Importance of lexical transformations in translation realities

Equivalence problems in translation. Translation transformations as a way to achieve the right Equivalence. Grammatical, stylistic and lexical transformations. Practical usage of lexical transformations in the story of Agatha Christie "The Companion".

Рубрика Иностранные языки и языкознание
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Язык английский
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Content

Introduction

1. Translation process and its social aims

1.1 Equivalence problems in translation

1.2 What are realities in translation

1.3 Translation transformations as a way to achieve the right Equivalence

2 Classification peculiarities of translation transformations

2.1 Grammatical transformations

2.2 Stylistic transformations

2.3 Lexical transformations

3. Practical usage of lexical transformations in the story of Agatha Christie “The Companion”

3.1 Stages in operation of lexical transformations

3.2 Using of Concretization

3.3 Using of Generalization

3.4 Method of Compensation

3.5 Method of Modulation

3.6 Using of Antonymic translation

3.7 Using of Addition

3.8 Method of Omission

3.9 Method of Transcription and transliteration

3.10 Using of the Calques

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Recently, in translation, as well as in many other fields of science, the practices and working methods are changing; especially various types of translation are getting wider expansion. Translation is a peculiar type of communication - inter-lingual communication. The main concern of translation theory is to determine appropriate translation methods for the widest range of the text and to give insight into the translation process, into the relations between the main idea and language, culture and speech. In the process of translation it is often impossible to use appropriate words and expressions which are given in dictionary. [1; p.253]

Research actuality. The translation activity is undoubtedly an ancient human activity. Majority of native and foreign linguists such as Komissarov V.N., Levitskaya T.R, Fiterman A.M, Retcger, Shweizer A.D., Minhiard-Beloruchev R.K. and others investigated the problems of translation activity. The translation activity is really important to develop and enlarge the language. When we usually translate from one to another language many non-equivalent or new words come up. That usually leads to make some changes in our text-books or dictionaries. These non-equivalent words usually occur because of developing social life or different cultures and traditions of translating countries.

So, the aims and scope of translation activity and professional interpreter training requires comprehensive knowledge and analysis of this issue. Many linguists try to conduct scientific review of modern lexicography problems closely with practice of translation. Lexicology aspects of translation submit a great interest in methods of teaching foreign language and particularly in translation activity which is still unexplored area for us. According to Levitskaya T.R. and Fiterman A.M. every interpreter must study literature, history, culture of other countries, including the country which language he is going to translate. The interpreter needs to know the phone knowledge, manners of the people, i.e. to know so-called “realities”, he continues. Reality means features of life, every country's government, mode of life, customs and beliefs, everything that makes the nation distinctive and may have its own traditional image. Then author adds: “The ignorance of realities leads to the mistakes in translation or destroys the whole image, depriving its national color. It also may lead to blunder making false image of the country or nation”, defines Levitskaya T.R. In the book “Untranslatable in translation” the Bulgarian linguists Vlakhov S. and Florin S. tried to put in order different explanations of “reality” and give their own one. The term “reality” given by Sobolev L.N. means “everyday, common or specified national words, phrases, objects, phenomena of one country that don't have any equivalents in the second country, consequently in the country's language as well.” And according to the definition by Barhudarov L.S.“realities are - the words denoting objects, notions and situations not existing in practical experience of people speaking in another language”. A.F. Fedorov's opinion shows that “realities are words defining realities of social and material life” i.e. such words of purely local phenomena that don't match in life or mentality of another country [2, p.125]

It should be noted that many local and foreign researchers paid sufficient attention to these lexical units. The problems of studying the language lingua-didactic presentation were highlighted in the works of such researches as Barhadurov L.S. Tomahin G.D., Shweizar A.D., Sobolev L.N., Chernov G.V..

The problems of relation between language and culture were discussed in the books of Vereshagina Y.M., Kostomarov V.G. and Vinogradov V.S.. They tell about importance of culture in translation process. How it is significant to have some phone knowledge about this or that country. Culture and pace of life change everyday, that's why the language may change every day. This may lead to the difficulties in translation process and translation some specific features of a language. And we are trying to solve these problems with the help of lexical transformations and give some clear explanation or classification for them.

In the text books on the theory of translation written by Barhudarov L.S., Komissarov V.N., Krupnov V.N., Latyshev L.K., Levitskaya T.R., Fiterman A.M., Fedorov A.V. we can find complete information about cultural-labeled words. The actuality of this topic is that the problem of origin, types of realities and ways of translating them haven't been solved yet. During the translation an interpreter faces language realities of some countries and their socio-cultural features. For instance, in Kazakh language there are many realities that don't have any equivalents in other language translation. They are «??рт, ?ымыз, ?азы, л??гі, киіз ?й, бет ашар, т?сау кесер, бесік and etc. ». All of them are translated by transcription and need some more explanation.

