Importance of lexical transformations in translation realities

* Syntactic - the change of syntactic functions of words and phrases;

* Stylistic - the modification of stylistic coloring in one section of the text;

* Semantic - the alteration not only of the expression form of the content but also the content itself, namely, those signs by which the situation is described;

* Mixed - lexical-semantic and syntactic and morphological.

In the classification of L.S. Barkhudarov TT differ by their formal characteristics: transposition, additions, substitutions, omissions. Herewith, L.S. Barhudarov emphasizes that such division is largely approximate and conditional.

Transpositions are repositioning (the order) the language elements in the translated text to the text of the original.

Substitutions are the changes of words, parts of speech, the sentence, the types of syntactic and lexical substitution (concretization, generalization, antonymic translation, compensation) the translation.

Additions involve the use of additional words in translation without correspondences in the original.

Omission is a prolapsed of certain words in translation.

L.S. Barkhudarov, L.K. Latyshev, T.R. Levitsky, A. Fiterman, V.N. Komissarov, Y.I. Retsker divided TT into lexical, grammatical and stylistic.

Transformations can be combined with each other, altering into complex transformations. For instance, Z.D. Lvovskaya believes that among the different types of transformations there is no blank wall, the same transformations sometimes can be controversial, they can be attributed to the different types. [32, p.34]

There is more accurate classification of translation transformation highlighted by different linguists.

Table 2. Classification by Fiterman A.M. and Levitskaya T.R.

Types of translation transformations
Grammatical Transformations	Stylistic Transformations	Lexical Transformations

Table 3. Classification by Schweitzer A. D

Types of translation transformations
1.Transformations at the component level of semantic valence	2. Transformation on a pragmatic level	3. Transformations operations on the referential level	4. Transformations at the level of stylistic - compression and expansion

Table 4. Classification by Retsger Y.I.

Translation Transformations
1.Grammatical transformations in the form of replacement of parts of speech and sentences	2.Lexical transformations are concretization, generalization, differentiation of the meaning, antonymic translation, compensation for losses arising from the translation process, as well as in the semantic development and whole transformation

Table 5. Classification by Minhiard- Beloruchev R.K.

Translation Transformations
Lexical	Grammatical	Semantic

Table 6. The concept by Komissarov V.N.

Translation Transformations
Lexical	Grammatical	Complex

Barhudarov L.S. in his book clarifies that in order to the convenience of description, all kinds of conversions and transformations implemented in the translation process can be reduced to four basic types, to be more exact: [8, p. 46]

Table 7

From the beginning, it should be emphasized that such division is mostly approximate and conditional. Firstly, in many cases, this or that kind of transformation can equally be treated as one and the other kind of elementary transformation. For instance, in a typical case of translation from English into Russian a substitution (one kind of syntactic communication is replaced by another) of conjunction combination in a sentence with the non conjunction sentence could be characterized as omission (because there is omission of conjunctions existing in the source text). Secondly, and most importantly, these four types of elementary transformations of translation "in the raw" are rarely found in practice. They are usually combined with each other altering into the "complex" transformations as it will be seen from the following examples. With these reservations, we proceed to the consideration of allocated four types of transformations carried out during the translation process.

Shevnin A.B. and Serov N., in their classification release two main types of translation transformations: [23, p.208]

* lexical transformations

* grammatical transformation

But Shetinkin V.E. gives his own classification to the translation transformations:

* lexical

* stylistic

* grammar

However Latyshev L.K. identifies six types of translation transformations:

* lexical transformations

* stylistic transformation

* morphological transformation

* syntactic transformation

* transformation of the mixed type.

Let's examine them closely.

1. Lexical transformations are deviations from the direct vocabulary correspondences;

“Die Mutter muЯte ihn immer wieder ermahnen, doch vernьnftiger zu essen, damit er auch GenuЯ davon habe.” (W. Bredel. Die Sцhne)

“Мать всегда напоминает ему, что надо есть медленней, ведь этак он и вкуса еды не почувствует.” (В. Бредель. Сыновья. Пер. И. Горкиной и Р. Розенталь)

Here lexical transformations are contextual-synonymous substitution of lexis.

2. The stylistic transformation, the essence of which is to change the stylistic coloring of the transferring units:

“Auf dem Versuchsgelдnde wurde das neue Fahrzeug auf Herz und Nieren geprьft.”

“В ходе испытаний на полигоне новый автомобиль подвергся самой тщательной проверке”

Instead of expressive colorful spoken idiomatic expressions “auf Herz und Nieren prьfen” they used more neutral expressive option in translation.

3. Morphological transformation is a substitution of one part of speech or other multiple parts of speech:

“Решения о повышении материальной заинтересованности... “

"Beschlьsse zur stдrkeren materiellen Interessiertheit ...”

Es wurde die beiderseitige Ьberzeugung zum Ausdruck gebracht ...

“Обе стороны выразили уверенность…”

In the first case, the noun «повышение» (increase) transferred by the adjective «stдrker» (more), in the second - a relative adjective «beiderseitig» (both sides) was transferred by a combination of «стороны» (sides) and noun «обе» (both).

