Reflection on queer issues during the Sochi Olympics

The author refers to the fact that Hitler waived Nazi Germany's “anti-gay” laws three times throughout the article, each time emphasising the severity of the laws or their consequences. The fact that Putin does not intend to do the same is also highlighted, reinforcing the emotions evoked by the title - surprise and shock that Putin's Russia is doing something `worse' than Nazi Germany. Throughout the article, the homo-propaganda law is consistently referred to as the anti-gay or anti-homosexual law, which due to the word “anti” automatically frames it as being against gay people and thus more negative than other common terms used to refer to the law such as “gay propaganda law” or “homo-propaganda law”. The article also claims that the laws will lead to a “disturbing” level of intolerance. The adjective “disturbing” suggests that the homo-propaganda law is something that should cause people to be anxious or worried, and connotates that the level of intolerance would be horrific and perhaps psychologically damaging. In addition, it talks about LGBT activists being “arrested” and “badly beaten”, further evoking the emotion of fear for one's safety. It is also mentioned that Russia has “offered only nonbinding assurances that gay athletes and spectators won't be arrested in Sochi during next year's games”. This evokes a sense of uncertainty over whether or not Russia is sincere in these assurances, which contributes to fear as gay attenders to the games cannot be sure they are safe from arrest. It also implies that Russia cannot be trusted to respect human rights. This further creates a sense of division and Russia as Other.

Moreover, there are references to “backlash”, “outrage”, catching “flak”, and criticism described as “international” or as coming from “gay protestors worldwide”, “gays and lesbians”, and Obama. This collectivising of criticism implies that the international community, as well as gays and lesbians, and the US president (who represents the US state) as opposed to the Putin administration's homo-propaganda law. This collective negative response is also shown through mentioning that there was “talk” of boycotting the Olympics by some states, which is a call to collective action. It also juxtaposes Russia against these “international” groups, with Russia as the negative Other. This is the type of invocative emotion referred to by Todd Hall, as it suggests to readers that they are part of a Self or Us which should oppose the Russian Other, which is associated with negative emotions. Overall, this article is indicative of the author's shock at Russia's behaviour and evokes negative emotions of fear, and the sense that as part of an international community that is distinct from the backwards, Russian Other, the reader should oppose the homo-propaganda law and the decision to enforce it during the Olympics.

The second article to be analysed is “Welcome to the gay-hating Olympics: Footage of horrific beatings and humiliation handed out by homophobic Russian gangs emerges days before country hosts winter Olympics”, published on the 4^th of April three days prior to the opening of the games. Daily Mail Reporter, “Welcome to the gay-hating Olympics: Footage of horrific beatings and humiliation handed out by homophobic Russian gangs emerges days before country hosts winter Olympics”, The Daily Mail <https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2551767/Footage-horrific-beatings-humiliation-suffered-gay-lesbians-hands-homophobic-Russian-gangs-emerges-days-country-hosts-winter-Olympics.html>

(4 February 2014) accessed 10 March 2019. The title of this article immediately describes the Sochi Olympics as “gay-hating”, this indication of hatred towards gay people evokes the sense that LGBT athletes and visitors will not be welcome at the event. “Horrific” beatings and humiliation are then mentioned, which suggests that the reader should feel horror towards the incidents, while “beatings” and “humiliation” suggest that the physical and mental well-being of LGBT persons in Russia is at risk, evoking fear. The contrast between the use of “welcome”, which is a warm, friendly term and “gay-hating”, is also significant as it shocks the reader by contrasting openness (which is expected at the Olympics) with intolerance as represented by homophobic Russians. As in the previous article, the homo-propaganda law is referred to as anti-LGBT and anti-homosexual. It is also directly linked with a “climate of intolerance”, indicating that the laws are a source of the issues described in the article and thus something to be opposed.

Throughout the article violent incidents towards LGBT people in Russia are described. These incidents are “attacks”, “punishment beatings”, “humiliations”, “hostility” and “violence”, during which LGBT people have been “attacked”, “beaten”, “harassed”, “abducted”, “threatened” and “psychologically abused”. This clearly evokes emotions of fear for the physical and psychological safety of LGBT people in Russia. Furthermore, these incidents are described as “horrific”, “shocking”, “hateful”, “dangerous”, “sickening”, “violent”, and “vicious”, as well as “widespread”, “worsening”, and “increasingly common”. These adjectives further emphasise and evoke negative emotions of fear, horror, and revulsion at the incidents described, and imply that it is only getting worse and more common, which again further intensifies the negative emotions evoked. The emotion of fear is also directly referred to a number of times as the article describes a “climate of fear” and LGBT people in Russia being “afraid” or “fearing”. This, combined with repeated referral to “victims” of the violence, serves to underline that LGBT people in Russia are afraid, with good reason, for their safety. This is reinforced yet again by a quote from Human Rights Watch citing the “urgent” need to protect LGBT people.

