Affordable and clean energy is one of the United Nations' goal for sustainable development of humanity. Energy is essential for all; people cannot properly live without it. Governments seek any opportunity to get the access to energy resources to be self-sufficient. They dig every inch of their land to exploit mineral sources, the abundance of which makes them less vulnerable to other states, in case of its scarcity, government will need to increase import, and, thus, depend more on others. nuclear energy russia asia

Nuclear energy is one of the most contradictive sphere, which triggers many disputes over it. European countries such as Germany, Switzerland decided to phase out nuclear energy by the gradual shutdown of existing nuclear power plants (NPPs) and ban on construction of the new ones. Meanwhile, global nuclear leaders such as USA, France and Russia continue developing nuclear industries by increasing their energy capacities, enhancing technologies, strengthening safety measures.

Until Fukushima incident in 2011 Japan was actively developing nuclear energy as well, but since then it had to shut down all reactors in Fukushima and temporarily stop other NPPs. Nowadays Japan attempts to recover and reach the capacity that was before 2011. China and South Korea implement quite ambitious nuclear policies, which imply rapid construction of new NPPs, import of modern technologies from global nuclear leaders and, then entering the nuclear markets of third countries with emerging economies and lack of experience in the nuclear sphere.

The present research is devoted to problems of Russia's cooperation in the field of nuclear energy with three East Asia countries: South Korea, China and Japan. It aims to reveal similar and different points in such cooperation. The relevance of this work lies in the scarce investigation of the problem, as the majority of the literature is devoted to the cooperation in traditional energy based on fossil fuels. Nonetheless, Russia possesses advanced technologies in nuclear energy and is interested in strengthening cooperation with East Asia countries, particularly with South Korea, Japan and China that managed to reach a high level of development in nuclear energy as well.

The object of the research is nuclear energy sectors in Russia and East Asia countries.

The subject of the research is Russia's cooperation with East Asia countries in nuclear energy in 2000 - 2016.

The scope of this work will not go beyond the sphere of nuclear energy and Russia's cooperation with China, Republic of Korea and Japan in this field during 2000 - 2016.

The research question of this work is the following: will Russia be able to enhance cooperation in the field of nuclear energy with East Asia countries in the nearest future?

The aim of this research is to define the perspectives of Russia's cooperation with China, Japan and South Korea in the field of nuclear energy.

In order to achieve this aim, it is necessary to reach the following objectives.

1. Generalize sources on Russian and East Asian nuclear industries.

2. Analyze status and perspectives of nuclear industries in Russia, China, Japan and South Korea.

3. Conduct a systemic analysis of current status of Russia's cooperation with East Asia countries in the respective field.

4. Define the problems that hamper more intensive development cooperation between countries of interest.

To fulfill these objectives I used the following methods: systemic and comparative analysis, case studies, a descriptive method.

I conducted the research with the use of different types of primary sources. The first group is statistics. The statistics book “Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period up to 2050” published by International Atomic Energy Agency in 2017 provides valid data on consumption and production of nuclear energy in the world and in different regions Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period up to 2050. International Atomic Energy Agency. Austria. 2017. https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/17-28911_RDS-1%202017_web.pdf [accessed 15.02.2018]. This work also presents low and high estimates of future development of nuclear energy by regions based on the current trends in the industry. Another two works are the “Key World Energy Statistics” published in 2007 Key world energy statistics. International Energy Agency. France. 2007. http://www.coprocem.com/documents/key_stats_2007.pdf [accessed 12.02.2018] and 2017 Key world energy statistics. International Energy Agency. France. 2017. https://webstore.iea.org/key-world-energy-statistics-2017 [accessed 13.02.2018] by International Energy Agency. These works are abundant with data on energy supply, consumption, balances, etc., adding charts with fuel and regional shares. Analyzing these research, I could define the difference between figures in 2005 and 2015-2016.