The novelty of research work is an analysis of lexical transformations in the story of Agatha Christie “The Companion”.

Research objectives. The objectives of research work to show the real importance of lexical transformations in translation realities and find their most used classification in translation. In connection with the aim and objectives were defined following tasks:

1) to study and analyze the scientific-methodological literature on the research theme;

2) to study existing forms and types of lexical transformations, using various types of source of literature;

3) to classify the main types of lexical transformations according to various linguists;

4) to classify the methods of translating realities;

5) experimentally verify the effectiveness of using lexical transformations in translation;

The theoretical and methodological basis:

1) Intercultural/inter-lingual psychology: Barkhudarov L.S., Tomakhin G.D., Vereshagina Y.I, Kostomarov V.C., Repyn B.I., Djvarsheishvily R.G.

2) Pedagogy: Komissarov V.N, Retcger Y.I, Tarhov V.I., Latyshev L.K, Chernov G.V., Vinogradov V.S., Krupnov V.N., все авторы книг обозначенные как учебное пособие

3) Translation theory: Retsger Y.I, Minhiar-Beloruchev R.K., Vlakhov S., Florine S., Sobolev L.N., Federova V.,

4) Linguistics: Shweizer A.D., Reformatsky A.A., Komissarov V.N.

And we also used the works of our native linguists as: Dmitruk N.V., Shaimerdenova N.J., Suleimenova E.D., Smagulova B.N. and others.

They all describe the using lexical transformations in translation process, their advantages and disadvantages, give different definitions concerning the theme, describe theoretical and methodological structure of lexical transformations and give particular typology or classification of lexical transformations.

So, the main methodological and theoretical principles of this research are studying the efficiency of using lexical transformations in translation, their practical opportunities in translation activity and in teaching translation.

The aim of research is conceptual analyses of lexical transformations usage, scientific justification for the lexical transformations effectiveness, and clarification of lexical transformations classification.

Methods of research are:

Theoretical: analysis and synthesis, generalization and interpretation of the pedagogical, psychological, linguistic, historical, cultural and methodological literature, socio-psychological analysis (analysis of using different realities in different cultures).

Empirical: observation of phenomena, accumulation and selection of facts, establishing links between them and comparative analysis.

The theoretical value of research is the thorough study of different self- oriented materials.

The practical value of research are results of analysis on usage of lexical transformations in the story of Agatha Christie “The Companion”. Conclusion and research materials can be used in developing of school and student programs, foreign language textbooks, teaching aids for tutors.

The scientific importance of research is a scientific justification of using lexical transformations in translation process; concretized concept of words with equivalent and non-equivalent in translation process; solving the problems with the notion of realities and their translation;

The research work has resulted in justification of using some specific types of lexical transformations in particular situations, which provide an effective methods in translation realities as clichйs; that this work gives strong interest in discussion and finding the resolution of using the most appropriate equivalent in translation of specific words or word-combinations;

Research work structure:

The research paper consists of Introduction, three main Chapters, Bibliography consisting 50 titles and 2 Appendices, where you can find lexical transformation classification according to the analysis, terminology. (total 80 pages)

In the Introduction it is justified the actuality of chosen theme, defined objects, aims, tasks, methods of research; formulates the theoretical and practical importance of research, outline the main aims and possessed theoretical tasks.

In the first chapter of “Translation process and its social aims” describes the problems of equivalence and translating realities, inter-lingual and cultural aspects of translation process; how to achieve the right equivalence with the help of transformations; there were discussed different classifications of transformations.

In the second chapter “Classification peculiarities of translation transformations” there were proposed various types of transformations according to different linguists;

In the third chapter “Practical usage of lexical transformations in the story of Agatha Christie “The Companion””, there is a detailed description of using lexical transformations in a literary work; how does the author try to transfer the main ideas and what types of lexical transformations were used the most. All these information is shown in the diagram.

In conclusion, there is formulated summary based on analyses and synthesis of research results.

1. Translation process and its social aims

Translation is a dynamic intellectual craft that is developed through experience and maturation. Translation is a profession with elements of both art and science, and with deep historical roots. At its best, translation can be an exquisite form of communication, facilitating a meeting of minds across cultures. At its worst, translation can be nothing more than a slavish substitution of words stripped of meaning, and hindering communication. In the workaday world of most translators, their practice is somewhere between these two extremes. [3, p.244]

The most common notion about translation process goes to the means of inter-language communication. The translation is considered to be a form of linguistic mediation, in which the content of foreign language text (the original) is transferred to another language by creating a language of information and communication equivalent text. There are two basic concepts of translation: linguistic and literary. There are two sets of problems about translation in science of translation studies.

