Peculiarities of translation of Russian borrowings in English

2. DISTRIBUTION OF RUSSIAN WORDS IN ENGLISH TO THE PERIOD

Most researchers of Russian influence on English vocabulary divides into two great periods - borrowing prerevolutionary and Soviet era. There is also a classification into three periods: 1) before Peter I, 2) from Peter I to pre-revolutionary period, and 3) the period of the Great October Socialist Revolution to the present day. In Ph.D. thesis VV Akulenko interaction history Russian language with the languages of the West (including English) is divided into four periods.

The first period covers the influence of ancient language of Kievan Rus era in Old and Middle English part.

The second period of Russian influence on English, associated with the development of trade and political relations between Russia and England, the growing might of Russian gosudorstva begins the second half of XVI and continues until the middle of the XIX century.

The third period begins with the 60-ies of the XIX century and continued until 1917. The focus in this period are changes in economic and social relations in Russia, all the growing struggle of the revolutionary forces against the forces of reaction, the great achievements in the development of national science and culture.

Fourth period of the borrowing language is Russian Soviet era. You can talk about a new stage in the development of political, social and economic Russian vocabulary, as well as further growth of its international importance in the post-war period due to the emergence of the mighty camp of peace, democracy and socialism, as well as in connection with the creation of the UN, where the international language was declared Russian along with English, French, Spanish and Chinese.

Today we can speak of the fifth post-Soviet era.

1. The first period . Since ancient times, there was mutual consideration English, French and Russian peoples to each other. Kievan state was extremely broad connections with different peoples of Asia and Europe, including the ancient British. In the XI century Novgorod was known in England primarily as a supplier of furs, jewelry. By this time the marriage and Vladimir Monomakh world the daughter of King Harold of England. Information of the time mean. However, the historical evidence suggests that Kievan Rus was known Germanic countries. Level of culture of Kievan Rus was so high that Western foreigners believed Kiev rival of Constantinople. In ancient Russia had extensive political connections to all European countries. Of course, under such circumstances, the ancient Russian state is very significant and should be the role of his tongue. Especially when you consider that the high culture of Kievan Rus had deep roots in the distant past, even "before the IX century Russian people had come a long way in their economic, social, political and cultural life", as stressed by the researcher of ancient Russia Academician B. D. Greeks / Greeks BD Struggle for Russia establish their State, page 65 /. However, borrowing from the Russian language were not numerous in the English language and convergence in this era did not happen, although it seems very likely that in that era Russian language could have some influence on the vocabulary of the English language.

This hypothesis is based on the following data: between ancient Rus and Britain of that era were beaten pretty close ties. How else to explain the fact that after the conquest of England by Scandinavians expelled sons of English King Edmund Ironsides (Edmubd I the Ironside, 981 - 1016) found refuge at the court of the prince of Kiev. After the Norman conquest of England and the death of King Harold and his wife and daughter also searched for shelter in Kievan Rus. If it had not been previously established links between ancient Rus and Britain, it is unlikely that these exiles British royal family went to seek refuge in a far away country.

In the old Germanic languages there are a number of words borrowed at different times of the Slavic languages. The bulk of borrowings from Slavic languages falls on Scandinavian languages and Gothic, the media are in direct contact with the Slavs. As for the Old English language, the number of Slavic borrowings in it is minimal, even less than in the other languages of the West who have acquired a number of Slavic words after the occurrence of an Anglo-Saxon dialects selection in Old English.

As is well known words may far away from the source language, can travel from language to language, communication capturing peoples speaking these languages. Small amount Russianisms hit the Scandinavian languages, and thence passed into Old English. Russian first word that came into language of England chan called tapor - x or taper-zeh, united the Russian and Norwegian words tapor - taper ' ax 'and x ' ax '. It is written on the pages of the chronicle in 1031: taper - x. However, the name of the object in this form are not survived to medium and English period. This vocabulary fact - only use toric, though not least, evidence of Russian-Norwegian and British relations. But the word-Russism not retained in the English language. There exists a thing exists, now wearing a German name AXE ' ax '. English Words Talk 'conversation, conversation'; to Talk 'talk, talk, chatter', etc. back to the root of the Scandinavian tolk of Russian sense (cf. interpreted , explanatory ).

In this regard, it is not quite correct statement prof. Arakin VD that the only Russian word penetrated into English before the XIV century, was sable ' sable ', which spread at the same time in other languages as the expensive fur of this animal got in all countries of the Eastern Slavs.

In English, as in other Germanic languages, in ancient times there are words that have common roots with the words of Slavic languages and seems to have been borrowed from the dialects of the Slavic tribes already in the XII century. It is words like: honey , milk , hemp , plow and other drevneangl. meodu , sovr. Engl. Mead ; drevneangl. henap , sovr. Engl. hemp ; drevneangl. meolk , sovr. Engl. milk ; drevneangl. ploz , sovr. Engl. Plough . Prof. AI Smirnickii allocates earlier Slavic borrowing in Old English: syrce ' shirt ',' shell ',' mail 'is derived from starosl. sork ; Compare Russian. ' shirt '. The word is found in Beowulf and other written records.

