Importance of lexical transformations in translation realities

The lexical mismatch between the two languages has forced us to add a piece of information that makes the TL different from the SL. If the point is central to the rest of the piece being translated, it may be necessary to add words to make the meaning absolutely unambiguous[40;p.55].

1.

2.

3.

4.

In all (1),(2),(3),(4) examples it is surely seen that the translator needed to add extra words to emphasize the feeling and the whole situation. Sometimes it is necessary to prettify the situation and environment, to show how other people treat each other.

5.

Here were used a word combination to make a full description of a person.

3.8 Method of Omission

Because of the characters of the two languages omission of specific words is more common going from English to Russian, especially with grammatical forms such as articles and possessives, which are used less in Russian.

Both languages (English and Russian) have their own “filler” words which add nothing to the content of the message and can (and should) be omitted in translation. English sometimes pairs sets of words which are essentially synonyms and are thus redundant. (These ate the so-called “doublets”, such as bald and courageous, strangers and foreigners, dirt and grime, etc.). Some of these represent a fossilized characteristic dating from the time when English was subjected to two cultural tendencies (Anglo and Saxon) when words with roots from both cultures were frequently used. English also sometimes does this with pairs of Latin and Anglo-Saxon words. A Russian translation could efficiently reduce to one word without losing the meaning.

1.

2.

Here it was reduced the repetitions and given the final idea.

3.

In this example some words as “fillers” in the original were omitted, since in target language translation there is no need to clarify how long is it happening.

3.9 Method of Transcription and transliteration

Terms and realities are mostly called non-equivalent lexical units. Terms - are the names of scientific, technical and other specialized notions. Non-equivalent terms come up when scientific discoveries, technological advances, technological innovations occur and appear first in one country, and then become the property of other countries. Therefore, the corresponding enrichment of the conceptual apparatus in a given area is uneven: on what stage one language is ahead of the other language. Then these differences are smoothed out. In some cases, the absence of the term in the TL is inexplicable, accident. The reasons of having non-equivalent realities are quite obvious.

We have the following modes of non-equivalent lexicon transmission:

1) Transliteration means transferring the letters or characters (of a word) from one alphabet to another. Translation, on the other hand, means substituting for a word (or series of words) in one language, a second word (or series of words) from another language which most closely approximates the meaning of the first word (or series of words). Using technical language, we can say that "translation" involves mapping semantic content from one language to another, while "transliteration" simply means mapping characters from one writing system to another. An example might help to clarify the distinction. When Plato laid out his theory of Forms, he described the Forms using the Greek words eidos and idea. In translating Plato, one can simply transliterate these terms by rendering them with the English term "idea," or translate them by an English word -- such as "form" -- which uses different characters yet closely approximates the original meaning[41;p.149].

Words performed by this method, then firmly established in the target language.

When we write the names of the great figures of the past the tradition has a great importance. Faulty transmission persists even with the names, for example, instead of Уолтер Скотт (Walter Scott) we say Вальтер Скотт, Айседора Дункан instead of correct form Изадора (Isadora Duncan). However, the writing of well-known figures of that and recent time has been breaking some tradition: the transition from a transliteration to transcription.

Transcription in the linguistic sense is the systematic representation of language in written form. The source can either be utterances (speech) or preexisting text in another writing system, although some linguists consider only the former to be transcription[42;p.40].

Transcription should not be confused with translation, which means representing the meaning of a source language text in a target language (e.g. translating the meaning of an English text into Spanish), or with transliteration which means representing a text from one script in another (e.g. transliterating a Cyrillic text into the Latin script).

In the academic discipline of linguistics, transcription is an essential part of the methodologies of (among others) phonetics, conversation analysis, dialectology and sociolinguistics. It also plays an important role for several subfields of speech technology. Common examples for transcriptions outside academia are the proceedings of a court hearing such as a criminal trial (by a court reporter) or a physician's recorded voice notes (medical transcription).

1. St Mary Mead - Сент - Мэри - Мид

2. Scotland Yard - Скотланд - Ярд

3. The Peak of Tenerife - Пик Тенериф

4. Las - Palmas - Лас - Пальмас

5. Grand Canary - Гран - Канари

6. Holland Lloyd - Холланд Ллойд

7. Little Paddocks - Литтл Паддокс

8. Caughton Weir - Уохтон Уир

9. Las Nieves - Лас - Нивес

3.10 Use of the Calques

The essence of this method lies in the fact that the constituent parts (morphemes) of non-equivalent words or phrases are replaced by their literal correspondences in the target language.

The calque is a special form of borrowing by a literal translation. This word (or phraseological unit) created from the material of the given language under the influence of morphological structure of foreign word (or phraseological units of a foreign language). For example, the term “collective farm” is a calque of the Russian word "колхоз", but in full and not abbreviated form. The calque may be complete when all the elements of the original are reproduced in the appropriate form (a mission of good will « миссия доброй воли », good-neighbourly relations « добрососедские отношения," etc.), or partial, when there is some discrepancy in form (war effort « военные усилия" - a mismatch in number)[43;p.128].

The calque (tracing) both full and partial, is often the translation of terms, terminological expressions and phraseology of combinations, including proverbs and sayings. For example, the air-lift ”воздушный мост” (incomplete tracing); on the brink of war “ на грани войны” (full tracing); to save the face “спасти лицо” (full tracing); better late than never “лучше поздно, чем никогда”(full tracing paper).

However, the creation of new words by tracing can not be unlimited. Social practice works sort of corrector, it takes the calque or rejects it. Adopted calque is fixed in language, and contains it as word or phraseological unit. But often calque made just "in case", for example, the neologism “camelry”, already established in the English language, the word is sometimes translated «верблюдерия» (modeled on the "cavalry"), but the word is not included in Russian language and was left as linguistic joke[44;p.44].