The relatively recent acceptance of the term Translation Studies may perhaps surprise those who had always assumed that such a discipline existed already in view of the widespread use of the term `translation', particularly in the process of foreign language learning. But in fact the systematic study of translation is still in swaddling bands. Precisely because translation is perceived as an intrinsic part of the foreign language teaching process, it has rarely been studied for its own sake. What is generally understood as translation involves the rendering of a source language (SL) text into the target language (TL) so as to ensure that (1) the surface meaning of the two will be approximately similar and (2) the structures of the SL will be preserved as closely as possible but not so closely that the TL structures will be seriously distorted. The instructor can then hope to measure the students' linguistic competence, by means of the TL product. [4, p.251]

The first set of problems is the border of translation related to the question of the source text. The second set of problems is correlative to the first and has more private character - a problem of translation adequacy. These two sets of problems and their solutions define a normative framework of translation. The last consists of statistical framework of norms and variety rules of the text language translation.

Framework rules outline the translation field, i.e., the boundaries of the translated text. Divergent rules define the nature of correlating equivalent units of the original language and the target language. The rules and regulations relate to the conditions of transfer (normal) and the consequent (the rules). In other words, the rules in general are responsible for the regulations, and the last - to select an appropriate equivalent (lexical or grammatical) system of language in all its stylistic, in a broad sense, diversity. Translation rules determine the specificity of translation in terms of the degree of independence of the translator in the translation process.

A large public importance and ever-increasing scale of translation could not attract the attention of researchers. Throughout the long history of translation theory has repeatedly made attempts to understand and explain the activities of translators, to formulate criteria for evaluating the quality of translations, to determine the factors that influence the course and outcome of the process of translation. However, as it is often occurs in other types of human activity, practice is far ahead of translation theory of translation. The lack of theoretical work in the field of translation and of science itself, in which such work could appear, did not mean, obviously, that no one was trying to think about the essence, goals and methods of the translation work. In his work the translator constantly faced with the need to choose between different options, decide what in the translated text is the most important and should always be passed, to give preference to a particular method of overcoming the difficulties encountered. Although in most cases, this choice was made intuitively, sometimes translator tries to understand and explain their preferences. Often, these preferences were formed as the "principles of translation", which the translator expounded in the preface to his work, or defended later, often in response to the criticisms in his address.

Peter Newmark in his book says that only semantic and communicative translation fulfill the two main aims of translation, which are first, accuracy, and second, economy. (A semantic translation is more likely to be economical than a communicative translation, unless, for the latter, the text is poorly written. In general, a semantic translation is written at the author's linguistic level a communicative at the readership's. Semantic translation is used for 'expressive' texts, communicative for 'informative' and 'vocative' texts.

Semantic and communicative translation treats the following items similarly: stock and dead metaphors, normal collocations, technical Terms, slang, colloquialisms, standard notices, and ordinary language. The expressive components of 'expressive' texts (unusual syntactic structures, collocations, metaphors, words peculiarly used, neologisms) are rendered closely, if not literally, but where they appear in informative and vocative texts, they are normalized or toned down except in striking advertisements, cultural components tend to be transferred intact in expressive texts; transferred and explained with culturally neutral terms in informative texts; replaced by cultural equivalents in vocative texts. [5, p.176]

Translation plays a huge role in the cultural development of mankind. Thanks to the translation people of one country are introduced to the pace of life, social life, history, literature and scientific achievements of other countries. Many translations of art works become a part of the national literature. It is reasonably to mention the translation of Vasily Zhukovsky, whom Pushkin called "the genius of translation" that took pride of place in Russian literature. Any translator must study the literature, history and culture of other nations, and especially the people of the country from which he translates the language. He must know the life, customs of the people, i.e. to be familiar with so-called reality. Under the realities are understood features of life, a state system of each country, its traditions, customs and beliefs - all the things that makes it distinctive, national identity. Ignorance of reality leads to errors in translation or interpretation discolor, depriving him of his national colors. It can also lead to serious errors, which creates a false impression about the country and its people.

Here is an example of Leo Wiener - an American translator of Tolstoy's novel "War and Peace" - apparently unfamiliar with Russian traditions and customs of the era described by Tolstoy, admits blunder in the transmission of the next location of the novel:

The countess looked at his nails and spat with a cheerful face, returning to the living room. (When the doctor said that Natasha is better and it starts to get better.)

