Implementation of the principles of sustainable development for the formation of environmentally safe land use of transport

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Implementation of the principles of sustainable development for the formation of environmentally safe land use of transport

Novakovska I., National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine,

Bavrovska N., National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine,

Tykhenko O., National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine,

Stetsyuk M., National Aviation University,

Tsvyakh O., National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine)

Ukraine has significant strategic advantages due to its natural resources, geographical location, and quality of human capital, which can generally form the basis for rapid economic growth. The use of natural resources in volumes and in ways that ensure sustainable economic development, rationalization of the use of natural resource potential, harmonization of interaction between society and the natural environment, and the functioning of economic mechanisms for environmentally friendly use of nature are considered to be rational environmental management [1].

The main natural resource used by humanity since the earliest times of its existence is land. The process of land use is always accompanied by meeting human needs [2]. At the same time, the land is defined as the territorial basis for all types of activities of the population - a means of agricultural and forestry production, the ability to move at any distance with certain features, spatial certainty, constancy of size, lack of wear and tear, as well as the basis of statehood and sovereignty. Therefore, the land is one of the main and most important objects of the material world and a universal means of social life support [3].

The main mechanism for the formation of safe ecosystems is land management, which reflects the attitude of society to the methods and methods of efficient and rational use of territories [4]. Social needs are not always determined by the ecological expediency of using land resources, since social and economic factors are often the cause of the ecological crisis [5].

To meet the material, spiritual and social needs of the population, it is necessary to create conditions for the development of a set of economic, demographic, environmental, and infrastructural factors that affect them. One of the main indicators of the population's living standards is meeting its needs with transport networks, linear facilities, highways, and engineering structures that determine the functioning of the socioeconomic system. [6]. During 2000-2015, the area of transport land in Ukraine increased from 493.3 to 496.8 thousand hectares, of which 321.9 thousand hectares were used for roads, 112.2 thousand hectares for railways, and 20.0 thousand hectares for airports and related facilities [7].

However, according to land use experts and scientists, the current use of Ukraine's land resources, including transport land, does not yet meet many of the requirements of rational environmental management. The condition of land on some agricultural land in Ukraine is close to critical. In particular, about 57 percent of Ukraine's land is affected by water and wind erosion, and more than 12 percent of the land is subject to flooding.

According to various criteria, about 20 percent of Ukraine's land is considered contaminated. Nearly 23,000 cases of landslides are recorded every year. Abrasion destroys up to 60 percent of the Azov and Black Sea coasts and 41 percent of the Dnipro reservoirs' coastline. More than 150,000 hectares of land have been disturbed by mining and other human activities. The number of underground and surface karst developments is about 27 thousand [8].

Although the reasons for this situation are complex, among its components are the use of imperfect technologies in agriculture, industry, energy, transport, and other sectors of the economy, focus on achieving short- and medium-term economic benefits, ignoring environmental components and, as a result, negative consequences in the long term [9].

Of course, transport is an integral part of socio-economic growth, the role of which is to provide economic ties, exchange of products and transportation of passengers, create conditions for the comprehensive development of the state's economy, influence the specialization and pace of development of the economic activity of the territories, the placement of production forces, etc. Developed transport infrastructure is a prerequisite for economic and social development at both local and national levels [2]. It makes it possible to meet the needs of enterprises and the population in the transportation of goods and passengers, to establish stable production and cooperation ties, to achieve balanced spatial development, and to increase the level of local accessibility of all territories, their investment attractiveness, and competitiveness.

Undoubtedly, the development of transport is one of the most important areas of economic policy, which links the full functioning of various sectors of the economy together and determines the level of socio-economic stability of the country. Without transport services, humanity cannot imagine its existence today.

The integration process of the domestic transport infrastructure with the European one, which began in the pre-war period, created conditions for accelerated socio-economic development of the country, increased the competitiveness of the road network, the development of tourism, etc. One of the factors behind the growth of key economic indicators, for example, was the construction and reparation of roads under the President of Ukraine's «Big Construction program», which aimed not only to maximize the mileage of renovated roads but also the durability of the repaired routes [10].

The leading regions in the context of this program were Lviv, Zakarpattia, Khmelnytskyi, Kharkiv, and Zaporizhzhia regions. The most iconic roads that received new life in 2020 were Lviv-Pustomyty-Medenychi in the Lviv region (47.5 km), the Poltava bypass (only 5 km, but the complexity of the object was the presence of an overpass with two lanes in each direction), as well as Zaporizhzhia-Vasylivka-Berdyans'k highway (112 km); where 13 bridges were built or reconstructed, 33 km were overhauled, and 54 km were undergoing medium-term repairs. (Fig1,2) [10].

Fig 1. Start of work on the State Targeted Economic Program for the Development of Public Highways of State Importance for 2018-2022

Fig 2. Road rehabilitation within the framework of the GO-Highway and Via Carpatia projects, within the framework of the road network development program

The largest facility where work started was and remains a complex of bridges across the Dnipro River in Zaporizhzhia.

