3.3 Set expressions functioning like nouns (noun phraseologisms)

N+N: maiden name `the surname of a woman before she was married'; brains trust `a committee of experts' or `a number of reputedly well - informed persons chosen to answer questions of general interest without preparation'.

N's + N: cat's paw `one who is used for the convenience of a cleverer and stronger person' (the expression comes from a fable in which a monkey wanting to eat some chestnuts that were on a hot stove, but not wishing to burn himself while getting them, seized a cat and holding its paw in his own used it to knock the chestnuts to the ground); Hobson's choice, a set expression used when there is no choice at all, when a person has to take what is offered or nothing (homas Hobson, a 17th century London stableman, made every person hiring horses take the next in order).

N+prep+N: the arm of the law.

N+A: knight errant (the phrase is today applied to any chivalrous man ready to help and protect oppressed and helpless people).

N+and+N: lord and master `husband'; the whole world and his wife `everybody'; rank and file `the ordinary working members of an organization' (the origin of this expression is military life, it denotes common soldiers); ways and means `methods of overcoming difficulties'.

A+N: green room `the general reception room of a theatre' (it is said that formerly such rooms had their walls coloured green to relieve the strain on the actors'eyes after the stage lights); high tea `an evening meal which combines meat or some similar extra dish with the usual tea'.

N+subordinate clause: ships that pass in the night `chance acquaintances'.

Set expressions functioning like verbs:

V+N: to take advantage

V+postpositive: to give up

V+and+V: to pick and choose

V+(one's)+N+(prep): to snap one's fingers at

V+one+N: to give one the bird `to fire smb'.

V+subordinate clause: to see how the land lies `to discover the state of affairs'.

Set expressions functioning like adjectives:

A+and+A: high and mighty

(as)+A+as+N: as old as the hills, as mad as a hatter

Set expressions functioning like adverbs:

A big group containing many different types of units, some of them with a high frequency index, neutral in style and devoid of expressiveness, others expressive.

N+N: tooth and nail

Prep+N: by heart, of course

Adv+prep+A+N: once in a blue moon

Prep+N+or+N: by hook or by crook

Conj+clause: before one can say Jack Robinson

V.? Set expressions functioning like prepositions:

Prep+N+prep: in consequence of

It should be noted that the type is often but not always characterized by the absence of the article e.g. by reason of - on the ground of.

Set expressions functioning like interjections.

These are often structured as imperative sentences: Bless (one's soul)! God bless me! Hang it (all)! Take your time!

There is one more type of combinations, also rigid and introduced into discource ready-made but different from all the types given above in so far as it is impossible to find its equivalent among the parts of speech. These are formulas used as complete utterances and syntactically shaped like sentences, such as the well-known American maxim Keep smiling! or British Keep Britain tidy. [40, p.269]

A.I. Smirnitsky was the first among Russian scholars who paid attention to sentences that can be treated as complete formulas, such as How do you do? Or I beg you pardon; It takes all kinds to make the world; Can the leopard change his spots? They differ from all the combinations so far discussed because they are not equivalent to words in distribution and are semantically analysable. The formulas discussed by N. N. Amosova are on the contrary semantically specific, e.g. save your breath `shut up'or tell it to the marines (one of the suggested origins is tell that to the horse marines; such a corps being non-existent, as marines are sea-going force, the last expression means `tell it to someone who does not exist because rel people will not believe it') very often such formulas, formally identical to sentences, are in reality used only as insertions into other sentences: the cap fits `the statement is true' (e.g. “He called me a liar.”- “Well, you should know if the cup fits.”). And also: Butter would not melt in his mouth; His bark is worse than his bite.

.Set expressions functioning like verbs: V+N: take advantageV+and+V: pick and choose V+(one's)+N+(prp): snap ones fingers at V+one+N: give one the bird `to fire sb'V+subordinate clause: see how the land lies `to discover the state of affairs'.

