For a better understanding of what an important role nuclear energy plays in Korea, there is a need to look at its share of total electricity production.

Table 4. Electricity Production by Energy Source in GWh.

Unfortunately, in 2015 KECPO Annual report, the Corporation used another terminology of energy source except for nuclear and hydro that made it complicated to distinguish the electricity production by coal, gas and oil sources which were united into such groups as “Steam, Combined cycle and Internal combustion”. Nevertheless, one can see the following tendency. Korea still uses a huge amount of coal, which so far is the main energy source with 38.7% of total number. Second place is taken by nuclear sources which share increased since 2014 by 4.4% reaching 31.2% in 2016. There is a drop of gas usage by 5.6 % and a slight decrease of Hydro energy by 0.7%, while oil sources' figure remained at the similar level. In addition, it is notable that alternative sources of energy are developing quite rapidly, as their electricity production doubled since 2014 that now accounts for 4.0% of total production.

It is worth mentioning that nuclear industry in Korea since 1980-s started to play the key role in providing the country with energy. From 1986 until 2007 nuclear sources comprised the largest share in electricity production, in 1990-s producing more than 50% of total power generation in KoreaEnergy Info. Korea. 2013. P.17 https://www.keei.re.kr/ [accessed 25.02.2018]. Nuclear energy share decrease was connected with the drastic rise of coal usage in 2006-2011, when energy produced on coal soared from 139 205 GWh to 200 124 GWh. Another decrease of nuclear energy was witnessed in 2012-2013 due to the Fukushima accident and a scandal with fake certificates on components of operating NPPs Sinyakova A. Energy sector in Republic of Korea: review and relevant trends. P.192. . However, by 2014 nuclear energy gained back its large share in total electricity production. Meanwhile, Korea started to use more gas as well, which led to triple increase of produced energy from 28,146 GWh in 200 to 113,984 GWh in 2012 Energy Info. Korea. 2013. P.17 .

South Korea remains the sixth largest consumer of nuclear energy in the world, second in Asia after Japan. There are 24 reactors in operation, with another five under construction Peter van Ness, Mel Gurtov. Learning from Fukushima. ANU Press. 2017. P.142. The share of nuclear energy in electricity production in 2017 amounts to 27.12% International Atomic Energy Agency. https://www.iaea.org, which is a high figure compared to other countries. In 2015 the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy released 7^th Basic Plan for Long-term Electricity Supply and Demand (2015-2029). The plan implied construction of 13 new reactors by 2029. This is five more than outlined in the 6^th Basic Plan in 2013 World Nuclear Association. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/world-uranium-mining-production.aspx.

However, in May 2017 when opposition leader Moon Jae-in became a president of South Korea, he introduced a policy to phase-out nuclear power in a 40-year period and substitute it with alternative renewable sources of energy. However, since nuclear share comprises 27% of total electricity production, and other renewable capacities are not developed sufficiently, such policy will inevitably lead to increasing gas-fired and other fossil fuels generation which has a negative impact on the environment. Therefore, the Moon Jae-in initiative triggered the concerns from experts and scholars, both Korean and International, who asked the President to reconsider his policy. Thus, the future of Korean nuclear industry is now under the question.

Therefore, the Chinese nuclear industry experiences the fastest growth that goes along with technological progress, wider international cooperation and active expansion on other nuclear markets. Russia is fulfilling the ambitious goals on the nuclear industry development. It keeps developing breakthrough technologies, enlarging a nuclear share in domestic electricity production and actively exporting nuclear achievements to other countries. Japan experiences an extremely hard period in the nuclear sphere because of long-lasting consequences of Fukushima Daichi accident in 2011. Nowadays only five reactors started producing a small amount of energy, while the rest 37 are still not used. Thus, it will take some time to reach the pre-accident level of the nuclear energy capacity. Meanwhile, in South Korea, the previous energy plans on increasing a nuclear share and further development of a nuclear industry were drastically changed, as Moon Jae-in came to power. Now not only further development but the very existence of the nuclear industry is under question.