The countess looked at her nails and spat out, and returned to the drawing-room with a happy face.

Tolstoy had in mind a kind of "omen" (supposedly save us from the "evil eye"), the interpreter conveys the same word "spat (поплевала)" as spat out - «сплюнула». This error creates a wrong picture of the culture, way of life and customs of the Russian aristocracy of that time.

According to S. Bassnett and A. Lefevere translation is in history, always. It is, in many cases, a vital factor within history, and the more we learn about its history, the more obvious this fact becomes. It is no coincidence, therefore, that many histories of translation have been published over the last ten years, just as it is no exaggeration to say that if we want to study cultural history, the history of philosophy, literature, and religion, we shall have to study translations to a much greater extent than we have done in the past.

If you are a researcher in the field of translation and you think that translation does, and should, promote international understanding, you will define meaningful research in your interfield (which you should not equate with the field as a whole) as the activity that provides those working in that interfield with the tools needed to do their work better, to improve the techniques of translating; If, on the other hand, you think that translation should primarily be used as a tool to analyse the processes through which international understanding comes into being, you will define meaningful research in your interfield (which you should also not equate with the field as a whole) in a different way. In the first case you will produce books and articles aimed at improving the training of translators, you will concern yourself more with translating than with translation. In the second case, you will produce the kind of case studies that are brought together in this book, as possible instances of the direction in which this kind of research could develop. There is no reason why both mansions should not be able to coexist in the house of translation.[6, p.342 ]

The translator must possess the general society - philological education, as many translation problems can be solved only on the basis of general philology. Such training can protect against errors interpreter. Paying clearly aware of the nature of the national language, the translator will not use non-native structures and phrases, and thus violate the rules of the Russian language. The translator must know both languages deeply: the one from which the transfer is conducted, and the one for which he translates. This statement is not a truism. In translation practice, unfortunately, still have a place with interlinear translation, and this is very undesirable. Under the deep knowledge of the language is meant knowledge of all aspects of it: phonetics, grammar, lexicology and stylistics, without which there can be little to resolve the difficulties of grammatical, lexical and stylistic order. Hereinafter, all these issues will be discussed in detail. All this leads to the question of the role and importance of the theory of translation and the degrees of theoretical training interpreter.

During the 1980s the main centre of Interpreting Studies in (West) Europe was the Paris School under Danica Seleskovitch, whose “thйorie du sens” was a basic doctrine. Among those “polemically oriented” on this tradition was Daniel Gile, who in a lecture given at the Vienna Translation Studies Congress in 1992 with the title “Opening up in Interpretation Studies” formulated a new manifesto, as it were, with a “raw programme” (in Radnitzky's sense) for the coming years. This involved making information widely available in what had been a “closed circle” of scholars, sensitizing young researchers to the potential value of this information, cooperating in interdisciplinary projects, especially with cognitive scientists, and heeding the “increasing calls for more empirical studies”. [7, p.290]

But perhaps the most exciting development of the decade was the discovery of new fields of interpreting (or in some cases an awakening awareness of their existence). These falls into two main groups: firstly, interpreting activities arising through new technologies, and secondly, what became known collectively as dialogue interpreting (including Community Interpreting).

Simultaneous interpreting had already taken its own “technological turn” in the first half of the 20th century, first with the invention of suitable equipment, and then with the particular constellation created by the Nuremberg war trials of 1947. Both technology and equipment became increasingly sophisticated over the years, and in 1998 Pцchhacker was to conclude that:

…die Simultandolmetscher einem Prozess der Anonymisierung und Technisierung unterliegen, der sie im Lauf von fьnf Jahrzehnten sozusagen von bewunderten Akrobaten zu notwendigen Technokraten der internationalen Kommunikation hat werden lassen.

(Simultaneous interpreters have undergone a process of anonymizing and mechanizing that during the course of five decades has, as it were, turned them from admired acrobats into necessary technocrats of international communication.)

Even more complex are the variants of audiovisual communication made available for conference interpreting via satellite. Christian Heynold (1998) has described the technical and organizational details of such a “brave new world“. Four distinctions are made in a Code for the use of new technologies in conference interpretation, published in 1997 by the International Association for Conference

Interpreters (AIIC), with an Appendix listing set terms with their definitions:

*`Tele - conference': any form of communication between two or several participants in two or several different places and relying on the transmission of one or several audio signals between those places.

* `Video-conference': a teleconference comprising one or several video signals which convey the images of some or all the participants.

* `Multilingual video-conference': a video-conference in two or several languages with interpretation (consecutive or simultaneous).

* `Tele-interpreting': interpretation of a multilingual video-conference by interpreters who have a direct view of neither the speaker nor their audience.