Set expressions functioning like adjectives: A+and+A: high and mighty(as)+A+as+N: as old as the hills, as mad as a hatter Set expressions are often used as predicatives but not attributively. In the latter function they are replaced by compounds.IV.Set expressions functioning like adverbs:A big group containing many different types of units, some of them with a high frequency index, neutral in style and devoid of expressiveness, others expressive.N+N: tooth and nailprp+N: by heart, of course, against the grainadv+prp+N: once in a blue moonprp+N+or+N: by hook or by crookcj+clause: before one can say Jack RobinsonVI. Set expressions functioning like prepositions: prp+N+prp: in consequence ofIt should be noted that the type is often but not always characterised by the absence of article. Сf: by reason of : : on the ground of.

I.Set expressions functioning like interjections: These are often structured as imperative sentences: Bless (one's) soul! God bless me! Hang it (all)! This review can only be brief and very general but it will not be difficult for the reader to supply the missing links.The list of types gives a clear notion of the contradictory nature of set expressions: structured like phrases they function like words.There is one more type of combinations, also rigid and introduced into discourse ready-made but differing from all the types given above in so far as it is impossible to find its equivalent among the parts of speech. These are formulas used as complete utterances and syntactically shaped like sentences, such as the well-known American maxim Keep smiling! or the British Keep Britain tidy. Take it easy.

A.I. Smirnitsky was the first among Soviet scholars who paid attention to sentences that can be treated as complete formulas, such as How do you do? or I beg your pardon, It takes all kinds to make the world, Can the leopard change his spots? They differ from all the combinations so far discussed, because they are not equivalent to words in distribution and are semantically analysable. The formulas discussed by N.N. Amosova are on the contrary semantically specific, e. g. save your breath `shut up' or tell it to the marines. As it often happens with set expressions, there are different explanations for their origin. (One of the suggested origins is tell that to the horse marines; such a corps being nonexistent, as marines are a sea-going force, the last expression means `tell it to someone who does not exist, because real people will not believe it'). Very often such formulas, formally identical to sentences are in reality used only as insertions into other sentences: the cap fits `the statement is true' (e. g.: “He called me a liar.” “Well, you should know if the cap fits. ) Compare also: Butter would not melt in his mouth; His bark is worse than his bite.(information was taken from : I. Arnold, The lexicology of contemporary English)

3.4 Proverbs as a phraseological unit

Proverb is a brief saying that presents a truth or some bit of useful wisdom. It is usually based on common sense or practical experience. The effect of a proverb is to make the wisdom it tells seem to be self-evident. The same proverb often occurs among several different peoples. True proverbs are sayings that have been passed from generation to generation primarily by word of month. They may also have been put into written form. The Book of Proverbs in the Hebrew Bible, or old Testament, is the most notable collection of such sayings. They include: Hope deferred month the heartsick.

A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches.

A soft answer turneth away.

Pride goeth before destruction and a haughty spirit before a fall.

Proverbs often find their way into literature. Hany of the lower-class characters in the Canterbury tales. By Geoffrey Chaucer refer to proverbs. Miguel de Ce rvantes' novel Don qui xote (1005, 1615) contains many proverbs. Cervantes collected the proverbs from the Spanish pea sands. The term itself phraseological units to denote a specific group of phrases was introduced by Soviet linguists and is generally accepted in our country.

Who supposedly could early on a sensible conversation for a whole evening in nothing but proverbs. Benjamin Franklin used many proverbial expressions in his Poor Richard's Almanac", issued every year from 1733 to 1758 Franklin wrote many of them himself, and took the rest from other sources.

Proverbs, Book of is a book o f the Hebrew Bible, or old Testament. It is also known as the Proverbs of Solomon because according to tradition king 'Solomon wrote it. However scholars believe that the book's assortment of moral and religious saying, poems and warnings come from various periods in the history of ancient form until after the period of the Babylanian Exile, which ended in 538 B.C.

The Book of Proverbs is a product of ancient Israel Children, were educated primarily at home. The introduction value of many sections of Proverbs reflects the teachings of parents trying to raise their children to become successful and responsible adults. Other sections of the Book of Proverbs may come from a palace school for the training of government officials.

The Book of Proverbs has earned universal appeal because it contains material valuable to all people who hope to live a life of wisdom, honesty, esponsibility, for God Hany as the book's saying have become part of everyday Speech.

Proverbs were always the most vivacious and at the same time the most stable part of the national languages, suitable competing with the sayings and aphorisms pf outstanding thinkers. In the proverbs and sayings picturesqueness of national thinking was more vivid expressed as well as their features of national character. The proverbs and sayings are the paper of folklore which is short but deep in the meaning. They express the outlook of the amount of people by their social and ideal functions. Proverbs and sayings include themselves the some certain features of historical development and the culture of people.