All three East Asia countries face certain challenges on their further development of nuclear energy due to political, economic and social factors. China changed its economic development reducing energy demand, Japan lost public trust in nuclear energy safety and accumulated a wide range of burning issues that are needed to be solved, while in South Korea a new president came to power with a strong anti-nuclear policy. All these factors trigger a reconsideration of the nuclear power role in these countries, which will probably be lowered.

Chapter III. Russia's cooperation with East Asia countries

This international expansion implies an increase of Russian nuclear technologies' export, signing new contracts, entering new markets. According to the 2014 results, Rosatom's international order portfolio went up to 101.4 bln $ - former director of the corporation Sergey Kirienko told President of Russia Vladimir Putin during their meeting in the Kremlin RBC. http://www.rbc.ru/rbcfreenews/55489a229a7947bedec2ed12. One can judge about positive changes of this portfolio by analyzing the following data.

Table 2 Rosenergoatom Annual Report 2014. P.22 http://report2014.rosenergoatom.ru/site/files/rae_ar2014_web_rus.pdf [accessed 20.02.2018]. Dynamics of a portfolio of overseas orders, bln $ USA

One can note the positive shifts in the structure of overseas orders: if earlier Russia gained most profit from selling uranium and fuel, nowadays the construction of NPPs has become much more profitable. That figure rocketed from low 28.9 bln $ up to 66.0 bln $ in three years.

Nowadays overseas projects are implemented in 40 countries. Rosatom's overseas operations can be divided into several spheres:

1. Uranium mining and exploration

2. Supplies of Low-enriched uranium (LEU) and uranium enrichment services

3. Supplies of nuclear fuel and its components

4. Products and services based on radiation technologies

5. NPP construction

Recently the most intensive cooperation is going with China, as Russia provides all above-mentioned services except for joint uranium exploration. Also, cooperation with India reached quite a high level, where Russia builds NPPs, supplies nuclear fuel and provides services based on radiation technologies. As for South Korea, Russia supplies there low-enriched uranium and uranium enrichment services, and products and services based on radiation technologies. In case of Japan, Russia supplies it with low-enriched uranium and uranium enrichment services and implement a project on a nuclear fuel cycle back-end.

Rosatom effectiveness and competitiveness in the global arena are because this corporation ensures all stages of the nuclear fuel cycle. On first stage Rosatom conducts geological exploration, output and reprocess uranium ore, then follows conversion, enrichment and fabrication of fuel. On the next stage there comes projecting and engineering, and then construction of NPP. After construction, NPP produces electricity while the corporation maintains necessary modernization and service of NPP. On the last stage, Rosatom can deal with spent fuel, to shut down a reactor and extract, transport and store safely radioactive waste.

Rosatom cooperates and exchanges technologies with countries all around the world. In 2015 Rosatom created an overseas regional chain of centers that deal with international sales, PR, business development, marketing and attracting financial investments. “By 31^st of December in 2015, there are 11 regional centers of state corporation Rosatom” Rosatom annual report 2015. P. 40, one of them is in Beijing. This center is responsible for doing business in the nuclear industry in China and Japan. To cooperate with South Koreans Rosatom opened a local office in the Republic of Korea but at a lower scale. That is not a coincidence, because among East Asia countries China, Republic of Korea and Japan are the strongest economies, where nuclear energy field has been developed quite significantly and has reached a high level.

The level of Russia's cooperation with East Asian partners varies due to different factors, such as political interests and alliances, an extent of nuclear industry development, condition of a global nuclear market. So far Russia's cooperation with China is the most intensive and multifaceted. Russia and China have a long history of bilateral relations. The recent Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship that formalizes Russian-Chinese relations was signed in Moscow in 2001 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russian Federation. http://www.mid.ru/ru/maps/cn/-/asset_publisher/WhKWb5DVBqKA/content/id/576870. It is in effect for 20 years with an automatic prolongation for another five years, unless one of the party decides to terminate the agreement. In the Article 16 of that Treaty, it is stated that both parties develop their cooperation and create a good environment in different areas, one of which is nuclear energy Ibid..