Moreover, the association between these violent incidents directed towards LGBT people in Russia with the Sochi Olympics (although the incidents themselves are separate from the games) associates the fear evoked with the description of the violence with the games, implying that LGBT athletes and visitors at the Olympics have reason to fear for their safety. This, and the fact that the article takes quotes from Human Rights Watch who are described as hoping to incite “international opprobrium” (harsh criticism) and thereby “pressure” the Russian government shifts this issue from a domestic one to an international one. Russia, as in the previous article, becomes the Other associated with the numerous negative emotions elaborated on above. Taken together, these articles from the Daily Mail evoke fear and horror at the treatment of LGBT people in Russia and position it as an international issue as well as something that could impact those attending the Sochi Olympics.

5. The 2018 FIFA World Cup

The 2018 FIFA World Cup was hosted by Russia across 11 host cities from the 14^th of June to the 15^th of July. At the time of this event the situation in Ukraine and Syria continued to be points of contention and the Skripal poisoning incident was also a significant issue in UK-Russia relations at the time. Additionally, there was some controversy concerning the selection of Russia as a World Cup host, over potential corruption issues. The analysis in this section is based on 26 articles. The list of headlines can be found in Appendix Three.

Out of the 26 articles taken from the Daily Mail, 25 have relevant headlines. Out of these 25 headlines two (eight percent) referenced LGBT topics but not the World Cup, 10 headlines (40 percent) only referred to the World Cup but not LGBT issues, and 13 (52 percent) referred to both. This again shows a focus on sports related topics. However, there is a slightly higher percentage of headlines overall referring to LGBT topics than was the case for the Sochi Olympics, perhaps indicating that LGBT topics were less likely to be mentioned in articles focusing on other subjects than in the coverage of the Sochi Olympics. When looking at the topics of the headlines, there were no noticeably more common topics. The topics “athlete”, “pride flag”, “protest”, “Russia/Putin's image”, “homo-propaganda law”, and “hosting concerns” were each mentioned twice. This indicates that perhaps at the time of the World Cup coverage there was not a single `hot topic' LGBT issues in Russia from the UK perspective. At this time the homo-propaganda law had already been in place for approximately five years, thus the idea of Russia as homophobic to some extent has become normalised in the Daily Mail's coverage.

The 25 relevant headlines contained 51 emotion words and phrases. Of these, 30 (58.8 percent) are associated with negative emotions. Notable emotion words and phrases once again were those relating to being against gay people or homophobic, of which there were five (9.8 percent). There were also six (11.76 percent) words (“arrest”, “danger”, “threaten”, “stab”, “violence”, “abuse”) that indicated the potential for or occurrence of negative consequences for LGBT people in Russia, including both physical harm and arrest. This contributes to eliciting an emotional response of fear. Furthermore, there was a comparison made with Nazi Germany, which as discussed in previous sections, is a historical reference that carries extremely negative emotional connotations. There were no further patterns of emotion terms that were noteworthy. The emotion words that were found in these headlines do largely reflect the emotions analysed in the sample articles.

The first article sampled for EDA is “Gay fans' guide to avoiding bigots at the 2018 World Cup” by Charles Sale approximately six months before the start of the event. Charles Sale, “Gay fans' guide to avoiding Russian bigots at the 2018 World Cup”, The Daily Mail <https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/football/article-5126275/Gay-fans-guide-avoid-Russian-bigots-2018-World-Cup.html> (28 November 2017) accessed 11 March 2019. Firstly, the very existence of a guide to help LGBT fans avoid “Russian bigots” immediately suggests to the reader that not only is such a guide needed, but that the situation must be quite serious for it to be necessary, evoking fear. Like the heading in the previous category that contrasted “welcome” with “gay-hating”, the implied necessity of a guide to avoid bigots is a subversion of tourist expectations, and presents Russia as a hostile, othered, space. The “bigots” that this guide helps fans to avoid are also specifically labelled as “Russian”, making it clear who should be feared by fans. It is stated that gay fans have be “warned not to hold hands” (reveal that they are gay) and advised to “be cautious”. These warnings evoke a sense of fear that there could be negative consequences for any fans who are seen to be gay.