Since the concept of parts of speech refers to the morphology, we refer to the type of morphological transformation.

4. Syntactic transformation, the essence is in modification the syntactic functions of words and word combinations:

“Vor kurzem erhielt die Stadt ein neues Stadion.”

“Недавно в городе был открыт новый стадион.”

“Es wurde die beiderseitige Ьberzeugung zum Ausdruck gebracht ...”

“Обе стороны выразили уверенность...”

“Im ganzen1 Haus ist Krach.”(Das Tagebuch der Anne Frank)

“Все в доме перессорились.” (Дневник Анны Франк. Пер Р. Райт-Ковалевой)

“Hoheitsvoll sah der Wirt den Glasermeister an.” (L. Frank. Die Rдuberbande)

“Хозяин окинул его величественным взглядом.” (Л. Франк. Шайка разбойников. Пер. И. Каринцевой)

In the first example, the subject of the original sentence “Stadt” becomes an adverbial modifier of place - in the city, and the object becomes the subject. In the second and third examples, the words in the initial phrases operating the function of attribute are translated into words of subject function: “beiderseitig” (обе стороны-both sides), “ganz” (все-all). In the fourth sentence translation the adverb of manner “hoheitsvoll” turned into attribute “величественный-majestic”. The syntactic functions alteration in translation process is accompanied by a reorganization of syntax construction: the replacement of the active structure to the passive and vice versa (the first and second examples), the replacement of predicative noun by the verb construction (third example). Transformation of one type to another subordinate clause is also a syntactic transformation:

“Для того чтобы поступить в университет, необходимо успешно сдать экзамены” (In order to go to university, you must successfully pass the exams.)

“Will man die Universitдt beziehen, muЯ man die Aufnahmeprьfungen erfolgreich ablegen.”

“На полигоне, где испытывалась машина, присутствовал главный конструктор.” (At the landfill, where the tested machine, present chief designer.”

“Als das Fahrzeug getestet wurde, war der Chefkonstrukteur auf dem Versuchsgelдnde anwesend.”

“Он часто думал об этом человеке, которого никогда не видел.

(He often thought about this man, who was never seen again.)

“Er dachte oft an diesen Mann, obwohl er ihn nie gesehen hat.”

In the first case, the subordinate clause of aim transformed into a conditional clause in the second a subordinate clause of place is a subordinate clause of time. In the last example, attributive clause transformed into a concessive clause offer. As a part of the syntactic transformation there is a sentences transformation into the phrases:

“Heute zum ersten Male leuchtete das Zifferblatt, sogar schon am Tage, denn die Sonne war noch nicht unter.” {L. Frank. Die Rдuberbande)

“Нынче циферблат светился в первый раз. Причем зажгли его днем, еще до захода солнца.” (Л. Франк. Шайка разбойников)

To the syntax transformation we should also include the transposition of the parts of a complex sentence, and alteration of the syntactic context type:

“Niemand nahm ihn mehr, wenn er einmal arbeitslos wurde. (E. M. Remarque. Drei Kameraden)

“Окажись он безработным, никто не дал бы ему нового места. (Э. М. Ремарк. Три товарища. Пер. И. Шрайбера и Л. Яковенко). (If he had been unemployed, no one would give him a new place. (EM Remarque. Three Comrades. Pere. J. Schreiber and A. Yakovenko)[24;p.202].

5. Semantic transformations are transformations that go beyond the purely linguistic modifications. When we talk about the semantic transformations, it is no longer about contextually-synonymous substitutions, which are, in fact, all of the above transformations. By implementing semantic transformations, we replace the parts used to describe the situation and sort of changing the real view on it. Let's consider some examples:

1. Vor dem Hause lag auЯerdem ein alter Friedhof, der schon seit langem stillgelegt war. (E. M. Remarque. Drei Kameraden)

“К тому же перед нашим домом находилось старое кладбище, на котором уже давно никого не хоронили.” (Э. М. Ремарк. Три товарища) (Also in front of our house was an old cemetery, which has long been no funeral. (EM Remarque. Three Comrades)

2. Es ist wieder eine Menge passiert. (Das Tagebuch de; Anne Frank)

“У нас опять куча новостей. (Дневник Анны Франк)” (We have again a lot of news. (The Diary of Anne Frank)

3. Miep hat eine Woche frei ... (Das Tagebuch der Anne Frank) -

“Мип на неделю взяла отпуск. (Дневник Анны Франк”) (Miep took a vacation for a week. (The Diary of Anne Frank)

4. Vor dem Eingang stand eine Laterne. (E. M. Remarque. Drei Kдmeraden)

* “Подъезд был освещен фонарем. (Э. М. Ремарк. Три товарища)” ( The porch was lit by a lantern. (EM Remarque. Three Comrades)

In all the given above examples, there was a replacement of detailed features in translation process which describe the real situation remaining it unchanged (invariant). These replacaments have respectively the following characters:

1. undertaken measure “stillgelegt” - its consequences that no one was buried;

2. event “eine Menge passiert” -lots of news are their results;

3. result “hat eine Woche frei” - previous action “took a vacation for a week”;

4. presence of a “tool” “stand eine Laterne” - the result of using the "tool" illuminating by a lantern.