Russian-Chinese cooperation

In 1996 Russia and China signed the Agreement on cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy that consisted of 12 articles Soglashenie mezdu Pravitelstvom Rossiiskoy Federatcii i Pravitelstvom Kitaiskoy Narodnoy Respubliki o sotrudnichestve v oblasti mirnovo ispolzovaniya atomnoy energii. http://docs.cntd.ru/document/901969764 [accessed 27.02.2018]. This Agreement is in effect for ten years and is automatically prolonged for another five years unless one of the party decides to terminate it. In the Article 1, there are strategic directions for bilateral cooperation: extraction and processing of uranium ore, projecting, construction and exploitation of nuclear power plants (NPPs), processing the nuclear-spent fuel (NSF), managing radioactive waste, etc. In order to achieve these goals, the parties conduct joint scientific works, create joint manufactures, provide mutual consultations, exchange information and scientific specialists, find investors for implementing technological developments and serial production. Russian Ministry of Nuclear Energy and Chinese Government Establishment on Nuclear Energy are the authoritative bodies that implement provisions of the Agreement. These bodies can involve into collaboration with other state or private organizations from both countries.

In 1992 the parties signed the Agreement between governments on cooperation in constructing an NPP in PRC and offering state loan to PRC by Russia Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russian Federation http://www.mid.ru/foreign_policy/international_contracts/2_contract/-/storage-viewer/bilateral/page-356/48714. This Agreement fostered the cooperation not only in the field of nuclear energy but also in other spheres because Chinese had to pay part of their debt by supplying agricultural products, fast-moving consumer goods, chemical and construction products, providing ship-repairing and other services. In 1998 “Atomstroyexport” began construction works on the site. More than 150 Russian companies and organizations took part in building Tianwan NPP, reactors 1 and 2 of which were completed in 2007. Guarantee period of operation demonstrated safe and stable work of NPP. On 15^th April 2010, the final acceptance of 1^st and 2^nd reactors of Tianwan NPP was made by the Chinese side Atomstroyexport. http://www.atomstroyexport.ru/about/projects/finished/tyanvan/.

However, the completion of first two reactors does not mean the end of cooperation. Russia still provides different services to China by maintaining operation of the Tianwan NPP by means of supplying equipment and spare parts, conducting engineering services and technical support of NPP units. The Russian side is working on putting into operation units 3 and 4, training Chinese operators of the NPP Rosenergoatom. http://www.rosenergoatom.ru/about/blok-razvitiya-biznesa/mezhdunarodnyy-biznes/geografiya-mezhdunarodnogo-biznesa/kitay/. In addition, both sides agreed in 2013 that Russia would supply fuel for units 3 and 4 the Tianwan NPP. According to Rosatom Annual Report 2014, the construction of units 3 and 4 are implemented in line with contract schedule Rosatom annual report 2014. P.26. All key works, planned for 2014, were realized.

In 2016 a Russian side signed a contract with Chinese Institute of Nuclear Energy on production and supply of fuel for an experimental reactor on fast neutrons CEFR. In November 2016 within the scope of XXI regular meeting between heads of governments of Russia and China in Saint-Petersburg, both parties made a joint declaration on the development of strategic cooperation in the field of peaceful usage of nuclear energy Rosatom annual report 2016. P. 45.. This complex document implies cooperation on construction of new power units in Tianwan NPP and other sites in China, construction of NPP with reactors on fast neutrons in China, collaboration in the field of floating nuclear-combined heat and power station (SHP), etc. This document enables both countries to expand existing cooperation and continue the mutually beneficial partnership in the field.

Russian-Korean cooperation

Russian-Korean cooperation in the nuclear industry lasts for more than 25 years, and it has the following legal framework. After the establishment of diplomatic relations between USSR and South Korea in September 1990, The Declaration on general principles of relations between two countries, signed by Presidents M.S. Gorbachev and Roh Tae Woo, was adopted in December the same year Torkunov A., Denisov V., Lee V. [Koreyskiy_poluostrov_metamorfozy poslevoennoy istorii].: OLMA Media Group; Moscow. 2008. P.329. In addition, Protocol of cooperation in the field of peaceful use of nuclear energy between USSR Ministry of nuclear energy and industry and ROK Ministry of science and technology” was also signed in December 1990.