The calque is one of the ways to enrich the vocabulary as it is a "snapshot" of a foreign word by means of another language. Thus calque is not a violation of the rules of language, which is a literalism.

1. Daguerreotype - дагеротип

2. Englishman - англичанин

The real percentage of the most used lexical transformations is easily seen from the table 14

Table 14

“Table 14” says that interpreter prefers using concretization, generalization and modulation the most. Predominance of concretization, generalization and modulation in the text corresponds to the style of the literary work. In fiction stories during the transition it is important to have the phone-knowledge about specific country. The ignorance leads to inadequate translation and misunderstanding. Interpreter always tries to understand the author's idea and gives the translation which might correspond in translated language. That is, in this passage these lexical transformations are important not for naming the object or phenomenon, but for the development of literary expressions of the fiction. They are often used to expand or vice verse to weaken the meaning of the words and word combinations.

During this analysis it turned out that in translation from English into Russian language in this story were used 12%-Generalization, 25%-Concretization, 15%-Addition, 6%-Omission, 20%-Modulation, 8%-Antonymic translation, 8%-Compensation, 5%-Transcription and Transliteration and 1%-Calque. Also, we can see quite a lot of addition in the translation. It says, sometimes we need some extra explanation like adding a word or word combination in translation into Russian. It is because of specific peculiarities of two countries (Russian and England). Most of the transliteration and transcription in the story are of a person or place names[45;p.100].

So according to this analysis it is good to advise this appropriate classification of lexical transformations. They are as follows:

1. Concretization

2. Generalization

3. Transliteration/Transcription

4. The calque

5. Addition

6. Omission

7. Modulation

8. Compensation

9. Antonymic translation

In the process of translation transformations often are mixed. Typically, a different sort of transformation carried out at the same time, which is combined with each other - is accompanied by rearrangement of the replacement, the conversion is accompanied by the lexical grammar. In the previous example, we see a combination of grammatical transformations (i.e. the union of sentences) and lexical (omission). It is such a complex and comprehensive nature of translational transformations and makes the translation of such a complex and difficult matter.

Conclusion

Translation is a means of cross-lingual communication. The translator makes possible an exchange of information between the users of different languages by producing in the target language (TL or the translating language) a text which has an identical communicative value with the source (or original) text (ST). This target text (TT, that is the translation) is not fully identical with ST as to its form or content due to the limitations imposed by the formal and semantic differences between the source language (SL) and TL.

The functional status of a translation is supported by its structural and semantic similarity with the original. The aim is maximum parallelism of structure which would make it possible to relate each segment of the translation to the respective part of the original. It is presumed that any breach of parallelism is not arbitrary but dictated by the need for precision in conveying the meaning of the original. The translator is allowed to resort to a description or interpretation, only in case “direct translation” is impossible. Similarity in structure is preserved in respect to the smallest segments of the text.

An important part of the general theory of translation is the theory of equivalence aimed at studying semantic relationships between ST and TT. It has been noted that there is a presumption of semantic identity between the translation and its source text[46;p.64].

When we consider not just separate words but a phrase or number of phrases in a text, the problem becomes more complicated. The communicative effect of a speech unit does not depend on the meaning of its components alone, but involves considerations of the situational context and the previous experience. Here again, a great role is played by differences in the historical and cultural backgrounds of different language communities, in their customs and living conditions. It stands to reason that the natives of a tropical island can hardly be impressed by the statement that something is “as white as snow”. The reported “cooling” in the relations between two friends may be understood as a welcome development by the people who live in a very hot climate. And that is called as “realities” in language.

It seems imperative, therefore, that translation should involve a kind of pragmatic adaptation to provide for the preservation of the original communicative effect. This adaptation must ensure that the text of translation conveys the same attitude to the reported facts as does the original text. It goes without saying that in an adequate translation the comical should not be replaced by the tragical or a praise turned into a censure.

Summing up the theoretical part of this work, we came to the following conclusion: the main purpose of the transfer is to achieve adequacy. The main task of the translator in achieving adequacy is skillfully to make necessary translation transformations in order to transfer the information as accurate as possible contained in the original text by saving relevant rules of the translated language.

On the basis of the community of the above classifications translation transformations, we found that the transformation can be divided into grammatical, stylistic and lexical.

In order to reach the adequacy in translation it was discussed different classifications of lexical transformations. And how do they influence in translation realities.

Based on the last analysis, it was made ??the following conclusion about the meaning of concept such as “using lexical transformations”:

1) During the translation interpreter often used generalization, concretization and modulation to achieve the most adequate translation.

2) we found out that there is a wide range of word applications (in fiction, phraseology, science, media, various sectors); this means a word may have various translation according to the context; it is always important to know the culture of two countries, pace of life and traditions to get the most accurate translation.

3) Interpreter also used quit a lot of omissions to find the right equivalence of translation. When there is concise information translator used addition to expand the idea and to make it clearer.

4) Also in this story antonymic translation has been used which is quite difficult to find and understand. Because interpreter didn't use it in its clear form, but parallel with other forms of transformation as addition or omission. So sometimes we can find some complex transformations.

To conclude all that has been said above, it should be noted the discrepancy in the structure of the two languages provide challenges to the interpreter. These difficulties vary in a wide range from individual items to the whole non-translatable source text. To solve such problems we may achieve with ability to produce qualitative translation of lexical transformations.

Translation Studies, as stated in the Introduction, is still a young discipline and lexical transformations in translation is still has a long way to go. There is a need for more general theoretical discussion as to the nature of lexical transformations and a need for an accessible terminology with which to engage in such discussion.

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