Work on this facility was planned to be completed by 2022, but at the end of 2020, the builders managed to open traffic on a girder bridge across one of the Old Dnipro River channels. The most important objects that the road agency worked on last year also include the long-awaited bridge over the Velykyi Utlyuk River in the Zaporizhzhia region, the Bushtyn Bridge in Zakarpattia, and the Marshynets Bridge in Chernivtsi region. (Fig3, 4) [10].

Fig 3. Repair and construction of bridges

Fig 4. The largest of the objects on which work has started is a complex of bridges over the Dnipro River in Zaporizhzhia

The amount of funding and changes in the road sector have also attracted the attention of other transportation sector representatives. Thus, in 2021, this program was expanded to include the development of regional airports, rail transport, restoration of cultural heritage, and many other projects [10].

However, it should be noted that the intensive development of road construction and other facilities harms the environment.

In support of the global Sustainable Development Goals by 2030 and the results of their adaptation to the specifics of

Ukraine, proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly resolution No. 70/1 of September 25, 2015, the President of Ukraine has signed a Decree «On the Sustainable Development Goals of Ukraine until 2030» [11]. The Sustainable Development Goals of Ukraine include creating sustainable infrastructure, promoting inclusive and sustainable industrialization and innovation; ensuring openness, security, vitality and environmental sustainability of cities and other settlements; ensuring transition to rational consumption and production models; taking urgent measures to combat climate change and its consequences, etc. Its goal is to ensure a high level and quality of life for the population of Ukraine, create favorable conditions for the livelihood of current and future generations and stop the degradation of natural ecosystems by introducing a new model of economic growth based on the principles of sustainable development. The achievement of this goal is in line with the values and cultural traditions of the Ukrainian people and Ukraine's international obligations. [40]

The Sustainable Development Strategy of Ukraine until 2030 is focused on the vectors defined in the Sustainable Development Strategy «Ukraine - 2020» [12] (Fig.5)

Fig. 5. Vectors of the Sustainable Development Strategy of Ukraine until 2030

It should be noted that almost every vector of sustainable development is focused primarily on people and improving their quality of life in a favorable socio-economic environment and an environmentally friendly, healthy, diverse natural environment:

> the development vector - to ensure sustainable development of the country, economic growth in an environmentally sustainable manner, and creation of favorable conditions for business activities;

> the security vector - to ensure the security of the state, business, and citizens. The priority is to ensure the safety of human life and health, which is impossible without an effective public health system, provision of adequate medical services, protection of socially vulnerable groups of the population, and a safe environment;

> the vector of responsibility is to ensure guarantees for every citizen to have access to a high-quality healthcare system and other services in the public and private sectors [12].

The objective of environmental protection legislation is to regulate relations in the field of protection, use and reproduction of natural resources, ensure environmental safety, prevent and eliminate the negative impact of economic and other activities on the environment, preserve natural resources, etc. Relations in the field of environmental protection in Ukraine are regulated by the Laws of Ukraine «On Environmental Protection», and «On Transport», as well as land, water, forestry, subsoil and air protection, flora and fauna protection and use, and other special legislation.

According to Article 3. of the Law of Ukraine «On Environmental Protection», the basic principles of environmental protection are the following:

> priority of environmental safety requirements, mandatory compliance with environmental standards and limits

on the use of natural resources in the course of economic, administrative, and other activities;

> guarantee of an environmentally safe environment for human life and health;

> preventive nature of environmental protection measures;

> greening of material production based on the complexity of solutions in environmental protection, use and reproduction of renewable natural resources, and widespread introduction of the latest technologies;

> science-based coordination of environmental, economic and social interests of society based on a combination of interdisciplinary knowledge of environmental, social, natural and technical sciences and environmental forecasting;

> mandatory environmental impact assessment;

> compensation for damage caused by violations of environmental protection legislation;

> addressing issues of environmental protection and the use of natural resources, taking into account the degree of anthropogenic alteration of territories and the combined effect of factors that adversely affect the environmental situation;

> combining incentives and responsibility for environmental protection;

> taking into account the results of strategic environmental assessment [13].

The norm on environmental protection from the harmful effects of transport is one of the tasks of public administration in the field of transport, which is supported by the Article 3 of the Law of Ukraine «On Transport» [14].

Ukraine's transition to sustainable development, based on ensuring national interests and fulfilling Ukraine's international obligations, includes, among other things: overcoming imbalances in the economic, social, and environmental fields;

transformation of economic activity, transition to the principles of a «green economy»; maintaining the environment in a proper state that will ensure the quality of life and well-being of present and future generations, etc. [15].