We can see that semantic transformations are implemented by a variety of cause-and-effect relationships that exist between elements of the described situations. Perhaps that is why in the literature on the theory of translation transformations of this type are sometimes referred to as the semantic development.

6. Mixed transformations. As it was seen from the above examples, a particular type of transformation in its pure form does not occur very often. Highlighting the benefit of the analysis of the transformation of "a different type, we are often distracted from the translation transformation of another plan. This, however, does not give us the right to forget that real transformations in the translation process are mostly of mixed type. (lexical, syntactic, morphological, syntactic, etc.) Not accidentally the same source phrase translation and variants thereof have appeared as examples of various types of transformations.

In the list of traditionally selected translation methods we can find so-called "holistic” transformation. Under this method it usually means a number of diverse transformations that make the structure of the translated text segment so unlike to the structure of the source text segment. It is difficult to find smaller (than these segments) units matching or comparable aspects in both segments (in terms of our classification), for example:

“Die Winterpause fьr Motorrad ist eine vernьnftige Fahrerentscheidung.”

“Самым правильным будет вообще отказаться от езды на мотоцикле в зимнее время.”(It would be better to refuse riding a motorcycle in the winter.)

In this translation there were used almost all types of transformations that listed above. It goes without saying the basis that we use for the classification of translation transformation is not unique[25;p.231].

For a complete and thorough investigation we decided to take the classification of translation given by Fiterman A.M. and Levitskaya T.R. Since many other linguists as the L.S. Barkhudarov, L.K. Latyshev, V.N.Komissarov, Y.I.Retsker subdivided translation transformation on the same:

Table 8

2.1 Grammatical Transformations

A sentence in any language is perceived in the unity of its lexical content and grammatical form. Grammatical form never thought apart from its verbal, material content. And yet, without grammatical processing it is impossible to understand foreign language phrases. Just a foreign language speaker perfectly perceives foreign-language text, without thinking about the function and meaning of grammatical forms and syntactic constructions, as it does when he reads the text in the native language. In the process of learning a foreign language the mastering grammar is important to understand the text. Unfamiliar words can be found in the dictionary. Ignorance of the specifics of English constructions usually disturbs the proper understanding of the sentences' meaning. However, for translation it would be important to have a comparative grammar of English and Russian languages, which would help to choose the most appropriate form of grammar and syntax for the correct and accurate reproduction of the appropriate form and structure of English.[26;p.217]

The difficulty of grammatical correspondence in the process of translation is that such correspondences would remain as dead letter, if we don't take into account the dependence of the grammatical form of its lexical content.

The great danger for translator is that in English and Russian languages we ??have a lot of similar grammatical forms and syntactic structures not identical in their functions and meanings in both languages. Identical names of these forms and structures borrowed in Russian and in English from Latin, should not mislead. An English infinitive and participle by their function and meaning differ from Russian correspondence forms. Needless to say about the lack of perfect infinitive or the English present participle in Russian language, which in Russian may correspond to a participle, the gerund. There are English grammars who does not take into account the fundamental differences in the use of similar forms, for example, the same participle: He stayed in London for two months leaving in October. In such cases, neither the participle, nor gerund in the Russian language is not used. Equal in meaning actions can be transferred by congeneric sentences, and if we emphasize the sequence of actions; the gerund will be expressed the part which is the verb of personal form as in the original English text: “Он прожил в Лондоне два месяца и уехал в октябре” or “Прожив в Лондоне два месяца, он уехал в октябре.” Such transformation in a sentence in the translation process is called grammatical transformations.

The term "grammatical transformation" as the transformation of the English sentence in the translation process, of course, must be understood conditionally. English sentence remains the same, but in the interpreter's mind there is a definite transformation operation of the "photos" of English constructions where the English words are replaced by Russian. In fact there is a word for word translation transformation, which is an inevitable step in the beginner translator.Only experience can prompt the rapid switching to the natural structure of Russian language from English sentences typical of newspaper information, such as the following: “A bus and tram crash killed four. В результате столкновения автобуса с трамваем погибло четверо пассажиров.

All varieties of grammatical transformations in translation can be summarized in the following main categories:

Table 9

Since the addition and omission of words in translation are more often practiced by lexical reasons, these operations will be discussed in the chapter of lexical transformations[27;p.704].

It is well known that languages differ in their grammatical structure. Apart from having different grammatical categories they differ in the use of those categories that seem to be similar. This naturally results in the necessity to introduce some grammatical changes in the translated version of any text. These changes depend on the character of correlation between the grammatical norms of SL and TL.

1. Transpositions. There may appear a necessity to rearrange elements of different levels: words, phrases, clauses or even sentences. Transposition of words and phrases may be caused by various reasons: differences in the accepted word order in SL and TL, presence or absence of emphasis, differences in the means of communicative syntax.