Translation theory does not only articulate the goals and objectives of translation, but also suggests the ways to solve translation problems related to the above aspects of the language. Its mission is to establish available in two languages conformity - vocabulary, grammar and usage, as well as differences, and suggests possible ways to transfer. Translation theory is by no means a collection of recipes on how to translate. Very often in his work the translator can take advantage of the ways in which she tells him. But many cases require a completely customized solution.

As Komissarov V.N. thinks a successful implementation of social function of translation is possible only if the translator is deeply and thoroughly knows the language of the original and reflected in it the history and culture of the people. Much attention is paid to the translation process by many prominent Russian writers and public figures. The social significance of translation emphasized by A.S. Pushkin, who called translators "postal horses of enlightenment", an important place is given to the translation of his works, V.G. Belinsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky, O.N. Dobrolubov, and other revolutionary democrats.

The socialist revolution has opened people access to the achievements of national and universal culture. Well known for calling V.I. Lenin to master the knowledge of the wealth accumulated by mankind, has become the guiding principle of Soviet policy in the field of culture and education. It was necessary to learn the cultural heritage of the past of his and other people, by taking out all the most valuable and progressive. Translation and translators had significant role in this great work in engaging the masses to the treasures of the world culture.

Every educated person has translated something in school, institute, etc. and remembers it (i.e. believes that he can translate and on occasion may again repeat his experience). In this case, he has already had some kind of profession, and the fact is he can also translate, that gives him a sense of superiority in relation to the interpreter, who only knows how to translate.

Such superiority is very rarely justified. Without any special training and experience accumulated over the years, an expert with the non-language higher education will never become a good translator, even with a good knowledge of a foreign language. Another thing is that the knowledge of their profession can help them to translate the texts, if they will be trained as a translator and accumulate enough experience of translation.

Translation can be studied from different perspectives: historical, philosophical, literary, psychological, pedagogical. In this tutorial, designed for learners of English correspondence, translation issues are considered from a linguistic point of view. In the absence of direct human contact with the teacher it is difficult to achieve a deep and thorough understanding of foreign texts in untranslatable way. Under these conditions, only a translation into the native language ensures a proper understanding of a foreign script. However, even a vague understanding of the text sometimes does not exclude the possibility of a correct translation by guessing. Therefore, it is important to know not only how to translate, but also why it is necessary to translate this way and not otherwise. Of course, this does not mean that in the course of translation can be given ready-made recipes. In most cases, the answer to both questions ("how" and "why") are certain patterns derived by comparing the means of English and Russian languages. Actually this is a linguistic approach to translation.

Retsker also adds that on the other hand, the translation process always occurs under strict logical thinking. The translation could be done by someone who knows how to think logically. It is perfectly understood by those who skilled logic, confirming: "we always use implicit definition, for example, while we are reading the books to determine the meaning of an unfamiliar term. We achieve this through an analysis of the context in which the term is used. In the process of this analysis, we set the various semantic links and relationship between the terms, the sense of which is required to determine by other words, the meaning of which we are well known. Such cases are very common in the translation from a foreign language into their native language ».

In reality, any translation, interpretation (oral translation) or written translation, technical and fiction - is a continuous hypotheses and test by the context of the situation and basic knowledge.

When we check the translation, by putting forward the primary hypothesis, firstly we consider how the text corresponds to:

* the general and the particular contexts;

* subject of a written or oral text of the original (speeches, debates, books, articles, etc.);

* our general knowledge about life, about the world, "the compatibility of stuff in it";

* situations;

* style;

* compatibility of the language units. It is often very difficult to say which of these factors has an impact on our choice, and then we start talking about "intuition", "sense of language", "the translation flair" and other less-understood things[8.p.240].

And yet, you can give few examples of which factor affects you more or less certain, to our choices of equivalent.

The lexical meaning of a word or lexical unit may be thought of as the specific value it has in a particular linguistic system and the `personality' it acquires through usage within that system. It is rarely possible to analyse a word, pattern, or structure into distinct components of meaning; the way in which language works is much too complex to allow that. Nevertheless, it is sometimes useful to play down the complexities of language temporarily in order both to appreciate them and to be able to handle them better in the long run.

Let's say, in the general context of speech the word "interpretation" can mean "interpretation (интерпретация)" or "explanation (толкование)", but the specific context "interpretation into official languages" suggests otherwise: "translation (перевод)".

Sometimes it is vice versa - the general context (determining the meaning of the text) in all cases, contrary to the specific. Let's say, you are translating letter into Russian language, written in the first person, using a traditionally masculine gender ("I thought ..." "I was expecting," etc.), and only the signature of some Jenny or Judy (the general context) forces you to change the entire translation.