The Strategy's key focus is on the innovative direction of development, which is based on the active use of knowledge and scientific achievements, stimulating innovation, creating a favorable investment climate, renewing production assets, forming high-tech activities and sectors of the economy, improving energy efficiency, stimulating balanced economic growth based on attracting investments in the use of renewable energy sources, environmentally friendly production and green technologies. According to the Strategy, economic growth will be connected not with the exploitation of natural resources, but with the widespread use of «green» economy models [12].

The National Report on «Sustainable Development Goals: Ukraine» [16] emphasizes the need to change the ideology of economic growth. This is due to significant reasons: the raw materials are export-oriented, the model of the economy is outdated and models instability and the actual curtailment of foreign markets, unfavorable foreign economic conditions that led to the second wave of economic decline and a reduction in production and exports. In such circumstances, the need to develop a qualitatively new ideology of economic growth in Ukraine is becoming more acute. The aims of the Sustainable Development Goals can serve as an impetus for further «green» development of the country and its territorial communities. Of particular importance is the environmental component as the basis for «green» growth.

Unfortunately, the state of land resources and the existing land use system do not meet the requirements of rational environmental management and greening. There has been a violation of the ecologically balanced ratio between land categories, the territory of unique steppe landmasses has decreased, the plowing of the territory has increased, and the natural process of soil formation has been disrupted [17].

According to research results, the prevalence and severity of negative processes increase from northwest to southeast under the influence of zonal natural and climatic conditions, which they also influence [18]. Plowing of sloping lands accompanied by the unsatisfactory organization of the territory and the use of unbalanced agricultural technologies is one of the main factors that cause the development of erosion processes.

In general, in Ukraine, degraded and unproductive soils cover a fifth of arable land (6.5 million hectares), and the poor ecological condition of the land is one of the main reasons for environmental degradation.

Human economic activity has a significant impact on the environment and natural resource potential of the country and its regions. The anthropogenic pressure coefficient, which characterizes the degree of impact of human activity on the environment, including land resources, indicates a high degree of anthropogenic pressure on land resources for built-up areas, industry, and transport. A significant degree of pressure on arable land and perennial crops; and an average degree of anthropogenic pressure on fodder lands (hayfields, pastures) and gullies.

At the same time, due to the economic downturn in recent years, greenhouse gas emissions, emissions and discharges of pollutants into the environment have been reduced, and the scale of waste formation has been reduced. Some increases in the level of the country's forest cover and an increase in the area of nature reserves and national parks have been achieved [19]. However, with the beginning of Russia's military aggression in Ukraine, the situation concerning the environment and the preservation of natural resource potential has significantly worsened. Forests and agricultural lands are being destroyed, vast areas are being mined, energy, road, and other engineering infrastructure are being destroyed.

Destruction and damage occur on lands of various categories (not only agricultural) as a result of mine contamination and demining, pollution from burning and spills of oil products, pollution from emissions of substances that settle on the ground, contamination with military waste and other hazardous substances as a result of hostilities (for example, chemicals stored at industrial facilities). It is also happening because of the need for land recultivation disturbed by explosions and heavy military equipment, and for measures to eliminate (decontaminate) pollution and clean up the land.

The area of contaminated and disturbed land has not yet been determined, and the amount of hazardous substances that contaminate the soil and land is not known. Spills of at least 5,589 tons of oil products into the soil have been recorded [20], but such data is only available for oil product storage facilities, while destroyed military equipment and civilian vehicles damaged by mines and shelling are also sources of significant land contamination with oil products.

Infrastructure facilities became one of the key areas that suffered the greatest attacks by the aggressor with the unfolding of a full-scale war against Ukraine. In particular, in the first weeks of the war, Russian troops carried out massive shelling of aviation infrastructure, primarily airfields not only for the military but also for civilian and military-civilian (dual) purposes [21].

However, the greatest destruction of infrastructure, both in absolute and value terms, was caused to road infrastructure. Firstly, because they naturally become targets of shelling during artillery attacks, and secondly, because Russian tanks have been actively moving on Ukrainian roads throughout the military aggression. Since the beginning of the invasion, 19 airports and civilian airfields have been damaged [21].

A detailed analysis of the condition of the roads damaged by shelling and tank traffic is possible only with a specialized technical examination. It is not possible in a situation when active hostilities are still ongoing in a large part of Ukraine, and some roads and bridges are located in the temporarily occupied (after February 24, 2022) territory. However, analyzing the map of hostilities and comparing it with the road network allows us to make preliminary calculations of the approximate length of roads damaged by the war, because of both missile attacks and the movement of tanks [21].

With the outbreak of hostilities, the airspace over Ukraine was immediately closed and air traffic was suspended. At the same time, Russian troops began active missile attacks on all key airfields in Ukraine, trying to deprive it of the ability to provide air defense. As a result, 19 out of 35 airfields were damaged, including 12 civilian and 7 dual-purpose airfields (excluding military airfields). Some of the airfields were hit several times [21].