The guide is also described as being designed to “help supporters cope with potential homophobia”. The use of the word “cope” gives the impression that homophobic incidents are likely to occur, and then fans will have to “cope with” them - something one can only do after the event has occurred. However, the article also raises uncertainty over exactly what will put fans in “danger” and what will not, stating that it “depends” on certain factors. This uncertainty adds to the fear evoked, as does the idea of “danger” which alludes to the possibility of physical (or perhaps other types) of harm. Adding both the portrayal of Russians as bigoted and the fear associated with being seen as gay is the description of the “place” of gay people in Russia as “hidden and underground”. This implies that gay people in Russia keep their sexual orientation secret due to homophobia making it unsafe for them to be open. Overall, this article creates the sense that gay fans visiting Russia for the World Cup should afraid for their safety if they are seen as gay, and therefore that caution, or keeping their sexual orientation hidden, is the safest course of action.

The second article selected for EDA is “Russian football hooligans threaten to stab gay and transgender England fans at the World Cup”, by Khaleda Rahman, published a couple of weeks before the start of the World Cup. Khaleda Rahman, “Russian football hooligans threaten to stab gay and transgender England fans at the World Cup”,

The Daily Mail <https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5780323/Russian-football-hooligans-threaten-stab-gay-transgender-England-fans-World-Cup.html> (28 May 2018) 12 March 2019. The title immediately evokes fear of the possibility of physical violence towards LGBT people with the use of the words “threaten” and “stab”. It also clearly positions “Russian hooligans” as the aggressors and LGBT “England fans” as the people who could be harmed, which signifies that the fear should be directed at Russians. The specification of Russian vs English fans also invokes nationalist sentiment. Throughout the article the possibility of LGBT people experiencing harm in Russia is made clear. Mentions of “warning” emails, being “targeted for attacks”, “intolerant” public attitude, and “death threats” from Russians to LGBT fans conjures fear by showing that there are Russians who want and intend to attack LGBT visitors. The death threats were described as “so unnerving” it was necessary to involve police, which further contributes to the fear and worry evoked.

The article also mentions that LGBT fans are advised “not to display their sexuality in public” and that they “should not make public displays of affection”, as well as recounting a threat indicating that “if they find us they'll stab us”. This advice towards caution and remaining hidden for LGBT people, as they may face consequences such as serious physical violence [stabbing] if they are seen as LGBT, also conjures an emotional response of fear and worry. However, this article also activist opinions, which are invocative of a feeling of obligation to encourage change concerning the LGBT rights situation in Russia. The World Cup is linked to “hope” and “opportunity” for the promotion of these rights. One quote is that “Unless there is someone kind of putting their head above the parapet, it's very easy for them to say we don't exist” and that LGBT fans have a “responsibility to highlight any form of inequality”. The first line places a sense of duty on LGBT fans to act by claiming that if they do not, then things won't change, and the situation can be ignored. The use of the word “responsibility” in the second line adds to this sense of obligation. Drawing on obligation, duty, or responsibility also carries an emotional response of guilt or shame if one does not plan to ant on the “responsibility”. This potential guilt reaction is somewhat reduced in the article by emphasising that it should be “when they feel safe to do so” or “if it is safe to do so”. This reiterates the potential danger of acting, while placing safety as a higher priority.

The “them” referred to in the quotation above is implied to be Russia or perhaps Russian fans, the “we” LGBT fans, with an emphasis on British fans. This Russia/UK divide is underscored by referring to the “history of violence” between football fans from the two nations as well as the fact that “diplomatic tensions” between Russia and the UK were “at an all-time high” due to the Skripal poisoning incident. In addition to highlighting the fact that the two countries are at odds, this also serves to help cast Russia as a negative Other, as the negative emotions evoked in the article are mostly attributed to Russia or Russians. Moreover, the referencing the “history of violence” and the “particularly bloody clash” that occurred at a 2016 football event cements the notion that the possibility of violence described earlier in the article is very real as such violence (if not directed at LGBT people) has occurred before. Overall, this article evokes fear at the potential for violence from Russians directed at LGBT fans, while also invoking a sense of responsibility for LGBT fans to use the World Cup as an opportunity for change.