Speaking of word order, it would be more accurate to say that to change word order really means to rearrange not so much words but parts of the sentence. When translating from English into Russian one has to change word-order because normally it is fixed in English while in Russian it is relatively free: "George has bought some new things for this trip ..." (Jerome K.Jerome) - "К этой поездке Джордж купил кое-какие новые вещи..." or "Джордж купил к этой поездке кое-какие новые вещи ..." or "Джордж купил кое-какие новые вещи к этой поездке", which depends (in this particular case) on the rhythm of the whole utterance. But such freedom of choice is rather rare, since the word order of the Russian sentence is not as arbitrary as it seems to be. The position of a word in the sentence is often predetermined by its communicative function. In the English sentence "... I realized that a man was behind each one of the books" (R.Bradbury) the rhythmic function of the noun "man" is indicated by the indefinite article. In order to make it the rhyme of the Russian sentence it is necessary to put it in the final position: "... я понял, что за каждой из этих книг стоит человек". Another example: "A certain man was seen to reel into Mr. Twain's hotel last night..." - "Вчера вечером видели, как в отель, где проживает мистер Марк Твен, ввалился некий человек..."

Transposition of clauses is also used to preserve the semantic and communicative balance of the whole sentence: "The sun had got more powerful by the time we had finished breakfast…" (Jerome K. Jerome) - "К тому времени, как мы позавтракали, солнце припекало уже вовсю ..." If the Russian sentence began with the principal clause ("Солнце припекало ...") the logical meaning would be different - the sentence would state the time by which the sun got more powerful, while the real meaning of the sentence is to show what was the state of things by the time they finished their breakfast and had to decide upon further course of action.

Transposition of sentences does not become necessary very often. However, it helps sometimes to render the meaning which is expressed by the Past Perfect form in the English text, so as to indicate the succession of actions or events: "The village of St. Petersburg still mourned. The lost children had not been found" (Mark Twain) - "Пропавших детей так и не нашли. Городок Санкт-Петербург оплакивал их".

2. Replacements are also made at different levels.

A. To conform to the demands of the grammatical system of TL it may become necessary to change the grammatical form of a word: "fifteen thousand dollars" - "пятнадцать тысяч долларов" ("thousand" - singular, "тысяч" - plural), "And your hair's so lovely" - "У тебя такие красивые волосы", etc.

B. They often have to replace one part of speech by another. Most frequent replacements of this type are the following: a) English nouns with the suffix -er denoting the doer of an action are usually replaced by verbs in Russian: "I'm a moderate smoker" (J.D.Salinger) - "Я мало курю", "When George is hanged Harris will be the worst packer in this world" (Jerome K.Jerome) - "Когда Джорджа повесят, хуже всех на свете укладывать вещи будет Гаррис". However, if such a noun denotes a person's profession the replacement is not recommended: when Holden Caulfield describes a girl, saying "She looked like a very good dancer" (J.D.Salinger), it should be translated "Похоже, она здорово танцует", but the sentence from S.Maugham's "Gigolo and Gigolette" "Stella was a good ballroom dancer", characterizing Stella's professional skill, should be translated: "Стелла была хорошей исполнительницей бальных танцев". English deverbal nouns (usually converted from verbs) may be translated by verbs (especially if they are used in the construction "to give (to have, to make, to take) + N: "to give somebody a lift" - "подвезти кого-то". "He gave us all a look " (S.Maugham) - "Он взглянул на нас", etc. b) They often replace nouns by pronouns and vice versa. In the story "The Broken Boot" by J.Galsworthy Bryce-Green says to Caister: "Haven't seen you since you left the old camp". "The old camp" is a phrase with an extremely wide and vague meaning, it means "some place we used to be at together and some people we were somehow connected with", so it is quite adequately translated "Не видел Вас с тех пор, как Вы ушли от нас". The pronoun "нас" here is substituted for the noun "camp" (or, to be more exact, for the nominal phrase "the old camp"). A noun is substituted for a pronoun in the following example: "... and Harris sat on it, and it stuck to him, and they went looking for it all over the room" (Jerome K.Jerome). At first sight it seems possible to translate the sentence as it is: "... Гаррис сел на него, и оно к нему прилипло, и они принялись искать его. по всей комнате". However, the sentence is "overloaded" with pronouns, the more so because the Russian "его" can denote both Harris and the butter. That is why it is necessary to replace some pronouns by nouns to make the situation clear and the sentence more readable: "... а Гаррис сел на этот стул, и масло. прилипло к его брюкам., и они оба принялись искать его по всей комнате".

Occasionally some other replacements may become necessary. However, it must be remembered that the choice of parts of speech influences the general stylistic coloring of the text, cf. "бросить взгляд" and "взглянуть", "хранить молчание" and "молчать", etc. Russian abstract nouns are usually more appropriate in newspapers and official texts, short-form adjectives and passive participles are somewhat bookish and should be avoided if possible when rendering colloquial speech, which means that part of speech replacements may be caused sometimes by purely stylistic considerations[28;p.87-98].