Similarly to the situation with roads, detailed information on the state of damage and opportunities for the repair of airfields at most airports can only be established after detailed technical examination, which, in turn, is possible only after the end of active hostilities on/in the area of airports (for those located in the central, southern, eastern, and northern parts of Ukraine). However, according to preliminary estimates, the total amount of damage to the aviation industry (airports, airfields, and aircraft) is about UAH 57.3 billion ($2.04 billion) [21].

The rapid growth in the number of motor vehicles, traffic intensity, and the network of international and national transport corridors have had a positive impact on the country's economic performance, but on the other hand, they have also harmed ecological systems. Here are some indicators of the share of motor vehicles in air pollution by combustion products (table 1) [3, 22].

Table 1.Volumes of emissions of combustion products by vehicles,million t/h[3]

Combustion product	Source of combustion products
	cars	power plants, industry
Carbon monoxide	59,7	5,2
Hydrocarbons and other organic substances	10,9	6,4
Nitrous oxide	5,5	6,5
Sulfur-containing compounds	1,0	22,4
Macro particles	1,0	9,8

The content of various types of toxins and particulate matter released into the air during the operation of motor vehicles and then entering the human body, primarily through the respiratory system, has increased, as exhaust gases accumulate in the lower layers of the atmosphere, i.e. in the breathing zone of people. [6] The range of human diseases caused by exposure to motor vehicle exhaust gases is quite wide, ranging from minor coughs and rhinitis to pulmonary edema, respiratory disorders, asthma, and even death, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2.Impact of emissions from mobile sources of environmental pollution on human health [3]

Harmful substance	Level of toxicity	Impact on human health
Lead	High	It affects the functioning of the nervous and circulatory systems, disrupts the supply of oxygen to the brain
Cadmium	Extremely high	It is accumulated in kidneys, liver, and bone tissues. It provokes the development of bronchitis, intestinal bleeding, disorders and even cancer of the reproductive organs
Hydrocarbons	High	They cause a feeling of headache, dizziness, nausea; decrease in blood pressure, lethargy and slowing of the pulse; disorders of the cardiovascular system
Carbon monoxide	Extremely high	Oxygen starvation, disruption of the human central nervous system; slowing of reflexes, possible loss of consciousness and death
Nitrogen oxide	High	Slight irritation of the mucous membranes of the eyes and nose, and with increased concentration of the substance - pulmonary edema
Particulate matter (soot, dust, aerosols)	Medium	Ability to linger in human lungs; damage to the upper respiratory tract, mucous membranes of the eyes, nasopharynx
Ozone	Medium	A decrease in the body's resistance to colds, a possible exacerbation of chronic heart diseases, as well as asthma and bronchitis

Thus, all substances released into the environment by road transport have a significant negative impact on human health. Emissions released into the atmosphere have a high or very high level of toxicity.

According to morbidity rates among the entire population of Ukraine, respiratory diseases account for the largest share (2015 - 44,27%, 2016 - 45,98%, 2017 - 45,22%) [3, 23]. They occur as a result of people inhaling air that is extremely polluted by various harmful substances from different sources, and most of all from emissions from motor vehicles and the transport industry in general (fig. 6) [3].

Fig. 6. Structure of the morbidity of the population of Ukraine, 2015-2017, % [23]

Motor vehicles are a serious source of noise, lead and other types of soil and wastewater pollution around the roadway. Noise from traffic significantly depends on its speed. An approximate relationship is shown in fig. 7.

Fig. 7. Dependence of the equivalent sound level on the speed of the traffic flow [23]

As for the concentration of pollutants in rainwater, it changes significantly over time and is maximum at the beginning of the rain, and gradually decreases with its continuation. The concentration of some contaminants in surface runoff waters is shown in the table 3 [22].

In the context of solving these problems, science has recognized the concept of a «green economy». An important aspect of the development of modern socio-economic formations is biofuel production. These two problems are interconnected in their solution, consequences and causes, and, given the above arguments, are important in theoretical and practical terms [24].

Table 3.The concentration of some pollutants in surface runoff waters for typical locations, mg/l [3]

The nature of the catchment basin	Stormwater runoff	Runofffrom melting snow
	Suspended substances	Oil products	Suspended substances	Oil products
The city center with a high level of improvement and low intensity of traffic	400-600	7-12	1300-1600	10-12
A new well-developed area of the city with medium traffic intensity	700-1000	10-5	1500-1700	12-15
Industrial area with heavy traffic	800-1200	12-20	2000-2500	12-20
Modern highway	800-1000	15-20	250-3000	20-30

Studying the foreign experience of preserving the environment from vehicle emissions, it can be observed that, in addition to the production and use of electric vehicles, some countries, such as the United States, Canada, Australia, and Brazil, are quite actively implementing programs for the production and use of alternative fuels (Latin «alter» - other), namely biofuels from plant materials (fig.8).