It is difficult to tell which is the Slavic language penetrated these borrowings in English and if they penetrate directly from the Slavs to the Anglo-Saxons or the Scandinavian languages. Saxons faced with the Slavs still on the continent, to the settlement of the British Isles. With Scandinavian tribes Slavs also touched since ancient times in the Baltic Sea. In English and Scandinavian languages ??meet the same Slavic borrowing is difficult to say whether they penetrated directly from the Slavs in each of these languages, or first fell to the Scandinavians, and then from there to the Anglo-Saxons. Clarification of this issue is further complicated by the fact that the Scandinavian ancient written sources - later than the British, and therefore can not be traced, what form have these borrowings in the Scandinavian languages, at least in the period when they occur in Old English. This complicates and figuring out what of the Slavic language the word was borrowed. It should be noted that the Slavic languages at that time were still so close that were most dialects of a single language. This is confirmed by the fact that in that era did not draw the line between individual Slavic languages. Therefore, with respect to the earliest borrowing very difficult to tell from what is Slavic language they were taken.

But it would be wrong to keep silent about these words when considering the Russian borrowing because it is possible that these early penetrated borrowing it from the Russian.

By the early borrowings relates word sable . English dictionary word recorded only in the XIV century. However, we can assume that in spoken language it has penetrated much earlier: in the period XII - XIII centuries., As you know, sable takes up more space as a product exchange, performing the function of the monetary unit; moreover, in the source, where the first word is recorded, among the values of the noun " sable ', it also gives the meaning of the adjective " black ". This fact also suggests that the word existed in English for quite a long time and managed to buy it added value ' black 'and' mourning dress '.

2. SECOND PERIOD . Friendly relations between the peoples of the stronger, deeper than their mutual understanding of each other. Language - the basis of this understanding. Hence the interest that is the story of mastering foreign languages in every alien environment. This story can be an important indicator of the general (and not only linguistic) culture of the people and to the same extent serve as a testament to his acquaintance with the real people, education, the arts of those countries and the countries with whom it has certain historical interests. Every language can be traced, like archaeological strata, temporary "layers" and from mark milestones, to find the traces of the people's life and his new life, traces of friendly contacts between at birth and quarrels, cooperation and hostility, war and peace. As we have already noted, international relations are developing according to the social and geographic conditions Sgiach. And the earlier times are subject to our attention, the more limited and honey lennee fold relationship between distant governmental peoples from our modern point of view. Then there was almost no means of communication. Sa fact mym geographical location plays an important role. Politics and economics, ie arising diploma cal and trade ties, define linguistic society tion.

In England, earlier met with the Russian language than Russian state - with English. Throughout the XVI-XVII centuries, interest in Russian language was so great that in some countries, in different contexts and for different reasons appeared quite serious recording linguistic and cross-cultural nature, made by foreigners to visit Russia. Our well-known Soviet researcher BA Larin says three foreign source for the history of the Russian language and Russian international relations XVI-XVII centuries. These are:

1) "Dictionary of Muscovites" (French-Russian, 1586);

2) "Notebook" - Russian-English Dictionary by Richard James (1618-1620)

3) "Russian grammar" Henry Ludolph (Oxford, 1696).

It is interesting to note that these records have brought to live our days Kholmogorskaya colloquialisms end of the XVI century and live Moscow speech in all its many colors and variety. Old Holmogory and Archangel (New Holmogory) were trading cities with fairly mixed population leniem. Therefore, in the records of James R. that reflect dialect vocabulary of the Russian language can be traced staronovgorodsky, the Volga, Moscow, southeastern tion says it professional fishermen and hunters, some words from the language of the Nenets, Chud, Komi. R. James wrote words and phrases directly hear them from the Russian population, and explaining them, thus noted singular singularity climate, landscape, flora and fauna, nature clothes, dishes, home buildings, etc. Thus, the word mammoth James interpreted as follows: Mammoth - this elephant, kotorgo nobody saw that lives underground, breaking itself moves, and are therefore under his fangs and horns and bones of which make bombs in Russia. Based on the stories of local residents, the author reports information about the art of bone carving and distributing a game of checkers in Russia. James R. manuscript, which by completeness of the data and the subtleties of their phonetic observation is one of the very important sources for the study of Russian speech early XVII century, is stored in the Library Bodleian at Oxford. About the growing interest Englishmen to Russia indicates the emergence of a number of geographic and ethnographic descriptions of Moscow Russia, whose authors were travelers Willoughby, Jenkins, Eden, Cook. The pages of these works appear early Russianisms, reflecting the greater part of the characteristic features of Russian life.