The semantic sphere of proverbs is very wide and cannot limit them. The proverbs describe the every branch of people's life. The fact is that proverbs and sayings are similar in meaning in spite of their diversity in form and language. To prove the said above some examples:

A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.

Un tiens vaut mieux que deux tu'auras.

Un chien vivant vaut mieux qu'un lion mort.

Лучше синица в руках, чем журавль на небе.

Even if the form, the word structure and the stylistic structure of these proverbs are different they have the same meaning. The proverbs change their meaning andform very rare, they have long living features. The spreading of any proverb among people is implemented as slow as it is created. Proverbs are retest by geographic area which is going to admit it only after that the proverb can become its property.

Many scholars tried to do the researches to show the differences between proverbs and sayings in order to point out their border of limit. One of the outstanding Russian scholars the author of "dictionary of vivid Russian language" and "the proverbs of Russian nation" V.I. Dal wrote: saying is the bud and proverb is the fruit. So from this point of view we can see that proverbs express the full finite meaning and saying is a phrase which expresses the fugitive meaning. The sayings are considered to be the half part of the proverbs. We can also add that proverbs and sayings are separate genres which are different from each other. The meaning and explanation of these terms in Turkish language show that the semantically their meanings are various and this fact confirms our above given ideas. For example in the dictionary "o'zbektilining izohli lug'ati" there are given two meanings. The first meaning is that it does not express complete meaning and it is emphatic phrase and wise words. This explanation can express the folk saying. Another meaning refers to Arab word "masal" that (in English means fable) was changed phonetically. The explanation can be used for emphatic phrase and incomplete meanings that is sayings.

There are some features that can be helpful in identifying the proverbs from sayings.

1. When there are tow logical counters became complete composition the brief summarizing thought appeared. That explains the lack of spare word or description.

2. to express the idea straightly and logically proverbs are characterized by their features. Every proverb values or appreciates any event both positively and negatively. Such kind of features serve to make the proverbs popular among people.

3. Proverbs express wise and complete idea and sayings express the description of something but do not give complete meanings. They consist of one compositional composition.

4. Proverbs can be used in neutral figurative meaning. This features of proverbs widen the sphere of their usage thematically. That's why proverbs are famous among different nations and people. Sayings are characterized by limited usage in one or two nations who are near to each other geographically and in non related languages. For example in Russian «заморитьчеловека» means to eat something has no equivalent or component in Uzbek or English languages and translated by analogy. The same way of translation is used while translating such sayings as "qovun tushurmoq" and etc.

5. The sayings are the means of devices or pointing in speech the function of proverbs is to prove any event or situation.

In spite of their own specific features proverbs have general sides which also belong to the other types of folklore. One of such features of the proyerbs is that they are created in language in a very long time and disappear in a long period. It is connected with the formal feature of the content of the proverb. To turn some wise thoughts into proverbs some conditions are required. And this conditions may be the followings: first of all the proverbs should describe the economic, social and politic life of the people. To the instruction to the dictionary of Dal, Shoiochov wrote that among all the proverbs which are closer and more important for them and reject those which are old and not suitable for them to build a new life. For example in Russian we can find the proverb "Гдехан, тами Орда", "Старшихив Ордепочитают"; these kind of proverbs can be considered as old ones and are not used in nowadays, because they do not describe the nowadays life and politics. But such kind of proverbs could be changed and said "Гдецарь, таминарод".

Secondary the idea expressed in the proverb must have global character. It means that those proverbs that describe the characters related to the human beings are the same in all the languages[41, p.343].

Thirdly the idea that can be used as sample and answers to the above conditions must be complete in literary Christianized form. When the pattern idea answers these three questions it turns to be a proverb. Also it should be pointed out that the character of immediate creation of proverbs are connected with sociable structure, the dominance and non dominance of politic, cultural, social - economic life. The content expressed in proverb changes depending on the change in. of social life.

It can be approved from the above mentioned proverb about "хан" and "Орда". It either widens or narrows and it gives completely another meaning. In this term we can see that second feature of the proverb is that it is connected with social life, and it is close to people's way of living.