6. UK and Russia Coverage 2013-2018

This section analyses the coverage of queer issues from 01/01/2013 to 31/12/2018 both in Russia and in the UK. This period includes when the Sochi Winter Olympics and the World Cup were held but looks at articles that do not cover these events. This section of the analysis intends to look at the coverage of queer issues in Russia outside of the two mega-events, as well as the coverage in the years in between them. It also intends to compare and contrast this with the Daily Mail's coverage of queer issues domestically and further establish any patterns of othering. The list of headlines can be found in Appendix Four.

6.1 UK

During this period, the Daily Mail published 160 articles on queer issues related to the UK. A significant number of the articles (43 or 26.9 percent) cover the issue of gay marriage or topics related to it. Legalised same-sex marriage came into force in March 2014 and generated a lot of debate. Of the 43 headlines relevant to gay marriage 23 (53.5 percent) were neutral and a further 10 (23.3 percent) quoted a negative opinion but the position of the article was either neutral or unclear. 7 (16.3 percent) of the headlines showed an overtly positive position towards same-sex marriage, while only 2 (4.7 percent) were overtly negative. The fact that so many of the articles on gay marriage showcase the debate and report the opinions of those against gay marriage reinforces the divisiveness of the issue.

One sample article “Gay marriage a step closer to becoming legal after House of Lords rejects bid to block bill” by Anna Edwards illustrates the nature of this debate. Anna Edwards, “Gay marriage a step closer to becoming legal after House of Lords rejects bid to block bill”, The Daily Mail <https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2335923/Gay-marriage-step-closer-legal-House-Lords-rejects-bid-block-bill.html> (04/06/2013) accessed 30 April 2019. The headline itself is neutral and factual, simply stating the progress of the Marriage Bill. The term “deep” is used to emphasise the divisiveness of the debate. The opposition to same-sex marriage is described as “fierce” and “formidable”. These are both emotionally loaded words that bring to mind intensity and strength and indicate that the bill's opponents feel very strongly about their beliefs. The arguments against same-sex marriage presented in the article included that the bill was “ill thought through”, “fatally flawed”, without “democratic legitimacy”, and “weaker” than the existing institution of marriage because it cannot lead to the “natural procreation of children”. These terms raise doubt about the soundness of the bill and imply that it could have negative legal consequences. Opponents of the bill also compared same-sex marriages to “incest and polygamy”. This likening of same-sex relationships, to other, more taboo sexual relationships, and the focus on marriage being necessary for procreation is not dissimilar to the rhetoric espoused by Putin and other Russian officials, where homosexuality has been linked to paedophilia, and same-sex marriage is viewed as a demographic threat. While the article itself does not express support (or otherwise) for these arguments, the fact that the debate is presented lends them credibility and invites the reader to make their own decision.

The arguments in favour of same-sex marriage presented in this sample article are based on equality. Across other articles covering this issue quotes from then-Prime Minister David Cameron have him describing same-sex marriage as “a step forward for our country”, and as vital to “modernise” the Conservative Party. Simon Walters, “Gove declares that teachers won't be fired for opposing gay marriage”, The Daily Mail <https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2272543/Gove-declares-teachers-wont-fired-opposing-gay-marriage.html> (02/02/2013) accessed 30 April 2019; Matt Chorley, “Commons votes in favour of same-sex marriage by majority of 225 despite 136 hardlines Tories voting against PM”, The Daily Mail <https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2273546/Gay-marriage-vote-Same-sex-weddings-make-society-stronger-claims-David-Cameron.html> (05/02/2013) accessed 30 April 2019. Another minister states that supporting same-sex marriage reflects “the face of modern Britain” and celebrity Stephen Fry called the legalisation of same-sex marriage “A great day in the...glorious history of British progress”. Ibid. This linking of same-sex marriage with modernity and progress for the UK, and not just as a benefit for same-sex couples, supports the argument that queer rights are an important part of the UK's national identity. It also supports the homonationalist conception of accepting queer rights as progress, and those who do not as backwards.