This Protocol laid the foundations for further development of bilateral cooperation. After Soviet Union collapse in 1991 and steady growth of Russian-Korean relations, there appeared prerequisites for adopting a new agreement that would be adequate to the new environment. As a result, on 28 May 1999 in Moscow “Agreement on cooperation in the field of peaceful use of nuclear energy between Government of Russian Federation and Government of Republic of Korea” Soglashenie mezdu Pravitelstvom Rossiiskoy Federatcii I Pravitelstvom Respunliki Koreya o sotrudnixhestve v oblasti mirnovo ispolzovaniya atomnoy energii. http://docs.cntd.ru/document/901930086 was signed. This agreement is based on friendly relations between two countries. Both countries are the members of IAEA and members of the Treaty of Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). Governments of both countries took into consideration Protocol 1990 and set a goal to enlarge cooperation in the nuclear sphere, fostering further development of relations of friendship and mutual understanding.

The Agreement 1999 consists of 11 articles, the most important of which are Articles 2, 3 and 7 Ibid.. In the third Article, the directions of cooperation are written down. They are the fundamental and applied research and developments in the field of nuclear energy; projecting, construction, operation, maintenance and life expectancy extension of nuclear power and research reactors; controlled thermonuclear fusion; nuclear fuel cycle, from uranium mining and exploration to radioactive waste management; development and industrial production of components, fuel elements and materials, necessary for the use in nuclear reactors and fuel cycles, etc.

In this Third Article, there are also ways of implementing cooperation that includes the following features: specialists' exchange; organization of seminars and conferences; exchange of scientific and technological information and data; creation of joint working groups for fulfilling specific developments and projects in the field of scientific research and technologies development; supplies of nuclear and non-nuclear materials, equipment, installations and technologies; implementation of joint research projects and programs, etc.

Another milestone in bilateral relations became the foundation of Russian-Korean Joint Coordinating Committee on Atomic Energy Cooperation, which meeting is held from 1991. Those meetings are carried out in Russia and Korea as required by mutual arrangement.

Joint Coordinating Committee is the main ground for discussing relevant issues, for developing projects in different areas of nuclear industry. On the 17^th meeting that took place in Seoul on 29-30 June 2015, the parties demonstrated the achievements of arranged plans that were adopted in the previous session. They discussed cooperation plans in such areas as fast neutron reactors, nuclear fuel, radioisotopes, nuclear fusion reaction, and safe operation of NPP. Koreans underlined Russia's huge experience and up-to-date technologies in the construction of sodium-cooled reactors and discussed the opportunities for enlargement of cooperation in this field.

As for the development of radioactive technologies, which is the strategic area of Korean nuclear policy according to the initiative of creative nuclear energy 2013, ROK offered to research the development of new medicine using radioactive fusion technologies KONICOF. http://www.konicof.or.kr/sub0401/articles/do_print/tableid/konicof-news/id/496 . Moreover, there was a discussion on the enlargement of exchange between nuclear educational institutes, on cooperation in preventing accidents on NPPs.

Spheres of bilateral cooperation that were discussed during the Committee sessions are the strategic ones in the nearest future. As for the current status, Russian-Korean cooperation is narrowed down to supplies of Russian enriched uranium to Korean NPPs, ongoing projects based on radiation technologies, and check of fuel elements on the research reactor in Scientific Research Institute in Dmitrovgrad city where Koreans send their samples for testing Rosatom. http://www.rosatom.ru/about/.

Korea does not possess uranium supplies, while joint uranium mining and exploration by KECPO in other countries do not fully meet demands of the nuclear industry. Therefore, Korea has to import enriched uranium from Australia, USA and Russia, considering that the Russian share accounts for 30% of the total.

Stock company “Tenex” supplies Korea with uranium from 1989. In 2003 there was a foundation of its subsidiary called “TENEX-Korea” which main business lies in providing services on info-analytical cycle, status of nuclear fuel cycle's market, market infrastructure in ROK, providing services connected with promoting nuclear fuel cycle(NFC) products, that enable preparation and signing the contracts on NFC products' supply.