C. Replacement of parts of the sentence. The most frequent among such replacements is that of substituting an object for the subject and vice versa. It is very helpful in translating English passive constructions. Statistics shows that in English they use passive constructions much more often than in Russian. Moreover, in English these constructions in themselves are not marked stylistically while in Russian they are mainly bookish and official, eg.: "мне дали интересную книгу" and "мне была дана интересная книга". The essence of this replacement is in making the subject of the English sentence the object of the Russian version: "She was brought here last night" (Ch.Dickens) - "Ее принесли сюда вчера вечером". If the English sentence has an object denoting the doer or the cause of the action, it automatically becomes the subject of the Russian sentence: "The psychiatrist was shocked by the smile” (R. Bradbury) - "Эта улыбка поразила психиатра". If the subject of the English sentence denotes some place or time it may be replaced by an adverbial modifier in translation: "Anyway, the corridor was all linoleum and all..." (J.D. Salinger) - "А в коридоре у нас - сплошной линолеум" (translated by R. Right Kovalev). This transformation is regularly used when the subject of the English sentence is expressed by a noun denoting some message: "the text (the telegram, the letter, etc.) says..." - "в тексте (в телеграмме, в. письме и тд.) говорится (сказано)”. Occasionally this transformation is applied to other nouns in the function of the subject.

D. One of the most important syntactic peculiarities of the English language is the existence of secondary predication created by various participial and infinitive constructions. These constructions are included in the structure of simple sentences in English while Russian simple sentences have only one predicative center. This may lead to the necessity of substituting Russian composite sentences for simple sentences of the original text: "I remember a friend of mine buying a couple of cheeses at Liverpool" (Jerome K.Jerome) - "Я помню, как один мой приятель купил в Ливерпуле пару сыров" (a simple sentence in English and a complex sentence in Russian); "I let the day slip away without doing anything at all" (Mark Twain) - "Прошел целый день, а я так ничего и не предпринял" (translated by N. Trenev) (a simple sentence in English and a compound sentence in Russian).

Sometimes two or more simple sentences may be joined together to form one sentence (simple or composite) in translation; usually they do it for logical, stylistic and rhythmical reasons: "I made my way into the smoking-room. I called for a pack of cards and began to play patience." (S.Maugham) - "Я отправился в курительную комнату, спросил себе колоду карт и принялся раскладывать пасьянс"; "Quite the reverse is the truth in the case of great men. The nearer you go to them, the smaller they seem" (G.Mikes) - "С великими людьми все наоборот: чем вы к ним ближе, тем они кажутся мельче".

On the other hand, English composite sentences with formal, purely grammatical subjects (introductory 'it', 'this', etc.) often correspond to Russian simple sentences: "This was hardly what I intented" (G.B. Shaw) - "У меня были совсем другие намерения"; "It's the natural, original sin that is born in him that makes him do things like that" (Jerome K. Jerome) - "Его толкает на все эти проделки врожденный инстинкт, так сказать, первородный грех." (translated by M.Salie).

A long and syntactically complicated sentence containing secondary predication may be translated by several simple sentences: "A few months ago I was nominated for the Governor of the great State of New York, to run against Mr. Stewart L.Woodford and Mr. John T.Hoffman on an independent ticket” (Mark Twain) - "Несколько месяцев назад моя кандидатура была выдвинута на пост губернатора великого штата Нью Йорк. В качестве кандидата от независимых мне предстояло выступать против мистера Стюарта Л.Вудфорда и мистера Джона Т.Хоффмана."

E. In some cases it is possible to replace the principal clause by a subordinate clause (and vice versa) if it helps to conform to the logical and stylistic norms of TL: "They put him under laughing-gas one year, poor lad, and drew all his teeth, and gave him a false set, because he suffered so terribly with toothache..."(Jerome K. Jerome) - "Он так жестоко страдал от зубной боли, что однажды его, беднягу, усыпили, под наркозом вырвали все зубы и вставили искусственные челюсти." His suffering with toothache is here the main thing the author stresses; to show how terrible his sufferings were he says that they had to draw all his teeth; that is why it is but logical to state the main idea in the principal clause, while the clause which is principal in the English sentence becomes subordinate in Russian.

F. A different type of syntactic bond may be used in translation instead of that used in the original text, i.e. subordination may be replaced by coordination and vice versa. Generally speaking, subordination is more frequently used in English than in Russian, since subordinating words in English are rather vague semantically while in Russian they state rather definitely the character of semantic connection between the clauses. The conjunction "while" does not really indicate any temporal connection between the actions in the sentence "Once she faltered for a minute and stood still while a tear or two splashed on the worn carpet" (O'Henry), so it is hardly possible to translate it "... в то время как...” Such translation would create a humorous effect which was not intended here by the author. It is much better to introduce co-ordination instead of subordination: "Один раз руки ее дрогнули и она замерла на мгновение, а на потертый ковер скатились две слезинки."

G. Syndetic connection used in English sentences is not always appropriate in Russian, so it would often create a wrong stylistic effect if preserved in translation. That is why asyndetic connection of parts of the sentence is rather regularly used in Russian instead of the English polysyndeton: "It made them nervous and. excited, and. they stepped on things, and. put things behind them; and. then couldn't find them when they wanted them; and they packed the pies at the bottom, and put heavy things on top, and. smashed the pies in" (Jerome K. Jerome) - "Они волновались, нервничали; они роняли то одно, то другое, без конца искали вещи, которые сами же перед тем ухитрялись спрятать. Они запихивали пироги на дно и клали тяжелые предметы сверху, так что пироги превращались в месиво" (translated by M.Salie).