In an interview with the Daily Mail on his engagement, gay British singer Jaymi Hensley says that the UK's marriage equality “is like a two fingers up to countries like Russia. They're trying to crush people while we're only trying to give people the chance to live their lives to the fullest. Even in the US not all states have gay marriage...We need to set an example”. Daily Mail Reporter, “KNOT on the market anymore! Union J's Jaymi Hensley poses with fiancé Olly Marmon for Attitude magazine's gay marriage issue”, The Daily Mail <https://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-2592015/Jaymi-Hensley-poses-fianc-Olly-Marmon-Attitude-magazines-gay-marriage-issue.html> (28/03/2014) accessed 30 April 2019. In this quote the UK is positioned as sexually exceptional to Russia, the US, and other countries that do not have the same standard of legal rights. This invokes a sense of homonationalist pride as described by Puar. The phrase “a two fingers up to…Russia” is an emotionally loaded phrase that indicates both that Russia has done something wrong, and that the UK should be proud that they have not done this thing. This is reinforced in the next sentence where Russia is described as “trying to crush people”, with “crush” being a negative emotion term that suggests violent suppression, as compared to the UK which is allowing people to live their lives how they choose. Noting that “Even” the US has not legalised same-sex marriage nationwide positions the UK as a leader in queer rights even amongst Western nations, reflecting Rahman's argument that the uneven application of gay rights within the West increases their exceptionalism. The idea that the UK needs “to set an example” positions their “sexually exceptional” stance as something that should be strived towards.

After gay marriage there are two other significant recurring topics in the headlines. One of these are what has been classed as `pseudo-scientific' headlines for articles that address questions such as why people are gay or if you can tell people are gay through some physical marker. These account for 20 (12.5 percent) of the headlines. Accounting for 21 headlines is the theme `coming out stories'. Out of these headlines, 9 use the word “reveal”, indicating that the information was previously hidden and also raises an emotional reaction of surprise. 8 (38.1 percent) of the headlines suggest that coming out is not easy using words such as “fear”, “tough”, “abuse”, “backlash”, “stigma”, “difficult”, and “refusal to accept”. This is indicative of fear surrounding the process and/or consequences of coming out, suggesting that despite legal protections for queer people in the UK there is still significant intolerance.

The ambiguity of UK society's perception of queer people is highlighted by headlines referring to people who are considered to be heroic, brave or an important national figure. As we saw in the section covering 2008-2012, Peter Tatchell was described as possibly “the bravest man in Britain” for his work as a queer rights activist. In that section there was also the following headline: “How Britain drove its greatest genius Alan Turing to suicide… just for being gay”. Geoffrey Wansell, “How Britain drove its greatest genius Alan Turing to suicide… just for being gay”, The Daily Mail <https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1212910/How-Britain-drove-greatest-genius-Alan-Turing-suicide--just-gay.html> (12/09/2009) accessed 27 April 2019. The first part of the headline acknowledges Turing as important to and belonging to Britain. In the second part of the headline the use of the word “just” implies that there is nothing wrong with being gay, and it is not something that should have led to him being driven to suicide. In the 2013-2018 section one headline that says gay soldiers “who risked being shot” because of their sexuality in the two world wars were “As brave as any”. Another described love letters between two WWII soldiers as “touching”. These indicate that while it was illegal at the time, these soldiers were still “brave” and there was nothing wrong with who they loved.

In contrast to this is an article concerning Winston Churchill. The headlines read: “It's a suggestion many will consider an outrageous - and utterly implausible - slur on Britain's great hero. But in an intriguing new book a respected historian asks... Was Winston Churchill secretly GAY?”. Michael Bloch, “It's a suggestion many will consider an outrageous - and utterly implausible - slur on Britain's great hero. But in an intriguing new book a respected historian asks... Was Winston Churchill secretly GAY?”, The Daily Mail <https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3093439/Was-Winston-secretly-GAY.html> (22/05/2015) accessed 30 April 2019. The idea that Churchill could possibly be gay is termed an “outrageous slur”. This is emotionally loaded with the use of the word “outrageous” evoking shock and horror. The word “slur” creates the idea that audience should be offended on Churchill's behalf by the claim. Not only is being called gay an insult, but it is a shockingly bad one. Describing calling Churchill gay (or even suggesting that he could have been) as a serious insult clearly positions homosexuality as something negative. This is a clear contrast to the other British figures and soldiers were portrayed as heroic/brave and gay without conflict.