Subject - is the factor that determines the meaning of all the terminological vocabulary. The meaning ??may differ so much that your "translation flair" will not help you, for instance, "withdrawal" - "отвод войск" (military term.), but the "withdrawal" - " абстинентный синдром " (medical term). The general meaning of the word can prevail along with thematic in the text, for instance, "interest" - "интерес" and "процентная ставка" (finance term). First or second meaning determines the specific context.

In one film the main hero says: "I'll go get the supplies", which was translated into Russian "Пойду принесу что-нибудь поесть ( I'll go get something to eat)." We think it is influenced by the situation. The overall situation can be explained by the detective novel and translation of the phrase "They will throw the whole book on you" is like - "Они на тебя повесят все статьи (They'll hang on you all the criminal legislation)."

Lexical compatibility and style are interrelated. Nowadays, the combination of mismatched different style elements, unfortunately, is quite typical for literary translations. This brings to mind a brilliant parody of Tatyana Tolstoy: "... А как задует сиверко, как распотешится лихое ненастье - резко замедляется общий метаболизм у топтыгина, снижается тонус желудочно-кишечного тракта при сопутствующем нарастании липидной прослойки ".

Of course, it would be unreasonable to require interpreters the analysis of the factors determining the choice of equivalents in the oral (and written) translation. There is simply no time. But in preparation for the translation, it's necessery to articulate for themselves:

* theme of the performances, discussions and negotiations;

* situation;

* speech style that matches to the subject and situation. [9, p.303]

According to Levitskaya and Fiterman, the means used by translator to express the author's ideas correctly must be identified not only in terms of their linguistic nature, but in terms of the functions that they perform. This approach is required for any translation - the scientific prose, the official document, newspaper article, or fiction. In the latter two cases, you need to think about the means of translation used by the author for the emotional impact on the reader.

The content and form reproduction in the translation of the original text should be as accurate as possible. However, the accuracy pattern depends entirely on the pattern of the translated text. What we consider correct and accurate in the translation of scientific prose, might be inaccurate in regard to fiction, where the true accuracy of the translation is often achieved by neglecting from the original and replacements. Just giving clearly aware of the uniqueness and particular characteristics of each type of prose, a translator will be able to correctly solve the problem of the accuracy of the translation. During the translation of scientific and technical literature, it should be remembered that it is characterized by extensive use of terms. The term is precise and as usual monosemantic for the given situation and requires the same precise translation. Consequently, the translator should know the terminology of the given field. The scientific and technical fiction are also characterized as strict and logical system. And as a rule, it lacks the emotional coloring, so it allows for greater textual proximity to the original. In general, translator looks for the equivalents to grammatical constructions, such equivalent constructions for transmission of English phrases with infinitive or gerund constructions.

The following example is a typical example of non-fiction prose:

“The terrestrial globe is a member of the solar system, the third in distance from the sun. The earth revolves about the sun, the mean distance of the earth from the sun being a most important astronomic constant. The earth rotates about an axis terminating at the North and South geographical poles and perpendicular to the equator.”

This passage is characterized by a specific terminology, as well as specific to the language of scientific prose involved structures. The following translation of this passage was given by A.M. Morozov:

“Земной шар входит в солнечную систему и является третьей планетой по удаленности от Солнца. Земля вращается *округ Солнца, причем среднее расстояние Земли от Солнца является весьма важной астрономической константой (постоянной величиной). Земля вращается вокруг оси, концами которой являются северный и южный географические полюсы и которая перпендикулярна экватору.”

In Russian translation we can see regular use of correspondences:

· “is a member of” - is a linking verb construction - translated into a simple predicate “всходит в”;

· “the third in distance” - elliptical construction -is a translation of the whole sentence in which, in addition to the linking verb we have predicative, clearly implying in the English text, «и является третьей планетой по удаленности»;

· “the mean distance of the earth from the sun being a most important astronomic constant” - absolute construction - which is translated by a complex sentence and etc. This analysis shows how widely used lexical and grammatical compliance in the translation of scientific prose [10,p.13-18].

While translating the official documents translator faces with a similar challenge. A terminology and a lack of emotional coloring are characteristics of official documents - as legal, diplomatic, etc. The syntax of official documents, especially legal documents, are often very complex, due to the presence of different kinds of reservations and clarifications. As in science fiction, the official documents' language is widely used with infinitive and gerund constructions. For an accurate translation of the official document translator also needs to know the special terminology and be able to find grammatical, lexical and phraseological correspondence.