So, the following types of replacement may be used in order to overcome difficulties created by differences in the grammatical systems of SL and TL: A. Replacement of word-forms (замена форм слова). B. Replacement of parts of speech (замена частей речи). C. Replacement of parts of the sentence (замена членов предложения). D. Replacement of a simple sentence by a composite one and vice versa (замена простого предложения сложным и наоборот). E. Replacement of the principal clause by a subordinate one and vice versa (замена главного предложения придаточным и наоборот). F. Replacement of subordination by coordination and vice versa (замена подчинения сочинением и наоборот). G. Replacement of syndetic connection by asyndetic and vice versa (замена союзной связи связью бессоюзной и наоборот). Within the fourth type (replacement of a simple sentence by a composite one and vice versa) they also single out two additional varieties: joining several sentences together (объединение) and dividing a long sentence into several shorter sentences (членение).

3. Additions. It is very difficult to say whether this transformation is lexical or grammatical: it is both. Its lexical aspects have already been discussed: it is necessary to make some explanations of transcribed words, describe those notions which have no names in TL, add the words which are implied but not expressed in the structure of attributive phrases, etc. However, in all these cases the structure of the sentence is involved, that is why the transformation is considered to be grammatical. Sometimes there appear grammatical reasons for adding new words: it happens when some meaning is expressed grammatically in the original text while there is no way of expressing it grammatically in TL. E.g. in English they use articles to differentiate between an author and his creation: "... the jewel of his collection - an Israels..." or "... Madame Lamotte, who was still in front of the Meissonier”. (J.Galsworthy). In Russian it is necessary to add the word "картина": "... жемчужина его коллекции - картина Исраэлса..." and "... мадам Лямот, которая все еще стояла перед картиной Месонье". Another example: the existence of the special possessive form (George's, Harris's) in English allows to use names in the absolute possessive construction: "Of course, I found George's and Harris's eighteen times over…" (Jerome K. Jerome). In Russian the corresponding grammatical form is that of the genitive case, the use of which would create an undesirable ambiguity: "... находил Джоржа и Гарриса". So it is necessary to add the word "щетка" implied in the English sentence: "Конечно же, щетки Джоржа и Гарриса попадались мне раз восемнадцать, если не больше...". In this way the translated version restores as it were the complete structure of the original sentence some elements of which might be only implied and not expressed materially. When using the transformation of addition one should be very careful to add only that which should really be added. It requires good knowledge of deep structure and surface structure grammars of both SL and TL and ability to analyze semantic and pragmatic aspects of a text.

4. Omissions. This transformation is seldom structurally obligatory, it is usually caused by stylistic considerations and deals with redundancy traditionally normative in SL and not accepted in TL. A typical example of such redundancy is the use of synonymic pairs in English: "..their only stay and support...." (Mark Twain) - both the words mean "поддержка", "опора". There is no need to translate them both, one is quite enough: "их единственная поддержка" or, according to the demands of the context, "единственное, что спасало их от голода" (translated in the same way as any one of these words would be translated).

Sometimes it is recommended to omit semantically empty "tags" of declarative and interrogative sentences: "British to the backbone, that's what I am." (S.Maugham) - "Англичанин до мозга костей!" "I can't leave the room and send myself to you at the same time, can I.?" (G.B.Shaw) "Не могу же я уйти из комнаты и в то же время прислать самого себя к вам!" They sometimes recommend omitting logical redundancies and repetitions to achieve what is called "compression of the text". However, it must be remembered that logical redundancy of speech and various repetitions are used by writers to characterize the personage's individual manner of speaking, his way of thinking, etc. In such cases omissions are not allowed.

These are the main types of grammatical transformations. It should be born in mind, however, that in practice it is hardly possible to find these elementary transformations in their "pure form": in most cases it is necessary to combine them.

To translate English grammatical forms and constructions one should not necessarily look for the same forms and constructions in Russian - there may be none. Nevertheless, it is always possible to translate them adequately since it is not the form itself but its meaning and function in the sentence that should be rendered in translation. That is why translation of any such unit should begin with its semantic and functional analysis. It can be illustrated with the problem of rendering the definite and indefinite articles. Unless articles have some special role in the sentence or some additional meaning, they are not translated at all - they are merely omitted. However, there are cases when articles are used to mark the rhyme of the sentence. Here again there is no need to translate the article itself: it is necessary to find the proper word order placing the noun which is the rhyme of the English sentence in a rhythmic position in Russian (most often it is the final position). Sometimes, besides their usual meaning of definiteness or indefiniteness articles have some additional meaning, e.g., the indefinite article used with personal names has the meaning "some, a certain", showing that someone is unknown to the speaker. Such meaning should be rendered by corresponding means of the Russian language: "a Mrs. Smith" "некая миссис Смит, какая-то миссис Смит". The indefinite article may also coincide in its meaning either with the pronoun "one" ("I remember a friend of mine buying a couple of cheeses…" - "Я помню, как один мой приятель...") or with the numeral "one" ("a stitch in time saves nine" - "один стежок, сделанный вовремя..."). There are many more meanings which the article may combine with its main grammatical function ("New English-Russian Dictionary" edited by I.R.Galperin lists 11 meanings of the indefinite article and 9 meanings of the article "the"). In this respect translation of articles does not differ from translation of other words - first its meaning should be analyzed and then a proper word of TL can be chosen[29;p.288].