6.2 Russia

In this time frame there are 62 articles that cover or mention queer issues in relation to Russia. Out of the headlines of these articles 44 (70.96 percent) of them portray Russia in a negative light based on their stance on queer rights. A further 11 (17.7 percent) of the headlines portray Russia negatively, but due to different issues. Of these 11 articles, 5 of them are about the Skripal poisoning incident. As in the coverage of the Olympics and the World Cup emotion words including “anti-gay”, “abuse”, “torture”, and “attack” were notable, raising fear for the safety of queer people in Russia. The homo-propaganda law too was again a recurring topic. The distribution of when the articles were published is notable. In 2013, there were 12 articles published, and 10 in 2014, however in 2015 and 2016 only 6 articles were published each year. This rises to 16 articles in 2017 and 12 in 2018. The higher numbers of articles publish correspond with the lead-ups to and the hosting of the Olympics and the World Cup, supporting that these events brought Russia to international attention. Other important incidents that could contribute to this distribution are: the federation-wide implementation of the homo-propaganda law, the treatment of gay men in Chechnya (accounting for 5 of the articles in 2017), and the Skripal poisoning. Based on these headlines, a mostly negative portrayal of Russia based on queer rights issues similar to that in the coverage of the mega-events can be seen. Due to the similarity in coverage to the articles analysed in the previous sections, no further sample articles were analysed.

7. Discussion of Findings

In this section the results of the analysis will be looked at in the context of the literature review in order to establish whether a pattern of demonisation of Russia can be found in the Daily Mail's coverage. The first category was UK and Russia coverage 2008-2012. Looking at the UK section a negative bias towards queer people can be seen. The analysis of headlines found that a significant percentage (38.6 percent) were negative towards queer people, and that 41 percent of the articles on same-sex marriage were negative. The sample articles that were selected for the UK section revealed ambivalence in the Daily Mail's reporting on queer issues as well as evidence of homonationalism. The article on Peter Tatchell portrays him - gay and British - as brave, admirable and virtuous for his work standing up for queer and human rights in foreign countries. In contrast to him, Russia and Mugabe, and the actions of their corresponding regimes were associated with danger and fear and portrayed as immoral. This is in line with homonationalist theories of national pride stemming from acceptance of queer rights, and demonisation of the Other due to lack thereof. This is further underscored by the downplaying of homophobic incidents in the UK. Protesting against these Others earns Tatchell the label “bravest man in Britain”, whereas calling controversy surrounding the Daily Mail overblown means he is reasonable. This is a strong indication of queer rights acceptance being important to UK national values, and discursive use of lack of such acceptance in the demonisation of the Other.

The second sample article further illustrates the contradictions in the Daily Mail's coverage of queer issues in the UK. It uses emotionally loaded language, provoking a strong negative response to the idea of exposing children to information (or even mentions) of homosexuality. Legal changes in support of queer rights are presented as a danger that threatens not only the well-being of children, but also the morality of UK society, to the extent that many gay people disagree with them. The perspectives shown in the two sample articles were also seen in other headlines, in which gay rights were portrayed as an important part of UK society and values that could be threatened by foreign Others, yet also as something that is damaging for young children to learn about. This reveals a homonationalist trend where foreign Others are demonised and portrayed as a threat to the values of the `sexually exceptional' UK, despite the fact that when there is no foreign Other involved, queer rights are sometimes portrayed using similar discourse to that of Putin, where these rights become a threat to moral values. This also demonstrates a Queer IR perspective as described by Weber, by challenging the binary of West or UK as non-homophobic and the East/Muslim groups/Russia as homophobic. The reality is more complex.

There were very few articles concerning Russia in this category indicating this category, and all but one were published in 2012 - when the implementation of homo-propaganda laws had already occurred in several cities including St Petersburg. The sample article concerning Madonna's clashes with Russia over gay rights reflected Putin's discourse, positioning homosexuality as a demographic threat. It also reveals Western disagreement with the Russian government's treatment of Pussy Riot as harsh and a hit to free speech. These highlights a difference in values between Russia and the West, as outlined in the literature review. Overall this section show evidence of homonationalist tendencies in Daily Mail reporting with the West and the UK position as `sexually exceptional' in comparison to Russia or certain foreign Others. This is despite the fact that the acceptance of queer rights domestically can still be seen to be ambivalent. The small number of articles on Russia indicate that, while the treatment of queer people in Russia is viewed negatively, it was not a topical issue at that time for the Daily Mail.