Conclusion

In modern linguistics there is not any united opinion about the essence and definition of a “phraseological unit” (PhU for short) as a language unit. It should be noted that there are numerous disagreements about the volume of phraseology and the character of language facts treated as phraseologisms. According to Y.A. Subbotin, the lexicographical practice is the evidence of importance of finding exact definition of PhU, when in vocabularies ordinary combinations of words are given as phraseologisms (чувство локтя, военные действия, прибрать к рукам, даром что и др.) and words (с ходу, в общем, ни-ни, на руку, на мази и др.).

As it is known, Phraseology has appeared in the domain of Lexicology and now is treated as a separate branch of linguistics. The reason is clear - while Lexicology deals with words and their meanings, Phraseology studies such collocations of words as phraseologisms, PhUs and idioms, where the meaning of the whole collocation is different from the simple sum of literal meanings of the words, comprising a PhU, e.g. "Dutch auction" is not an auction, taking place in the Netherlands. The meaning of this PhU refers to any auction, where instead of rising, the prices fall (compare “Dutch comfort”, “Dutch courage”, “Dutch treat” reflecting complicated historical factors). According to Professor A.V. Koonin, phraseological units are stable word-groups with partially or fully transferred meanings (e.g. "to kick the bucket", “Greek gift”, “drink till all's blue”, “drunk as a fiddler (drunk as a lord, as a boiled owl)”, “as mad as a hatter (as a March hare)”.

R. Glaser states that a PhU is a lexicalized, reproducible bilexemic or polylexemic word group in common use, which has relative syntactic and semantic stability, which may be idiomatized, carry connotations and have an emphatic or intensifying function in a text.

Difference in terminology (“set-phrases”, “idioms” and “word-equivalents”) reflects certain differences in the main criteria used to distinguish types of phraseological units and free word-groups.

Soviet linguists (A.V. Koonin, A.R. Smirnitsky and others) believe that the term “set phrase” implies that the basic criterion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word-groups. There is a certain divergence of opinion as to the essential features of PhU as distinguished from other word-groups and the nature of phrases that can be properly termed “phraseological units”. The habitual terms “set-phrases”, “idioms”, “word-equivalents” are sometimes treated differently by different linguists. However, these terms reflect to a certain extend the main debatable points of phraseology which centre in the divergent views concerning the nature and essential features of PhUs as distinguished from the so-called free word-groups; the term “set expression” implies that the basic criterion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word-groups; the term “word-equivalent” stresses not only semantic but also functional inseparability of certain word-groups, their aptness to function in speech as single words.

The term “idiom” generally implies that the essential feature of the linguistic units under consideration is idiomaticity or lack of motivation. U. Weinreich expresses his view that an idiom is a complex phrase, the meaning of which cannot be derived from the meanings of its elements. He developed a more truthful supposition, claiming that an idiom is a subset of a phraseological unit.

R. Jackendoff and Ch. Fillmore offered a fairly broad definition of the idiom, which, in Fillmore's words, reads as follows: “…an idiomatic expression or construction is something a language user could fail to know while knowing everything else in the language”.

W. Chafe also lists four features of idioms that make them anomalies in the traditional language unit paradigm: non-compositionality, transformational defectiveness, ungrammaticality and frequency asymmetry.

The term “idiom” is mostly applied to phraseological units with completely transferred meanings, that is, to the ones in which the meaning of the whole unit does not correspond to the current meanings of the components.

A number of the great Russian linguists put their contribution to Phraseology as well. Thus, S. Balli gave the following definition of PhUs: “… combinations, firmly went down into the language are called phraseological units”.

The following researchers - V.L. Arhangelsky, S.G. Gavrin, and V.N. Teliya - have defined phraseologism as a language unit, which has such secondary signs as metaphorical usage, equivalentness and synonymity to words. However, in academician N.M. Shansky`s opinion, metaphorical usage is inherent to many of words and equivalence - not to all the stable combinations. That is why these minor signs are not correct in defining phraseologisms. Academician N.M. Shansky underlined that the right definition of phraseologisms is impossible disregarding its distinctions from the words and free-word groups. In his work “Phraseology in Modern Russian Language” N.M. Shansky gives the following definition: “PhU is a readymade reproductive language unit, consisting of two or more stressed components of word character recorded by its meaning, content and structure”. Also the linguist supposes that the main characteristic of PhUs is its reproducibility, since phraseologisms are not created when a speech is taking place, but is reproduced as readymade complete units, as phraseologisms like “за тридевять земель”, “след простыл”, “нечем крыть” and others are derived wholly from memory. Phraseologisms are meaningful language units with its own meaning which is independent from the meaning of its components. PhUs consist of the same components arranged one after another in strictly fixed order.