The same is true of prepositions and conjunctions. It is most important to remember that even such a "simple" conjunction as "and" has at least 10 different meanings; in different contexts it may correspond to the Russian "и" ("John and Mary"), "a" ("they stayed at home, and we left" - "они остались дома, а мы ушли"),"неужели" ("And you did it?" -"Неужели Вы это сделали?"), etc.

Speaking of conjunctions, it should also be mentioned that besides their main function (connecting and introducing different clauses and parts of the sentence) they enter idiomatic constructions the meaning of which cannot be guessed: it should be known or looked up in the dictionary ("She is sixty if (she is) a day" - "Ей добрых шестьдесят лет" или "Ей не меньше шестидесяти лет" "if anything" - "если уж на то пошло, во всяком случае, как бы то ни было").

2.2 Stylistic Transformations

In different communication situation the language users select words of different stylistic status. There are stylistically neutral words that are suitable for any situation, and there are literary (bookish) words and colloquial words which satisfy the demands of official, poetic messages and unofficial everyday communication respectively. SL and TL words of similar semantics may have either identical (a steed - скакун, aforesaid - вышеозначенный, gluttony - обжорство, to funk - трусить) or dissimilar (slumber - сон, morn - утро, to show - менять) stylistic status of the original text, by using the equivalents of the same style or, failing that, opting for stylistically neutral units.

The principal stylistic effect of the text is created, however, with the help of special stylistic devices as well as by the interworking of the meaning of the words in a particular context. The speaker may qualify every object he mentions in his own way thus giving his utterance a specific stylistic turn. Such stylistic phrasing gives much trouble to the translator since their meaning is often subjective and elusive. Some phrases become fixed through repeated use and they may have permanent equivalents in TL, e.g. true love - истинная любовь, dead silence - мертвая тишина, good old England - добрая старая Англия.In most cases, however, the translator has to look for an occasional substitute, which often requires an in-depth study of the broad context. When for example, J. Galsworthy in his "Forsyte Saga" refer to Irene as "that tender passive being, who would not stir for herself", the translator is faced with the problem of rendering the world "passive" into Russian so that its substitute would fit the character of that lady ad all the circumstances of her life described in the novel[30;p.220].

A common occurrence in English text is the transferred qualifier syntactically joined to a world to which it does not belong logically. Thus the English speaker may mention "a corrupt alliance", "a sleepless bed" or "a thoughtful pipe". As often as not, such combinations will be thought of as too bizarre i Russian or alien to the type of the text and qualifier will have to be used with name of the object it refers to. "The sound of the solemn bells" will become "торжественное звучание колоколов" and "the smiling attention of the stranger" will be translated as "внимание улыбающегося незнакомца".

Note should also be taken of the inverted qualifier which syntactically is not the defining but the defined element. Such a qualifier precedes the qualified word which is joined to it by the preposition "of": "this devil of a woman", "the giant of a man ", etc. The phrase can be translated to obtain an ordinary combination (a devilish woman, a gigantic man) and then translated into Russian. The translation may involve an additional element: the devil of a woman - чертовски хитрая (умная, неотразимая и т.п.) женщина.

Stylistically-marked units may also be certain types of collocations. Idiomatic phrases discussed above (see2.2) may be cited as an example. Another common type includes conversational indirect names of various object or "paraphrases". A frequent use of paraphrases is a characteristic feature of the English language.

Some of the paraphrases are borrowed from such classical sources as mythology or the Bible and usually have permanent equivalents in Russian (cf. Attic salt - аттическая соль , the three sister - богини судьбы, the Prince of Darkness - принц тьмы). Others are purely English and are either transcribed or explained in translation: John Bull - Джон Буль, the three R's - чтение, письмо и арифметика, the Iron Duke - герцог Веллингтон.

A special group of paraphrases are the name of countries, states and other geographical or political entities: the Land of Cakes (Scotland), the Badger State (Wisconsin), the Empire City (New York). As a rule, such paraphrases are not known to the Russian reader and they are replaced by official name in the translation. (A notable exception is "the eternal city" - вечный город.)

Complicated translation problem are caused by ST containing substandard language units to produce a stylistic effect. The ST author may imitate his character's speech by means of dialectal or contaminated form/ SL territorial dialects cannot be reproducing in TT, nor can they be replaced by TL dialect form. It would be inappropriate if a black American or a London cockney spoke in the Russian translation in the dialect, say, of the Northern regions of the Russia. Fortunately, the English dialectal forms are mostly an indication of the speaker's low social or educational status, and they can be rendered into Russian by a judicial employment of low-colloquial elements, e.g.:

“He do look quiet, don't'e? D'e know'oo'e is, Sir?”

“Вид-то у него спокойный, правда? Часом не знаете, сэр, кто он будет?”

Here the function of the grammatical and phonetical markers in the English sentence, which serve to show that the speaker is uneducated is fulfilled by the Russian colloquialisms «часом» and «кто он будет»[31;p.125].