The Sochi Olympics category included 49 articles on queer issues in Russia, as compared to only 8 in the previous section. This shows that queer issues in Russia became a much more important subject in the lead up to, and during the Sochi Olympics. It supports the claim, mentioned in the literature review that “Russian homophobia has reached the world stage precisely because of the 2014 Olympics”. LeBlanc, “Sporting Homonationalism”, 7. Both the headlines and the two sample articles selected for EDA evoked negative emotions, especially fear stemming from the potential consequences of Russian state homophobia. Other frequently evoked emotions, also related to fear, were shock, horror, uncertainty and mistrust. The comparison of Putin to Hitler was an intensely negative and emotional historical reference that suggests Putin could be the modern-day equivalent to Hitler, the moral enemy of the UK during WWII. Moreover, it highlighted the backwardness of Putin's thinking (from a Western perspective). The second sample article further reinforced the portrayal of Russia as a homophobic and intolerant state that cannot be trusted to respect queer rights - a hostile other.

The portrayal of queer issues in Russia in this section is in line with analysis of the previous category, but with an increased importance placed on the issue of queer rights in Russia, and an increased level of negativity. Put into the context of the existing literature, the type and negativity of the emotions found in this analysis are not surprising. It was established that the UK considers queer rights as important human rights, and this is part of the UK's international agenda and identity. Consistent with the tensions over the issue of queer politics previously described, Russia, and in particular the homo-propaganda law, were described as homophobic and something that the “international community” (or at least, the international, Western community) is against. The law and the situation in Russia were positioned as something Other, to be feared by queer visitors to Russia. Moreover, Putin/Russia's stance, through the comparisons with Hitler and Nazi Germany, was depicted as backwards - and thus the opposite of the progress and modernity that acceptance of queer rights represents according to homonationalist theories.

The coverage of the World Cup was less extensive than that of the Sochi Olympics, with 26 articles compared to 49. The portrayal of Russia in the headlines was still negative, but less so than in the previous category. The World Cup analysis was on 25 headlines, which contained 51 emotion words and phrases, an average of 2.04 emotion words per headline. Of these, 58.8 percent were negative. This is compared to 68.6 percent of the emotion words from the Sochi Olympics headlines being negative, showing a decrease in the use of overtly negative emotion terms in the World Cup reporting.

The two sample articles used emotional language which indicated danger associated with being (or at least being seen as) queer in Russia, and thus that keeping one's sexuality hidden is the safest course of action. There was also the idea that those who want to change the situation should act, but only if it is safe to do so. Invoking a responsibility to stand up for queer rights emphasises the importance of these rights as UK values, and reflects the UK's international promotion of queer rights. The first article also reaffirms the idea of Russia as a hostile, othered space by subverting tourist expectations through the implication that a guide to avoid bigots is necessary. A Russia-UK divide is also established, especially in the second article that focuses on potential and real violence between Russian and British fans, drawing on feelings of nationalism and clearly positioning Russia as a homophobic, threatening Other to the British Self. Overall the portrayal of queer issues in Russia in the World Cup coverage was similar to that of the Olympics, but the coverage was less extensive suggesting that the issue was perhaps less topical at the time or that the idea of Russia as other was already normalised.

In the final category, UK and Russia Coverage 2013-2018 (excluding the coverage of the mega-events), the coverage of queer issues is very similar to that for the Olympics and the World Cup. A majority of the headlines portrayed Russia negatively, with a focus on danger for LGBT people in Russia. There was also a larger number of articles published in the lead up to, and during the mega-events than in the years between them, further supporting the idea that these events bring Russia and Russia's stance on queer rights under international scrutiny. The articles on the UK showed less overt negativity than the coverage in the 2008-2012 category, perhaps reflecting a shifting stance on queer rights within the UK. Even so, ambivalence on queer issues was still present. The articles on same-sex marriage presented both sides of the debate, and other headlines range from presenting being gay considered a non-issue that does not exclude one from heroism or bravery, to presenting suggesting that someone is gay is an insult. This reflects what was seen in the first category. Domestic acceptance of queer rights is uneven, but queer rights are widely seen as a symbol of progress and modernity, and something that makes the UK `sexually exceptional' to Russia.