Currently, two types of biofuels are widely used in the EU: bioethanol for gasoline engines and biodiesel for diesel engines. Global corporations, such as DuPont and British Petroleum, are introducing such fuel as biobutanol. Bioethanol and biobutanol can be produced from plant materials (corn, wheat, sugar beets, sugar cane, sorghum, and barley) and carbohydrate waste from crops (dry sunflower stalks, corn cobs, or various types of straw). Some producing countries, such as Spain, Greece, and Italy, use sunflower oil, while most European countries use rapeseed oil. The combustion of biofuels also emits CO2, but it does not harm plants or animals, and when it gets into water and soil, it is almost completely recycled: up to 99% of biofuels are processed by microorganisms within 28 days [25].

Fig. 8. Types and sources of biofuel production abroad [3]

As for Ukraine, almost all types of crops, the main ones being rapeseed, sunflower, and mustard, are grown on its territory. The demand for petroleum products is 24-28 million tons, and for natural gas - 85 billion m3 per year. Ukraine imports 80-90% of its petroleum products, and 1 ton of rapeseed can produce about 270 liters of biodiesel [25]. The use of this type of fuel would improve both the environment (primarily by reducing emissions into the environment) and economic situation (due to the development of sales markets, increased production, creation of additional jobs, etc.)

According to the National Transport Strategy for the period until 2030 [26], it is necessary to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from mobile sources by 60% compared to 1990. It must be done by increasing the share of public transport and electric transport, electric buses, and muscle (bicycle) modes of transport. Total emissions of pollutants from mobile sources must be conditionally reduced to carbon monoxide, taking into account the relative aggressiveness of the main pollutants, by 70% (from the level of 2015). The use of electric transport and electric vehicles must be increased, in particular, the share of the former in domestic traffic to 75% (2030). The use of alternative fuels must be increased from 10 to 50 % (by 2030). An action plan to reduce the environmental impact of transport, which is positively correlated with the introduction of energy-saving technologies, the use of alternative motor fuels, the restoration and expansion of the use of electric transport must be developed. Fuel consumption must be reduced per 10 t-km by 30 % (by 2030) [22].

Despite the high rates of use of electric vehicles and the introduction of alternative fuel sources, today more vehicles are powered by gasoline and diesel engines, so it is necessary to pay considerable attention to the toxicity of gases emitted during the operation of vehicles and the maximum amount of gases retained and deposited onto roadside lanes (see fig.9) [23].



Fig. 9. Greenhouse gas emissions per passenger-kilometer depending on the type of transport

The content of emission constituents in soil samples taken at a distance of 50-200 meters from the road axis can exceed the maximum permissible standards by several times. This complicates the economic use of roadside land: grazing, haying, and growing agricultural products [27].

In addition to road transport, air transport is also of great economic importance. At this stage of development of scientific and technological progress, the aviation industry is the implementer of new achievements. The number of people using air transport has reached four billion, which means that every second person on Earth takes a flight at least once a year.

However, along with such seemingly positive achievements, air transport has been and remains a large-scale source of negative impact on the environment, which, in turn, causes the development and implementation of a comprehensive environmental safety program in air transport activities [28, 29].

Compared to other modes of transportation, aviation is a specific pollutant with a wide range of impacts on environmental quality. Ukraine's mobile sources (road, rail, air, and water transport) have a significant negative impact on the environment, and it is believed that aviation accounts for about 2% of all CO2 emissions, which are associated with global warming. Airport emissions account for about 2% of CO2, but given the growing passenger traffic and the forecast of a doubling of traffic in the next 15 years, it is easy to assume that they will also double. In addition, airport infrastructure uses huge amounts of energy and water, comparable to the consumption of tens of thousands of households, and produces large amounts of waste, not to mention the scale of the territory it occupies, disrupting animal and bird migration routes [30].

The negative impact of air transport on the environment is both global and local in nature. The global impact is the formation of the greenhouse effect and the destruction of the ozone layer. Ground-based sources of pollution are roughly divided into those located inside the airport and those located outside it. The latter include, first and foremost, heat and power plants operating on various types of local fuels, so the nature of pollution is determined by the types of fuel, methods of combustion, and emission disposal routes. Intra-port sources of pollution include;

- ventilation systems used in certain aircraft maintenance areas;

- aviation fuel supply enterprises;

- airport vehicles [32].

In 2009, the Airports Council International (ACI) adopted a program to accredit an airport hub in terms of its environmental impact (Airport Carbon Accreditation). The goal of the program is to reduce the negative impact of airports on the environment and to move the maximum number of airports to a zero carbon footprint, which would make them «neutral». As Iryna Kovalchuk notes in the publication «Airport and ecology: combining the incompatible», participation is voluntary, but every year new airports join the program to improve their performance. [30]

According to the program's classification, emissions are divided into two categories: controlled and uncontrolled. The former depends on the decisions of the airport management, while the latter comes from the activities of contractors such as logistics companies, suppliers, or public transport. For example, airport management can replace airport shuttle buses with electric buses. At the same time, a similar replacement of public transport buses would require work with partners, dialogue with city authorities, conditions to encourage the use of environmentally friendly transport, and other similar steps. [30]

According to international experts and specialists, the aviation industry produces 1.5-2% of carbon dioxide emissions and other hazardous chemical compounds. British experts claim that the aviation industry emits hazardous substances into the environment not only during passenger and cargo transportation but also during various activities related to airport maintenance.