Contaminated forms are used to imitate the speech of a foreigner. Sometimes, both SL and TL have developed accepted forms of representing the contaminated speech by persons of foreign origin.

To enhance the communicative effect of his message the author of the source text may make use of various stylistic devices, such as metaphors, similes, puns and so on. Coming across a stylistic device the translator has to make up his mind whether it should be preserved in his translation or left out and compensated for at some other place.

Metaphors and similes though most commonly used in works of fiction are not excluded from all other types of texts. A metaphor and a simile both assert the resemblance between two objects or processes but in the latter the similarity is made explicit with the help of prepositions “as” and “like”.

Many metaphors and similes are conventional figures of speech regularly used by the members of the language community. Such figurative units may be regarded as idioms and translated in a similar way. As in the case of idioms their Russian equivalents may be based on the same image (a powder magazine-пороховой погреб, white as snow-белый как снег) or on a different one (a ray of hope-проблеск надежды, thin as a rake-худой как щепка). Similarly, some of the English standard metaphors and similes are rendered into Russian word for word (as busy as a bee-трудолюбивый как пчела), while the meaning of others can only be explained in a non-figurative way (as large as life-в натуральную величину).

More complicated is the problem of translating individual figures of speech created by the imagination of the ST author. They are important elements of the author's style and are usually translated word for word. Nevertheless the original image may prove unacceptable in the target language and the translator will have to look for a suitable occasional substitute. Consider the following example:

They had reached the mysterious mill where the red tape was spun, and Yates was determined to cut through it here and now. (St. Heym. “Crusaders”) “Red tape” is usually translated as «бюрократизм, волокита», but bureaucratism cannot be spun or cut through. The translator had to invent an occasional substitute:

“Они упёрлись в стену штабной бюрократии, но Йейтс твёрдо решил тут же пробить эту стену.”

A similar tactics is resorted to by the translator when he comes across a pun in ST. If the SL word played upon in ST has a Russian substitute which can also be used both literally and figuratively, a word-for-word translation is possible:

“Whenever a young gentlemen was taken in hand by Doctor Blimber, He might consider himself sure of a pretty tight squeeze.”

“Когда доктор Блаймбер брал в руки какого-нибудь джентльмена, тот мог быть уверен, что его как следует стиснут.”

In other cases the translator tries to find in TL another word that can be played upon in a similar way:

“He says he'll teach you to take his boards and make a raft of them; but seeing that you know how to do this pretty well already, the other … seems a superfluous one on his part.”

Here the word “teach” is intended by the owner of the boards to mean “to punish” but the man on the raft prefers to understand it in the direct sense. The Russian equivalent «учить» does not mean “to punish” and the translator finds another word which has the two required meanings:

“Он кричит, что покажет вам, как брать без спроса доски и делать из них плот, но поскольку вы и так прекрасно знаете, как это делать, это предложение кажется вам излишним.”

Translation of such allusions is no easy matter. The translator has to identify the source and the associations it evokes with the SL receptors and then to decide whether the source is also known to the TL receptors and can produce the similar effect. He may find the allusion untranslatable even if the source is sufficiently popular. L.Carroll's “Alice in Wonderland” was many times translated into Russian and is much enjoyed both by children and adults in this country. However, the translator will hardly preserve the obvious allusion to the book in the following sentence:

“The Tories were accused in the House of Commons yesterday of “living in an Alice in Wonderland world” on the question of nuclear arms for Germany.”

“Вчера в палате общин консерваторов обвинили в том, что они питают призрачные иллюзии по поводу ядерного вооружения ФРГ.”[32;p.160].

Some stylistic devices may be ignored by the translator when their expressive effect is insignificant and their reproduction in the target text would run counter to the spirit of TL. One of the oldest and most commonly used stylistic devices in English is alliteration. Many headings, strings of epithets and other phrases in English texts consist of words, which begin with the same letter. An Englishman seems to be very happy if he can call an artificial satellite “a man-made moon” or invent a headline like “Bar Barbarism in Bars”.

Repetition is a powerful means of emphasis. It adds rhythm and balances to the utterance it in TT. Repetition, however, is more often used in English than in Russian and the translator may opt for only a partial reproduction of the English long series of identical language units.

British journalism often has a strong emotional coloring, and its many peculiar features are typical to fiction. As a result, the translation of journalism translator must be attentive to the stylistic characteristics of the form. When translating journalism there is widely used adequate replacement.

For instance: “He proposed a criminal crusade of force and violence against the coloured peoples of Asia and Africa.” (D. W., 1954)

“Он предложил организовать преступный крестовый поход против цветных народов Азии и Африки, пойти на них огнем и мечом.

This sentence contains a number of stylistic devices: metaphor, epithets synonymous pair, and although they are not original, they must be saved in the translation, because they create emotion, intensity and liveliness. Synonymous pair of original force and violence transferred in translation with familiar phrase combination "пойти огнем и мечом." The word for word translation of "сила и насилие" is not possible, as this is often synonymous pair in Russian language and perceived as a pleonasm. But the use of a pair of "произвол и насилие" in this context would be wrong.

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