The second group of primary sources that was used in the research is documents and legislation. All available Rosatom annual reports 2009 - 2016 gave abundant information on Russia's nuclear industry Rosatom Annual reports 2009-2016. http://www.rosatom.ru/about/publichnaya-otchetnost/ [accessed 20.02.2018]. They showed figures on achievements inside Russian nuclear energy: electricity production, uranium production, number of constructed reactors, etc.; and also figures on Rosatom's international business: number of contracts, overseas reactors, etc. In addition, the reports presented information on Rosatom's strategy, aims and objectives.

Among important documents there are Russia's agreements with China, Korea and Japan on cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear energy, which form the legal background for bilateral cooperation in the field. The analysis of a date of signature, the number and content of articles illustrates the difference in Russia's cooperation with three East Asia countries.

The third group of primary sources is web sites. I have analyzed data, statistics and publications on four countries of interest within the period from 2000 till 2016, which are available on the website of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) International Atomic Energy Agency. https://www.iaea.org. IAEA publishes country profiles in nuclear energy, constantly updates data on the number of constructed reactors, etc. The official website of World Nuclear Association (WNA) also provides quite important surveys, statistics and publications on four countries of interest in the mentioned period World Nuclear Association. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/world-uranium-mining-production.aspx

. The web site illustrates the number of operating, constructed and planned reactors in all countries; reveals information

Among secondary sources I would highlight the following authors and their works. The work by A. Andriyanov and A. Voropaev named “Nuclear technologies: history, status and perspectives” was the basic one for my research, because it contains an analysis of global nuclear energy, its development and background, status and main tendencies in the countries with significant nuclear capacities Andrianov A., Voropaev A., Korovin U., Murogov V. Yadernye technologii istoriya sostoyanie perspektivy. - M.: MPTI.2012. Another important work was the book called “Learning from Fukushima”, written by Peter van Ness, Mel Gurtov in 2017 Peter van Ness, Mel Gurtov. Learning from Fukushima. ANU Press. 2017. . This book provides a profound analysis of consequences of the Fukushima accident in different countries, among which are China, Japan and South Korea. There is a comparison of nuclear energy policies before and after the accident, showing a different respond by authorities, as some countries stopped construction of new reactors and temporarily shut down existing reactors, whereas others continued intensive development of nuclear energy, having reconsidered safety measures.

The author of the article “The strategy of nuclear power development in China after the accident at the nuclear power plant “Fukushima-1” published in 2012 Lukonin S. The strategy of nuclear power development in China after the accident at the nuclear power plant “Fukushima-1”. Ecology and energy: local responses to global challenges. M.: IMEMO RAN.2012., Sergey Lukonin pointed at the initial response by Chinese authorities to the accident, that was centered around safety measures. However, even one year after the accident China did not want to cut down its plans to expand nuclear capacities and continued the further construction of reactors and further exploitation of existing ones.

Chapter I. Recent trends in global nuclear energy

1.1 The current state of nuclear energy in the world

Nuclear energy is one of the branches in the huge energy sector. Affordable and clean energy is the one of the United Nations(UN) sustainable development goals (SDGs) which can be achieved by ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all United Nations. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/energy/ . Energy is needed by people, enterprises, states, because it gives jobs, provides security and food production, helps increase incomes. The UN policy is directed towards ensuring universal access to modern energy, improving efficiency and increasing use of renewable sources.

In 2015 fuel shares of the world total primary energy supply (TPES), which includes all produced, imported and exported energy, were the following: oil - 31.7%, coal - 28.1%, natural gas - 21.6%, biofuels and waste - 9.7%, nuclear - 5.9%, hydro - 2.5% and others that include geothermal, solar, wind, tide, heat etc. - 1.5% Key world energy statistics. International Energy Agency. France. 2017. P.6 http://www.coprocem.com/documents/key_stats_2007.pdf [accessed 12.02.2018]. To analyze the trend during last 10 years it is necessary to look at the statistics from 2005. That time fuel shares were the following: oil: 35.0%, coal - 25.3%, natural gas - 20.7%, combustible renewables& waste - 10.0%, nuclear - 6.3%, hydro - 2.2% and other - 0.5% Key world energy statistics. International Energy Agency. France. 2007. P.8 http://www.coprocem.com/documents/key_stats_2007.pdf [accessed 12.02.2018]. It can be noticed that during the 10-year period the share of oil increased by more than 3%, while coal's share decreased by roughly 3%. Despite certain changes in supply balance, fossil fuels still account for more than 80% in TPES.