Fig. 10. Heathrow Airport's (England) plan to achieve neutral status [30]

Fuel vapors are harmful and poisonous. Accumulating in the air and subsequently settling on the surface soil layer, they pose a danger to people and the environment and lead to fires.

However, their greatest danger is the change of the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the ecosystem; disruption of natural biological processes; formation of even more toxic compounds resistant to microbiological breakdown, with carcinogenic and mutagenic qualities.

Soil is contaminated with hydrocarbons because of spills and wastewater discharges. Penetrating the soil, harmful substances cause active changes in its chemical composition and structure. First, the humus horizon is negatively affected, as the number of hydrocarbons increases, and soil quality deteriorates sharply. In addition, soil contamination with hydrocarbons from oil and oil products disrupts the soil microbiocenosis and negatively affects animals, causing them to die in the polluted zone.

For chernozem, which Ukraine is famous for, the lower limit of hydrocarbon contamination is 3000 mg/kg and is considered a relatively acceptable level (table 4) [33].

Table 4.

The degree of soil contamination by oi	products, mg/kg [33]
№	The degree of pollution	Value mg/kg
1	Uncontaminated soil	up to 400
2	Weak	3000-6000
3	Average	6000-12000
4	Strong	12000-25000
5	Very strong	> 25000

At the same time, soils with oil contamination above the permissible level, i.e., more than 10,000 mg/kg, need to be cleared and restored [33].

Today, ICAO remains the most active organization in the field of research activities aimed at creating environmentally sustainable programs to reduce the harmful effects of the aviation transport system on the integrity and acceptable functioning of the ecosystem.

To protect and preserve land areas within the boundaries of the airline companies' operation, as well as in areas outside of them, the distances of which are set following the requirements of standards and norms for land allocation for construction, the ICAO imposes restrictions on noise impact and maximum permissible standards for emissions of harmful substances as a result of aircraft engines.

ICAO regulates the emission of unburned hydrocarbons (CnHm), carbon monoxides (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and smoke from turbojet and turboprop engines in the airport area, and prohibits the emission of fuel residues after the engines have stopped. The requirements of international standards for subsonic aviation apply to emissions from engines manufactured after 1982 [34].

Compared to more environmentally friendly cars, in which electric motor technologies are fully justified and quite realistic, and energy-saving resources are reaching huge proportions, it is too early to talk about massive environmentally balanced and clean flights of aircraft with electric motors. Of course, over the next few years, research into the efficiency, economy and environmental friendliness of engines will continue, and larger aircraft with more seats will reduce the number of harmful emissions per passenger. The problem is that electric motors cannot generate enough energy to lift an aircraft into the air. At present, special types of biofuels are an alternative to conventional gas based on aviation jet fuels [33].

An «environmentally friendly fuel» is a fuel that at all stages of its cycle has no or minimal negative effect on the environment and does not pose a threat to the life and functioning of living organisms.

ICAO has identified the main goals for the next 10 years related to the protection of the environment and adjacent territories (fig. 11).

Fig. 11. ICAO's goals in the field ofprotection of adjacent territories [33]

Possible ways of improving the system and making the land use of aviation transport more eco-friendly are shown in Fig. 12:



Fig. 12. Possible ways of improving the system and making the land use of air transport more eco-friendly [33]

In recent years, the concept of «the problem of compatibility of airport infrastructure and land use in the surrounding areas» has been used very often. This issue is extremely important, and the concept of planning compatible land use is the result of studying the ecological relationship between airports and nearby settlements.

The specifics of land use in the areas around airports may result in restrictions on aircraft operations and affect flight safety. That is why all factors should be taken into account before planning and designing an airport to prevent incompatible use of land plots [35].

Thus, taking into account the criteria for the formation of air transport land use in the context of its impact on natural ecosystems and the impact of the environment on aviation, we can offer the basic requirements for compliance with environmental safety standards and regulations (Fig. 13) [33, 36].



Fig. 13. Basic requirements for compliance with norms and rules in the formation of the environmental component of efficient and rational land use of aviation transport [36]

A striking example of the world's experience in making effective decisions on environmental protection at the airport and in the formation of airport areas is the creation of so-called «green zones» [29]. This concept includes:

> production, operation of technologies and equipment to control and reduce emissions of harmful substances and greenhouse gases;

> preservation and enhancement of green areas on the territory of the airport and beyond;

> monitoring and forecasting of climate change;

> implementation of technological processes for energy and resource conservation and renewable energy.