In 2013, there were two runs of uranium products' supply from Eastern port in Russian Far East to Korea. In 2014 after offloading of three runs of uranium, the tryout of the new route of transporting uranium products in Asia-Pacific region in the pilot mode was completed. In the same year, “Tenex” signed the first agreement on the material stock account with Korean company KEPCO NF that fabricates nuclear fuelARMZ Uranium holding. http://ar2014.tenex.ru/290. This Agreement defines conditions of supplies of Russian enriched uranium to Korea and following transfer operations with it. The Agreement is oriented on optimization of cooperation of “Tenex” with KECPO NF and on increasing the flexibility of working with shared clients.

Russian-Japanese cooperation

During the Russian President's visit to Japan in December 2016, the interdepartmental memorandum on cooperation in the peaceful usage of nuclear energy was signed Ibid.. The Memorandum implies collaboration on overcoming the consequences of the nuclear accident on Fukushima-1, cooperation in the field of innovative nuclear technologies, and support in the development of contacts between Russian and Japanese companies. Before the Memorandum, the sides signed the Intergovernmental Agreement on cooperation in the peaceful usage of nuclear energy on 12^th of May in 2009, which became effective since 2012 abolishing the previous Agreement between USSR and Japan, concluded in 1991 Soglashenie mezdu Pravitelstvom Rossiiskoy Federatcii I Pravitelstvom Yaponii o sotrudnichestve v oblasti mirnovo ispolzovaniya atomnoy energii. http://www.mid.ru/foreign_policy/international_contracts/2_contract/-/storage-viewer/bilateral/page-118/45262 [accessed 03.03.2018]

. The interesting fact about this Agreement is that it contains much fewer forms and areas of bilateral cooperation in comparison with similar agreements with China and Korea.

In the Article 2 of this Agreement, the following areas are stated: exchange of experts, exchange of information, the supply of nuclear materials, equipment and technologies, and providing respective services. Those forms of cooperation can be realized in the following areas: exploration and exploitation of uranium deposits, projecting, construction and operation of a light-water-moderated reactor (LWR), recycling and managing radioactive waste, nuclear safety, research and application of radioisotopes and radiation. Japan is one of the leaders in the global nuclear industry, so Russia does not have so many offers to make. However, Russia can help overcome the consequences of the Fukushima-1 accident, jointly explore new deposits of uranium, share experiences on managing nuclear waste.

The analysis of Russia's cooperation with three East Asia countries demonstrates that the cooperation with Japan and South Korea remains on the low level. To Korea, Russia supplies uranium products and products and services based on radioactive technologies. To Japan, Russia supplies uranium products, and two sides cooperate on the final stage of the nuclear fuel cycle. In addition, the latest trends in nuclear industries in Korea and Japan do not encourage further development of collaboration with Russia. In case of Korea, it is the new President's initiative to phase-out nuclear industry in 40 years. In case of Japan, it is the difficulties to recover from consequences of Fukushima Daichi accident and the very high technological level in the industry. Moreover, Korea and Japan are the allies and good partners in the nuclear industry with the US, that puts some more limits on their cooperation with Russia. Japan joined the US sanctions in April 2014 that narrowed bilateral trade volume by 12% TASS. http://tass.ru/mezhdunarodnaya-panorama/1055587/6 . Although these sanctions do not directly restrict cooperation in nuclear energy, they are still a negative factor that put additional constraints on not so well-developed bilateral relations. The Republic of Korea did not impose sanctions on Russia, but being a close ally to the US, it might do so, if Washington insists. China also did not join the anti-Russian sanctions and is far more independent politically than both Japan and Korea.

Russian-Chinese cooperation is more intense and diverse, as Russia provides the whole range of products and services. They are supplies of uranium products, nuclear fuel and its components, radioactive technologies, NPP construction, its service and modernization. So far China needs Russian nuclear technologies, licenses, specialists, uranium and nuclear fuel. However, China has already outrun Russia by the number of NPP units, and this gap will increase significantly in the near future. Another moment is that when China gathers all necessary technologies and experience in the nuclear sphere, it might reduce the cooperation with Russia to only export-import of resources. Additionally, Chinese economic shifts, which led to decrease in energy demand, and lack of coastal sites for new NPPs will reduce Chinese need for new nuclear reactors, Therefore, regarding nuclear industry, it is quite hard for Russia to increase its share on nuclear markets in these East Asia countries.

Conclusion

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