TPES grew by more than 2,000 Mtoes (Mega tonne of oil equivalent) from 11,435 Mtoes in 2005 till 13,647 Mtoes in 2015. Such growth is ensured by countries of Asia-Pacific region, especially by China. Developing countries implement high-rate industrialization, which triggers energy consumption rise, urbanization and pollution of environment.

As it has been mentioned earlier, main energy sources are oil, coal and natural gas. Each of them has its advantages and drawbacks. Reserves and possibilities of using coal are significant. Providing coal is not used only in solid, it will be applied for hundreds of years ahead. Main drawbacks of coal are disbalance in reserves location, risks for people's health and life, and environmental pollution during coal mining and its usage. Coal's global market lacks a diverse net of suppliers because 90% of coal reserves are located in China, USA, Russia and Australia Andrianov A., Voropaev A., Korovin U., Murogov V. Yadernye technologii istoriya sostoyanie perspektivy. P.7.

However, these four countries may also face certain difficulties with coal. For instance, Chinese industrial development is directly connected to coal reserves. In 2016 China possesses the largest share in world coal production accounting for 44.5%, which is 20% higher than coal production in all OECD countries - 23.7% Key world energy statistics. International Energy Agency. France. 2017. P.16.. Despite such a huge amount of coal reserves and coal production, China cannot intensively increase the volume of coal transportation due to insufficient railway tonnage capacity. Because of that, the main coal mining is implemented in the northern part, whereas main consumption is in the south-east part. Therefore, due to logistics constraints, China has to import high-quality coal from Australia to ensure its southern parts. China takes the first place among coal net importers in the world having purchased 347 Mts in 2016 Ibid.. Moreover, coal consumption causes the biggest ecological damage, while its mining and transportation trigger maximum risks for human lives. Mining of 1 mln ton of coal costs 5-10 miners' lives Andrianov A., Voropaev A., Korovin U., Murogov V. Yadernye technologii istoriya sostoyanie perspektivy.P.7.

The situation with oil and gas is more complicated. Until recently the number of annually discovered oil deposits surpassed the volume of annual oil consumption, but nowadays these figures became equal. Hereafter it is forecasted that annual crude oil output will constantly decrease by 2-3% per year. By 2040 annual crude oil output will account for 50-60% of the amount in 2000. Also, more than 70% of global oil output will be covered by Islam states Ibid. P.8.

The situation with natural gas is similar but is forecasted to be more optimistic - its reserves will be sufficient for further 40-50 years. For the past 30 years, areas, where natural gas is used, underwent certain changes, as it was mainly substituted by crude oil and coal in manufacturing industries and became widely used as a fuel for transport.

Import-export of energy resources ensures interconnection between producers and consumers, that was formed last century. Comparing the list with top energy resources' suppliers and the list of top energy resources' consumers, it can be seen that they are different states. For instance, the largest suppliers of oil are Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq while the largest oil consumers are the USA, China and Japan. The biggest economies in the world are dependent on the geopolitical situation in the regions that supply energy resources. For USA such regions are Central and South America, North and West Africa, Middle East and Europe, for China oil suppliers are mainly located in Middle East, Africa, Pacific Rim and former USSR. Thus, the unstable situation in a region may cause possible disruption of supplies which is a big threat to national economies of consumers. Such risk gives an impetus to consumers to purchase in larger amounts than needed in order to stock energy resources for a rainy day; and stimulates to diversify suppliers and to increase a share of nuclear and renewable energy in total electricity production. These measures are taken to ensure energy safety that implies preventing accidents and terror attacks on energy facilities, supporting investments in its infrastructure and optimization of all energy resources' global markets.