Kazakh Phraseology comes across the similar difficulties in defining and classifying stable word combinations. As English and Russian dictionaries, Kazakh phraseological dictionaries and other highly valuable reference books contain a great wealth of proverbs, sayings, various lexical units of all kinds, but as a rule do not seek to lay clown a reliable criterion to distinguish between variable word-groups and phraseological units. Academician Smet Kenesbayev`s dictionary may seem the first one in which the theoretical principles for the selections of Kazakh phraseological units have been elaborated. It should be noted that investigation of Kazakh Phraseology was initiated by academician S. Kenesbayev. His approach to Phraseology is discussed below.

Various attempts have been made to investigate the problem of phraseology in different ways in the Kazakh language. There still exits a certain divergence of opinion as to the essential feature of phraseological units as distinguished from other word-groups and the nature of phrases that can be properly termed as phraseological units.

The complexity of the problem may be largely accounted for by the face that the borderline between free or variable word-groups and phraseological units is not clearly defined in Kazakh either.

The so-called free word-groups are only relatively free as their lexical and grammatical valency, which makes at least some of them very close to set-phrases, fundamentally delimits collocability of their member-words. Phraseological units are comparatively stable and semantically inseparable. For example, the constituent “kesu” (to wink) in the word-group “koz kesu” (to wink at smb.) may be substituted for by any other verbs (jumu, axu, keru, etc.) without changing the denotative meaning of the word-group under discussion (closing one's eyes). In the phraseological unit “barmak baste, koz keste” (everything is done on the quiet (on the sly), no such substitution is possible, as a change of the noun or verb would involve a complete change in the meaning of the whole group. Moreover, when PhUs are translated from Kazakh into English, it is rather difficult to interpret them word for word. We pay much more attention to the general meaning of the phraseological units in Kazakh and try to give them equivalents in English. For example, in the Kazakh language the phraseological unit “barmak baste, koz keste” means “everything is done on the sly”, but it has the English equivalent “everything is hush-hush”[5].

No substitution of any elements whatever is possible in the following Kazakh unchangeable set expressions: “airandai aptap, kobedei koptep” (to take smb in hand), “akpa kullak” (disobedient); “ogez ayan” (to walk as a turtle); “oz kotereren oz kasu” (without contact , separately); “berin ait ta, birin ait” (to cut a long story short).

As G.B. Аntrushina states, "… phraseology is a kind of picture gallery in which vivid and amusing sketches of the nation's customs, traditions and prejudices, recollections of its past history, scraps of folk songs and fairy-tales are collected. Quotations from great poets are preserved here, for phraseology is not only the most colorful but probably the most democratic area of vocabulary and draws its resources mostly from the very depths of popular speech".

Kazakhstanian academician S. Kenesbayev is the first one to open the field of investigation of Kazakh Phraseology. His Kazakh phraseological dictionary is a highly valuable reference book.

Considering all the pros and cons of the above mentioned terms used within English, Russian and Kazakh Phraseology, we accept the term “phraseological unit” (PhU) in our research work for this term is the most neutral and dimensional one if compared to such terms like “idiom” in English linguistics and “phraseologisms” in Russian and Kazakh linguistics. To confirm the given allegation we would like to pay attention to the fact that the term “idiom” which is widely used in English linguistics does not have the exact usage in Russian and Kazakh linguistics. It can be proved by the investigation by a Kazakhstanian linguist A. Kemelbekova who considers the term “idiom” to be a synonym to the terms “phraseological unities”, “phraseological fusions” and “phraseological combinations” though these terms constitute the types of PhUs.

Summing up the above analysis and striving to avoid any possible disagreements on the point of using this or that terminology within our research, it should be noted that the term “phraseological unit” is most preferable for the already mentioned reasons.

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