The concept of «green zones» is widely used in the United States and European countries. Many long-term programs and initiatives have been developed there, according to which it is planned to develop a new generation of aircraft with radically new technical and operational characteristics by 2025 following the rules and requirements of the operation of these zones [37].

Many airports, primarily in Europe, have begun to implement measures to restore environmental balance. Today, there are 49 airports in the world with zero carbon dioxide emission status, 40 of which are located in Europe, and 15 of which are in the Scandinavian countries (Norway, Sweden, and Finland). In the United States, there is only one airport with a neutral status - Dallas. There is also one «neutral» airport in Latin America, in the Galapagos Islands. In Africa, such an airport is located in Cape Town. One more airport of this type can be found in Australia on the Sunshine Coast and in Oman. Four of the airports on the list are located in India. Unfortunately, there are no airports in Ukraine that have a "neutral" status. However, about 270 airports worldwide have begun to take measures to monitor, assess, and reduce their environmental footprint. Importantly, they receive a significant portion of global traffic - 44%. Statistics show that this figure is increasing every year.

More detailed strategies and ways of reducing harmful emissions can be studied in the example of specific airports, which were considered by Iryna Kovalchuk in the publication «Airport and ecology: combining the incongruous». Among them are both large international hubs, which can save money on operations by implementing sustainable technologies, and small airports, which find it easier to implement environmental solutions at an early stage [30].

Iryna Kovalchuk points out that the first international airport to achieve a neutral status in 2009 was Stockholm Arlanda Airport, which serves 27 million passengers a year. The air pollution at the airport corresponds to the level of pollution of an average city - for Sweden, it is from 50 to 200 thousand inhabitants. Since 2005, the airport has managed to reduce CO2 emissions by 70% (Fig. 14). [30]



Fig. 14. View of Arlanda Airport, Sweden [30]

Another airport that has achieved neutral status and is actively working to improve the environmental situation, based on research by I. Kovalchuk, is Schiphol. Since 2018, the energy consumed by the airport has been entirely generated by wind farms. Given the amount of energy - 200 million kilowatts, which is equivalent to 50 thousand households - the airport needs to optimize its use. That is why the terminal, four piers and the hotel have been equipped with an energy-saving system (TESS), which allows using less fossil fuels for heating or cooling buildings. Lighting at the airport was replaced with LED lighting. In addition, the airport has the largest fleet of 100 buses that do not produce exhaust gases. For the long term, the airport is developing strategies to adapt its infrastructure to BREEAM-NL standards and build new buildings with a carbon-neutral status. (Fig. 15) [30]

Fig. 15. Schiphol Airport, Netherlands [31]



Fig. 16. Helsinki Airport, Finland

The publication «Airport and ecology: combining the incompatible» also examines the Helsinki airport and Oslo Airport.

The airport in Helsinki is not only neutral but is being developed as an airport city, better known as Vantaa Aviapolis. In this regard, it is also important for the airport to maintain a comfortable environment in the surrounding area. To reduce emissions, the airport uses a range of measures: the use of renewable energy (solar panels, wind turbines), LED lighting, construction and reconstruction of infrastructure following BREEAM certification, the use of biofuels, and work with partners. [30] (Fig. 16)

Oslo Airport has not yet achieved net-zero status, but in 2017, it opened a new terminal that received the BREEAM Excellent certificate. An interesting solution that influenced the positive certification of the terminal was the «snow storage» used to cool the building. The snow, with a volume of about 30,000 m3, melts in the summer, and the resulting water, after purification, enters the building's system, cooling it. After the water is heated, it flows back into the storage facility, where it is cooled again. The new airport terminal consumes half as much energy as the old one, and the level of harmful emissions has been reduced by 35%. Reducing CO2 levels is an initiative not only for the airport but also for the city itself. Oslo's development strategy includes reducing emissions by 50% by 2020 and by 95% by 2030. This initiative, by the way, is not unique - Copenhagen plans to become the world's first capital with a neutral emissions status by 2025. [30] (Fig. 17)



Fig. 17. Water circulation scheme from the «snow storage» at Oslo Airport, Norway [30]

The impossibility of a complete transition to green transport does not mean that there is no point in improving the situation, and the successful experience of urban development demonstrates this. Since the airport is an integral part of the city, and in the case of a large hub, it is developing as an urbanized environment itself, it may be worth implementing the same principles of sustainable development that we strive for in cities.

Today, the EU has sophisticated innovation programs that are already contributing to the greening of the EU economy. Among them:

> Roadmap for the transition to a competitive low-carbon economy (LCE) by 2050;

> Roadmap for Energy Development until 2050;

> Roadmap for transition to a Resource-Efficient Europe;

> Environmental Technologies Action Plan (ETAP);

> Competitiveness and Innovation Framework Program (CIP);

> Framework Programs for Research and Technology Development, Innovation and Regional Development Programs, etc.