Energy safety is now a burning issue due to the limited amount of global reserves of hydrocarbon energy resources, especially oil. The constant exploitation of old oil deposits which are easily-accessible leads to decline in output volume in the nearest future. Although proved global oil reserves are sufficient for satisfying growing demand until the 2030s, it is necessary to introduce new investments and technologies for more effective exploitation of easily-accessible deposits and development of hard-accessible ones. All along with political risks in countries, which are largest producers of energy resources, uncertainty in resource base causes instability on energy markets and on the global arena. Thus, constant development of low-carbon nuclear energy can contribute to the world energy balance and safety.

Nowadays nuclear energy undergoes different trends: one is oriented on permanent shutdown of all nuclear power units, while another, on the contrary, is oriented on fast development of nuclear field. However, during the first decade of XXI century a nuclear industry experienced the global renaissance. China, Russia, Japan, South Korea and India have implemented the most ambitious nuclear policy to increase nuclear capacities within a country. Some countries like Sweden, the U.K., Italy, Spain, etc. either decided to overturn a ban on construction of new nuclear reactors, or, at least, decided to reconsider their approach to nuclear power. Even in Germany, where for many years official policy called for the phase-out of the nuclear power program in the country by 2020, there seem to be emerging doubts about the advisability of that policy. “In the United States, where the last order for a nuclear power plant was placed more than 30 years ago, 17 applications to build 26 new nuclear power reactors had been filed with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission as of April 2009 Richard Lester, Robert Rosner. The Growth of Nuclear Power: Drivers & Constraints. P.20.

The increased focus on nuclear power was motivated by a large number of factors. First and foremost is the very low carbon energy source that contributes to a struggle with a climate change. The second is rising energy and water demand, accompanied by limited supply sources. Growth of global population, industrial development and rising living standards are leading to the significant increase in worldwide electricity consumption. The third is that after the Financial crisis in 2008 prices on fossil fuels went up, making nuclear power more competitive. The last but not least is the security of energy supply, as nuclear energy protects from interrupted deliveries of oil and gas.

After the Fukushima accident in 2011, the global renaissance was put under the question, although there appeared to be different responses to the accident. A half-dozen countries significantly changed direction in their nuclear programs. For example, Germany in the fall of 2010 revised the former decision to phase out a nuclear industry in 2000, by reaffirming the stance in favor of nuclear power. However, after Fukushima, on 30 June 2011, the parliament of Germany voted to stop the last reactor inside the country by 2022 Frank Uekoetter. Fukushima and the Lessons of History Remarks on the Past and Future of Nuclear Power. P.10. In a few others there is a debate on future development of nuclear energy. Nevertheless, in majority of cases there have been no drastic changes in nuclear policies. For instance, Egypt claimed that it would realize its nuclear plans. On March 14, three days after Fukushima, Abu Dhabi had a magnificent ceremony for its first nuclear reactor Robert Rosner, Robert L. Gallucci… Perspectives & Challenges for the Nuclear Future: After Fukushima. P.72.

As of the end of 2016, there were 448 nuclear power units in operation in 30 countries, with a total net installed capacity of 391 GW(e), while “an additional 61 units with a total capacity of 61 GW(e) were under construction” in 15 countries Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period up to 2050. International Atomic Energy Agency. Austria. 2017. P. 7. https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/17-28911_RDS-1%202017_web.pdf [accessed 15.02.2018]. Many state-members of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) still consider nuclear energy as safe, clean, providing possibility for dispatcher control and economical technology, that will play bigger role in strengthening energy safety and alleviating consequences of a climate change.

National and international strategies, market conditions and technological processes that form an environment where nuclear energy is competing are constantly changing. Main recent international initiatives should be noted here. The first one is the Paris Agreement within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change that came in operation in 04.11.2016 Mezdunarodnoe sostoyanie i perspective yadernoy energetiki - 2017. The report by IAEA Director General. P.4 https://www.iaea.org/About/Policy/GC/GC61/GC61InfDocuments/Russian/gc61inf-8_rus.pdf [accessed 14.02.2018]. One of the aims of the Paris Agreement is stated in the Article 2: “Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change” Paris Agreement. United Nations. 2015. P.5 https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf [accessed 14.02.2018]. Three-quarter of world greenhouse gases emissions are those in energy sector inside which the biggest increase of emissions volume is in electricity power. Nuclear energy, being a low-carbon technology, can contribute to solving a climate change problem.