Unlike previous studies related to this topic, this research focused on the UK as a state heavily influenced by European values, but still distinct from Europe. It also focused not on the comparison of different news sources, but on how the coverage from one media source, the Daily Mail revealed trends in the discursive demonisation of Russia. Where other studies have pointed out the focus on Russian homophobia to the exclusion of other issues, or the importance of human rights as a contentious issue in West-Russia relations, this research shows how the positioning of Russia as a homophobic state is used to paint them as a threatening Other. The analysis shows how Puar's and Rahman's theories of homonationalism, which they applied mostly to the US's demonisation of Muslim/Arab groups is applicable to the UK's othering of Russia.

Conclusion

The findings of this show that the portrayal of queer issues in Russia by the Daily Mail was largely negative. The EDA showed that fear (based on Russia as a homophobic state) was the most frequently evoked emotion in the coverage of Russia, alongside shock and horror towards the situation for queer people in Russia. Prior to these mega-events, queer issues in Russia were not widely covered by the Daily Mail, lending credibility to the argument that the Sochi Olympics is what brought international attention to the issue. The 2013-2018 coverage of queer issues in Russia outside of the mega-events reflected the same negative portrayal seen in the coverage of the events. In comparison, the Daily Mail coverage of queer issues domestically is much more ambivalent, including both positive representations of queer rights and people, and portrayals similar to that seen in the Russian discourse explored in the literature review. The analysis revealed that when a foreign Other (in the analysis we see this with Russia and Muslim groups) is involved, acceptance of queer rights in the UK is given much more importance and depicted as an important part of the UK's values. Acceptance of queer rights is a sign of progress, and proof of the UK's modernity and `sexual exceptionalism'.

Overall, the findings of the analysis are in line with the expectations based on the literature review. The Daily Mail's discourse reveals a pattern of using differing stances on queer rights issues between the UK and Russia to Other Russia, despite ambivalent acceptance of queer rights domestically. This ambivalent acceptance domestically combined with international promotion of gay rights supports Puar's argument that such rights are less about the rights themselves and more about “codifying an ideal of European values”. Roy in Puar, Terrorist Assemblages”, 18. Through the coverage of the Daily Mail, evidence of homonationalism can be seen, where nationalist feeling is tied to the UK's acceptance of queer rights, which shows their modernity and moral superiority comparison to the intolerant, homophobic, Russian Other. The consistent negative portrayal of queer issues in Russia that was most heightened in the Sochi Olympics coverage, but which continued through to the coverage of the World Cup, as well as in the coverage outside of these events, suggests a normalisation of Russia as a threatening Other. Further research should investigate whether this same pattern of Othering can be found in the discourse of other media sources, both within the UK and other Western countries.

This research contributes to the field of queer IR, as it highlights queer rights issues as a significant point of political contention between the UK and Russia. It also challenges the dualistic binaries that would position the UK(West) as modern, progressive and non-homophobic and Russia (East/Rest) as intolerant, backwards, and homophobic, by illustrating the contradictions in the UK's own position on queer rights. Moreover, pattern of demonisation of Russia based on state homophobia has implications for the relations between the UK and Russia. As suggested by Weber, the stance that queer rights are human rights for queer people globally can be used to put pressure on countries, like Russia, that fail to meet up to Western standards, where there are other motives. Puar, Rahman and Weber all suggest how demonisation based on homophobia and portraying the Other as culturally inferior can have important implications for wider power relations and justification of interventionist measures. This is a pertinent concern regarding Russia, considering the numerous other political tensions between Russia and the UK, and, as stated in the literature review, queer rights have been described as a possible ideological platform for a new Cold War-type scenario

If we return to question posed about Iran in the introduction “Why now? Why just Iran?” and ask ourselves the same question about Russia, this research gives us insight. The issue of Russian state homophobia was drawn to international attention when Russia became host to two of the world's most significant international sporting events, the Winter Olympics and the FIFA World Cup. Thus, the spotlight was shone on the situation of queer rights in Russia, at a time when the controversial homo-propaganda law had just been implemented across the federation and other tensions with the rest were rising. This explains both the timing of this issue becoming important, and why international attention was focused on Russia. The wider political tensions also offer an explanation for why the othering of Russia based on a cultural/value-based issue was attractive. The influence of Othering Russia based on state homophobia on other political issues, and vice versa, is an important area for further research. A greater understanding of these processes is important for UK-Russia and West-Russia relations, effective queer rights advocacy, and the field of queer international relations.

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