In Ukraine, in 2020, a ROADMAP OF CLIMATE TARGETS OF UKRAINE UNTIL 2030 was developed [37], the goals in the “transport” sector are:

Goal 1: Increase the share of public transport and micro mobility in cities;

Goal 2. Increase the use of electric transport;

Goal 3: Increase the share of rail transportation.

Diesel and gasoline vehicles are one of the largest sources of greenhouse gas emissions in the transportation sector. Electric vehicles do not generate localized emissions from engine operation, which, if internal combustion engines are replaced by electric vehicles, can significantly reduce the impact of motor vehicles not only on greenhouse gas emissions but also on air quality in cities. Combined with the use of renewable energy sources, the popularization of electric vehicles will help to reduce emissions from the transportation sector as a whole. The spreading of electric vehicles among taxi and ride-sharing services also helps to reduce emissions and air pollution in cities. Electric vehicles in ride-sharing and taxi systems create more alternatives to diesel and gasoline vehicles, which will lead to a reduction in the number of trips by motorized private vehicles within cities. Increasing the share of electric vehicles in urban public transportation will help reduce greenhouse gas and harmful gas emissions.

If the baseline value of the share of private electric transport is 1%, then by 2030 it is planned to increase this share to 75%, and the share of public electric transport from 54% to 75% [38].

The purpose of the «Roadmap for Bioenergy Development in Ukraine until 2050» is to present a realistic long-term scenario for the development of bioenergy, which corresponds to Ukraine's transition to 100% RES in 2070. The proposed Roadmap covers the period from 2020 to 2050 and has several reference points. One of them is 2030, as the new NERP is being developed until 2030, which should consume at least 8 million tons of biomass, biofuels and waste (according to the current Energy Strategy). The second reference point takes into account the bioenergy development target set by the Energy Strategy of Ukraine for 2035 - 11 million tons of biomass, biofuels and waste in the total primary energy supply [39].

The Roadmap corresponds to the scenario of achieving more than 35% of RES in the energy balance of Ukraine in 2050.



Fig.18. Renewable energy sources in the transport sector until 2050 [39]

The shares of biomass from all RES in the transport sector adopted in the Roadmap and the resulting contribution of biomass to energy consumption in transport by 2050 are shown in Fig. 20, 21

Fig. 20. Share of biomass from all renewable energy in the transport sector [39]



Fig. 21. The share of biofuel in the total final energy consumption in transport [39]

Fig. 22. The structure of the use of biofuels in Ukraine until 2050 by their types, million tons per year, proposed in the Roadmap [39]

The structure and directions of the utilization of biomass energy potential described in the Roadmap are presented in Figures 22, 23. It is projected that in 2050, about 20 million tons of biomass/biofuels of the following types will be used for energy needs: woody biomass, primary and secondary agricultural residues, energy crops, biogas from various types of raw materials, liquid biofuels (biodiesel, bioethanol) (see Figure 22). Areas of biofuels use include the production of heat and electricity from solid biofuels, biogas and biomethane, as well as the production of motor biofuels (biomethane, biodiesel, bioethanol) (see Figure 23) [39].

Fig. 23. The structure of the use of biofuels in Ukraine until 2050 by type of energy source, million tons of oil, proposed in the Roadmap [39].

The proposed structure of biofuels production and consumption takes into account and reflects the key trends that experts predict will take place in the bioenergy sector of Ukraine in the period 2020-2050:

^ an increase in the share of agro biomass - agricultural residues and energy crops in the structure of solid biofuels consumption - to 60% and 20% of the total in 2050, respectively;

^ minimal increase in the use of wood biofuels - by 1.2 times in 2050 (compared to 8 times for agricultural residues during 2020-2050);

^ a significant increase in the production of biogas and liquid biofuels - up to 4.7 million tons of oil equivalent per year and 0.85 million tons of oil equivalent per year, respectively, in 2050;

^ launching and growth of production of biomethane and second-generation motor biofuels - up to 2.4 million tons of oil equivalent per year and 0.43 million tons of oil equivalent per year in 2050, respectively;

^ production and consumption of biomethane for electricity/heat production and use in transport, as well as production of second-generation motor biofuels are relatively new but extremely promising segments of bioenergy.

In Ukraine, unlike in Europe, the production and consumption of biomethane for electricity/heat production and transportation, as well as the production of second-generation motor biofuels, have not yet begun to develop. The roadmap describes the launch and growth of production of these types of biofuels, which is in line with European trends and offers undeniable benefits for the country's energy and transportation sectors [39].

To protect the environment more effectively and use Ukraine's natural resources rationally, in accordance with international standards, the goal of the national environmental policy is to stabilize and improve the state of Ukraine's natural environment by integrating environmental policy into the socioeconomic development of Ukraine to ensure a safe environment for the life and health of the population, the introduction of an

environmentally balanced system of natural resources management and the preservation of natural ecosystems [40, 41].

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