Here is an example of the text translation, taken from the UN Charter;

"The Security Council shall, where appropriate, utilize such regional arrangements or agencies for enforcement action under its authority," (Article 53)

“Совет Безопасности использует, где это уместно, такие региональные соглашения или органы для принудительных действий под его руководством

The translation of the given passage is almost word for word, and at the same time, there are no violations of Russian language. The only difference is the transmission of the future tense in English text to the present tense in Russian. Future tense with the modal words of the English language (the use of which is typically to the style of official documents) corresponds to the present indicative mood in Russian: “shall ... utilize” is translated into «использует» ("uses").

This translation is accurate because it correctly transferred the content and form through the use of linguistic correspondences in both languages. Russian language of the Charter is a little heavy, that is typical style of official documents as well in Russian, as in English language.

One of the first attempts to create a full-fledged theory of translation 'was made in the works of Russian scientists A.V. Fedorov and Y.I. Retsker. They have developed a linguistic theory of translation, known as the theory of regular correspondences. There was not a full awareness of translation as an interdisciplinary phenomenon, and that's why the researchers' attention rightly focused on its linguistic aspect.

The value of this theory is difficult to overestimate. Its authors were pioneers, among the first of those who gave a clear definition of translation processes. They hit upon two key notions in translation - translation equivalents and translation transformation.

The most important achievement they have created in the theory is to determine the mechanisms of translation, based on the relationship between logical concepts. This transformations are generalization and concretization along with metonymy and antonymic kinds of translation.

The theory of regular correspondences formed the basis of a large number of textbooks and teaching aids, which brought up a generation of translators.

The theory of regular correspondences was the beginning of a huge job, and of course, it had its drawbacks. The main one among them was the lack of a clear distinction between language, as a set of formal means and speech, understood as the use of formal language tools for the purpose of communication. For the equivalence - as the basis comparison of two languages -there were used language units, words and grammatical constructions. This is evidenced by the section titles in the schoolbooks, entitled "Translation of adjectives," "Translation of articles" etc. As a matter of principle, each language has its unique system of formal relations, so the choice of formal units as a translation of equivalence is wrong, considers Breus Y.V. In the transformational model of translation as a basis for comparison of two languages there is underlying nuclear structure, in a semantic model - they are semantic components, and in situational model - it's objective situation.

The big amount of the books prevent us to stop in more detail in each of these models. A detailed description and references can be found in A.D. Schweitzer's work "Translation and Linguistics." Here we would like to point out that they all contributed a better understanding of translation process and enrich the theory of translation, giving it more and more explanatory power.

A common disadvantage of the above models that they were described only from one side of linguistic communication, specifically, the transmission of information about the world. The use of data, not only linguistic, but also other sciences, in particular the theory of communication and cultural studies, let us to overcome this deficiency and repeatedly extended the understanding of translation mechanisms. [11, p.296]

However, Latyshev clarifies that to identify the public purpose of translation (as a professional activity) is that neither abstract nor text retelling, refereed translation, etc. do not pretend to being a full replacement for the original text. Instead, they obviously must somehow differ from it. And, the only translation is considered by society as the same, just in a different language, a copy of the source text (in another language). Accordingly, the communication with the help of translation is considered as the same communication, and as usual monolingual - only with the participation of the interpreter. In a society there is an opinion that bilingual communication with a good interpreter in its capabilities and performance does not differ significantly from the "natural" single-language communication. This understanding of the translation has become a fact of social consciousness, and the practice of communication with the translation does not refute this view.

Now let's see the main objectives of the translation theory according to Andrew Parshin. They are as follows:

1. to uncover and describe the general linguistic basis of translation, i.e. specify which particular language systems and patterns of languages: ??lie in the basis of the translation process; make this process possible and determine its nature and boundaries;

2. to specify the translation as an object of linguistic studies, indicate its difference from other kinds of linguistic mediation;

3. to develop the basis of translation types classification;

4. to discover the essence of translation equivalence as the basis of communicative equivalence of the original text and the translation;

5. to develop common principles and characteristics of building private and special theories of translation for different language combinations;

6. to develop general principles of scientific description of the translation process as an interpreter's actions to transform the original text into the target text;

7. to reveal the impact on the translation process the pragmatic and sociolinguistic factors;

8. to define the concept of "rules of translation", and to develop principles for assessing the quality of the translation.

In addition to the theoretical sections, linguistics of translation includes the development of a number of practical issues related to the methods of teaching translation, compilation and use of various handbooks, dictionaries, assessment methodology and editing of translations, as well as various practical issues, the solution of which contributes to the successful implementation of its functions as an interpreter.