In January 2016 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) came into effect United Nations. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/energy/. They imply that for the next 15 years all countries will step up the efforts to eradicate poverty in all its forms, struggle with inequality and solve problems connected to climate change. Previous UN Millennium Development Goals did not include energy, whereas among SDGs the seventh goal is energy for all.

The scenario on holding temperature growth at the level 2 °C developed by IEA is not to let most negative consequences of a climate change happen. In the 2017 report on “Development of eco-friendly energy” made by IEA, it is recommended to increase the use of nuclear energy considerably Mezdunarodnoe sostoyanie i perspective yadernoy energetiki - 2017. The report by IAEA Director General. P.5.

The publication “Harmony” made by World Nuclear Association (WNA) devoted to electric power generation in future implies that the structure of energy production will include various low-carbon technologies with maximized advantages and minimized drawbacks. WNA set the following target figure: by 2050 25% of total electricity supply should be acquired by nuclear Harmony. World Nuclear Association. 2017. P.21 http://www.world-nuclear.org/getmedia/c1ad30ea-d3d7-406c-a3d0-5c0195630aaa/Harmony.pdf.aspx [accessed 17.02.2018]. To achieve this goal, global nuclear industry should have same rules for all parties, unified processes for regulation and effective safety paradigm.

In 2015 the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), established by Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), began implementing the initiative “Nuclear Innovation 2050” OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. https://www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/ni2050/. The general objective of the initiative is “to identify R&D strategies and associated priorities to achieve commercial readiness of innovative sustainable nuclear fission technologies in a fast and cost-effective manner” Nuclear Innovation 2050. OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. P.18. http://setplan2016.sk/dat/ppt/deffrennes.pdf [accessed 18.02.2018]. In order to achieve this objective, it is necessary to create a roadmap of the highest priority programs on scientific research and infrastructure facilities that are essential for ensuring the potential role of nuclear energy in the future low-carbon energy field.

In 2015 IAEA and International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) signed the Agreement on cooperation basis in the field of energy planning, oriented on increase of respective work efficiency and results Mezdunarodnoe sostoyanie i perspective yadernoy energetiki - 2017. The report by IAEA Director General. P.5. Agencies agreed to exchange information, data and methodology, participate in practice events and cooperate in conducting certain research. That is an important step that might foster development both nuclear and renewable energy fields.

In 2016 NPPs generated 2476 TW-h that is lower by 91 TW-h than the annual figure for the first ten years in XXI century Mezdunarodnoe sostoyanie i perspective yadernoy energetiki - 2017. P.6. This reduction happened due to permanent and temporary shutdown of reactors in Japan, and permanent shutdown of some reactors in Germany and USA, that was partly compensated by increased generation in China and other countries. According to the IEA 2015 data, the list of the top nuclear electricity producers consists of the USA, which share is 32.3% of world total, France - 17.0%, Russia - 7.6%, China - 6.7%, and South Korea - 6.4%. However, the top-5 countries with the net installed capacity look different, though first and second places are the same, the third place is occupied by Japan with 40 GW, and China, being the fourth, surpassed Russia by 2 GW - 27 GW against 25 GW. Another important data is the percentage of nuclear in total domestic electricity generation. In France nuclear share accounts for 77.6%, in Korea - 30.0%, in Russia - 18.3%, while in China only 2.9% Key world energy statistics. International Energy Agency. France. 2017. P.19. Japan, possessing the third largest net capacity, produces only a small amount of nuclear electricity because, after Fukushima accident in 2011, the Japanese government shut down all nuclear reactors: some of them permanently, the other temporarily, and only a few of them resumed operation recently. Although in China nuclear capacity takes only 2.9% in total, China already has installed the fourth large net of nuclear reactors in the world.