First of all, linguistic theory of translation is descriptive theoretical discipline dealing with the identification and description of the translation process objective laws, which are based on features, structure and rules of languages ??involved in the process. In other words, translation theory does not describe what should be but what is the real nature of the studying phenomenon. However, it is possible to formulate some regulatory guidelines, principles and rules, methods and techniques of translation on the basis of linguistic translation mechanism description. And translator can solve the challenges more successfully by following them. In all cases, the scientific analysis of observable facts preceded the regulatory requirements. Regulatory guidelines, produced on the basis of linguistic and translation studies may be used in the practice of translation, and in preparation of future translators. The ability of using such recommendations, modifying them according to the nature of the source text, the conditions and objectives of the act of translation is an important part of the translation skills. Knowledge of regulatory requirements does not imply mindless, mechanical performance of these requirements by translator. In any case, the translation is a creative intellectual activity, and the implementation requires a complex of knowledge and skills, the ability to make the right choice, taking into consideration totality of linguistic and extra-linguistic factors from the interpreter. Consideration of these factors is mostly intuitive, as a result of the creative act. And individual translators have different ability degrees of how successfully execute the translation process. The highest degree of such skills is called the “art of translation”. [12, p.256]

1.1 Equivalence problems in translation

Komissarov V.N. believes that one of the main tasks of the translator is to transfer of the content of the original text as maximize as it possible, and as a rule, the actual commonality of content and translation is significant. It is necessary to distinguish the potentially achievable equivalence, which is defined as the maximum content commonality of the two different language texts, allowed by differences of languages, which created these texts; and translation equivalence -is a real semantic proximity of original and translated texts, achievable by translator in the translation process. The limit of translation equivalence is maximally possible (linguistic) degree of preservation of the original content in translation, but in every single translation semantic proximity to the original is approached to the maximum by different degrees and different ways.

As Barhudarov determines the “translation process” as the transformation of a text in one language into text in another language. Then, in translation, there are always two texts (by A.I. Smirnitskaya, "speech composition (речевыe произведения)” one of them is the original and created independent from the second, and the second is created on the basis of the first through certain operations - interlingua transformations. The first is called the original text (or simply "original)", the second - is translated text (or simply "translation"). The language in which uttered or written text of the original, is called as the source language (abbreviated “SL”). Language, in which the translation (English texts), is called the target language (abbreviated “TL”).

The SL and TL differences in the systems and peculiarities of the texts creation in each of these languages in various degrees can limit the ability of maintaining a full original content translation. Therefore, translation equivalence may be based on maintaining (and thus loss) of different meaning elements contained in the original. Different levels (types) of equivalence could be distinguished by the part of content which is transmitted in translation to provide its equivalence. At any level of equivalence translation can provide cross-language communication.

In general, the process with the equivalence of the original text is the same as with the medical certificates. Doctors write: "Practically healthy", i.e. the patient may work, although in theory only God knows what kind of ailment does he have. We have the same situation with the translation equivalence. A professional translator will always achieve practical information equivalence in translation of the original, but in theory, this equivalence is quite different. You may say in advance that any translation will never be absolutely identical to the canonical text of the original. The equivalence of the original translation is always a relative concept. And the level of relativity might be quite different. The degree of convergence with the original depends on many factors: the skill of the interpreter, the characteristics of the compared languages ??and cultures, the era of creation and translation, the mode of transfer, the nature of translated texts, etc. We are interested in the last of these factors. But first, we shall understand the terms. In theory and practice of translation there are similar concepts such as equivalence, adequacy and identity. Broadly, the equivalence is understood as something tantamount to anything, adequacy -is understood as something quite equal, and identity - as something possessing an exact match, the similarity with anything. Apparently, this is the smallest semantic categorization of the word - "equivalence" and made it preferred in modern translation study. Although, of course, the concept of adequacy, identity, the usefulness and even similarity are in the same semantic field as the term "equivalence" and sometimes overlap. In our view, the equivalence in translation theory should be understood as a preservation of relative equality in content, logical, semantic, stylistic and functional - communication of information contained in the original and in translation. It should be emphasized that the equivalence of the original and translation - is primarily a common understanding of the information contained in the text, including the one that affects not only the mind but also the feelings of the recipient. And it is not only explicitly expressed in the text, but also implicitly referred to the subtext. The equivalence of the translation depends on the situation and the background of the original text and its reproduction in the target language. This interpretation of equivalence reflects the completeness and multi-level concepts related to semantic, structural, functional, communicative, pragmatic, genre and so on characteristics. Moreover, all of the parameters in the definition should remain in translation, but the degree of their implementation will vary depending on the text, the method and conditions of transferring.

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