Leadership in the commercial use of nuclear energy still belongs to industrially developed countries, but 39 out of 60 new reactors are being constructed in fast-developing Asian countries. From 2000 in this region construction of 85 out of 105 reactors was started and 63 out of 78 new reactors were connected to the grid Mezdunarodnoe sostoyanie i perspective yadernoy energetiki - 2017. P.7.

The share of nuclear energy in total electricity generation was decreasing for the past twenty years: from 17.6% in 1996 to 10.8% in 2013 Zhiznin S., V. Timokhov. Geopolitical and Economic Aspects of Nuclear Energy. MGIMO. Energy policy and diplomacy: to the 15th anniversary of MIEP. P.71. However, nuclear energy still ensures 1/3 of world low-carbon electricity production. Additionally, demand for electricity in developing countries is approaching to demand of developed countries and gives impetus to develop all accessible energy spheres, including the nuclear one.

Until recently nuclear energy quite successfully underwent a transition from a regulative electricity market to a liberalized market. NPP proved to be highly competitive and low-cost production because high initial investments paid off completely. Therefore, NPPs operators had to cover only expenses on operation and fuel, which were lower than expenses on electricity generation from fossil fuels. Because of that, operating companies prolonged a license, modernized safety systems and increased capacity. Nevertheless, during last years several nuclear-operating companies claimed about their intention to prematurely shut down NPPs with effective licenses or NPPs, which licenses could be prolonged. In many cases, the main reason was competitiveness decline, low prices on natural gas, especially in the US, triggered by the fast growth of shale gas output that changed the economic electricity production drastically.

Another problem in nuclear energy remains the amount of spent fuel. Spent fuel is accumulated at the rate of 7000 t in heavy metal per year. In most cases, it is kept in wet-type reactor storages, but in recent years the volume of spent fuel transported to dry-type non-reactor storages increased - now it accounts for 25% in total Mezdunarodnoe sostoyanie i perspective yadernoy energetiki - 2017. P.9. The most of spent fuel kept in dry-type storages is located in Canada and US, while main fuel reprocessing factories are in France, UK and Russia. Although the UK intends to shut down two its factories in 2018 and 2020, it is expected that global reprocessing capacities will remain on the same level due to construction of new factories in China, Russia and Japan.

Like any other industrial enterprise, by the end of operational period, an NPP is subject to dismantling. So far 162 nuclear power units were permanently shut down, 19 of which were completely dismantled. 127 out of 150 shutdown nuclear facilities were fully dismantled Ibid.. As far as experience in safe operation is obtained, operation period is frequently prolonged.

International initiatives and agreements, oriented on energy safety and a climate change, bring a solid ground for developing nuclear energy, as it is low-carbon and an alternative to fossil fuels. Such institutions as IEA, IAEA, OECD NEA, WNA claim the necessity to increase nuclear share in total electricity production. Nuclear energy helps decrease carbon emissions and diversify energy sources. Many developing countries show interest to nuclear energy, some of them started constructing NPPs, others consider or plan to start constructing.

However, there are some disadvantages of nuclear energy as radioactive waste and nuclear-spent fuel, plus costly production. Throughout peaceful atom history, there were two major accidents on NPPs (maximum level 7 at International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale - INES) which are Chernobyl 1986 and Fukushima 2011. But, they have so huge impact on public opinion and undermine high level of safety that NPPs provide. Therefore, some countries implement anti-nuclear policy closing their reactors, while other countries increase safety measures all along with international agencies and enlarge their nuclear capacities. Such accidents bring up the necessity to inform society wider about nuclear industry achievements and problems, publish annual reports and work on transparency presenting more or less objective picture.

There is also a need to increase efficiency in the nuclear industry to make electricity production less expensive. While taking adequate measures, authorities have to support NPPs and in some cases buy out produced electricity by a fixed reasonable price. Certainly, nuclear energy faces different problems and challenges, but it remains an important source of energy that plays a big role in ensuring global energy safety and balance.

1.2 Perspectives of global nuclear energy