Stable relations between the Russian and English peoples established only in the XVI century, and also wore initially very limited. In this distant time in England began to meet people pretty well assimilated Russian spoken language, much better than they succeeded in one or two centuries later. This fact does not seem surprising, if we recall the strong trade and diplomatic relations between Britain and Moskoskim state in this era and the real interest of London merchants in maintaining ongoing business relationships with the Russian population. On the other hand, knowledge of foreign languages, including English, in Muscovy, was then a very lively impulse to Russian language classes foreigners living here. Previously fragmented feudal and oppressed Tatars, after the unification of Russia Ivan III appears to Europe as a strong, unified gosudorstvo. This causes both the interest and concern of other European countries and the rich Muscovy drawn from many countries ambassadors with various tasks and goals.

Political reasons have caused searches northern trade routes. The regular relations with Britain was laid in 1528, when Britain stopped Russian ambassadors to Spain on the way to the court of Charles V. In the cases referred to the English court of the former correspondence between Russian princes and English kings in the reign of Edward VI, 1547 - 1554 gg., But in the archive no letters, no answers. So systematic borrowing Russian English words begin in the second half of the XVI century, when installed in direct political and economic relations between Britain and Russia. Cause of the Anglo-Russian encounters - the rapid growth of British imperialism and its aggressive policy, the fight against England with Portugal, Spain, Holland and other countries for the seizure of new lands. England needed a powerful navy, and its forests for shipbuilding she did not have. Thus, in connection with the development of capitalism in England and the expansion of sea trade where there is an interest to the Moscow State.

Accident history explains trade agreement between Britain and Russia, concluded under Ivan IV Grozny. In 1552, one of the ships of the expedition Willoughby - Chancellor visited Russian land (Holmogory). In 1553 a British expedition of three ships went in search of the northern route to China. Starting a direct rapprochement between Russia and Britain assumed August 24, 1553, when the first ship of King Edward VI - «Edward Good Company" was anchored in the harbor of St. Nicholas in the mouth of the Northern Dvina. It was the only survivor of the expedition ship and its captain Richard Chancellor came to Moscow was very graciously received by Ivan IV, the king gave a charter of their king, and March 15, 1554 was released from Moscow, received Har ment monopoly on the right to trade. Expedition undertaken Chancellor and his companions, was designed to find new markets, since, according to the British themselves, aengliyskie products had little demand among the peoples and countries around them, and it was decided to equip the three ships for exploration and discovery in the northern parts light.

England's interest in trade with Russia was extremely loud. In 1554 in London's King Philip and Queen Mary approved the establishment of Moscow ("Moscow Company ") English merchants, leaving behind a lot of notes on the Moscow State XVI century. These notes represent a huge interest for the study of the general history of the Anglo-Russian contacts, since that time Russian sources revealed very little. Moscow trading company aimed to establish and develop trade with Moscow. Important trade route through the White Sea, the first outdoor Chanslerom Richard in 1553, made it possible to establish direct contacts between Britain and Russia. Two years later the Moscow-based company received permission to free trade throughout Russia. In Moscow were sent ambassadors and representatives of trading companies. The northern route through the White Sea in Holmogory, and thence to the "king of Muscovy" were merchants and businessmen come to conclude trade deals. English merchants widely used opportunities available to them, traveling through Russia to Persia and Central Asia. Already in 1558, the year of accession to the throne of Queen Elizabeth I, Anthony Jenkinson reached Bukhara. Since the beginning of trade relations between Russia and Britain are tied regular and fairly strong (up to 1649) Political and diplomatic ties. Economic penetration was accompanied by the departure of a number of embassies. The British Government in XVI - XVII centuries cared for the preparation of permanent staff interpreters Russian language that could serve London diplomatic office. In the Russian archives remaining documents about British youths, and to this end I studied in the Russian state. Preserved as British documents certifying the existence of official translators in London with the Russian language; along with the usual translation work they performed the role of government interpreters during visits Russian embassies. In addition to a small group of persons receiving formal instruction related to their knowledge of Russian language, this knowledge spread to a much wider and, above all, a merchant environment. Many of the merchants and diplomats had acute observation. They often lived in Moscow for a long time and tried to learn Russian language, to get acquainted with Russian laws and customs. Arrived in the Russian commercial agent in London "Moscow Company "linguistic isolation in conditions more easily assimilate the Russian language, the smaller of the Russian population was spread knowledge of the English language, and soon could not only speak in Russian, but also to make a commercial record in the Russian language or understand the Russian legal document. This was, for example, John Merrick, who played a significant role in the history of diplomatic relations between Moscow and the English in the second half of the XVI century. Father John Merrick brought him to Moscow as a child. Here he lived for many years in the alien environment and then became an independent agent in London trading company in Moscow and Yaroslavl. It is so well known in the Moscow government circles that often gave him a very important assignments diplomatic nature. In his English letters Merrick liked to show off some Russian catchword or phrase. In letter to Boris Godunov (1603), he writes: «holop tvoi hospodarev to the end of my days» /1, p. 80/.

In the decades after between England and the Russian state-established diplomatic and trade relations, these ties have expanded thanks to the patronage of Ivan the Terrible. British special privileges in Russia: English merchants had donated a house in Moscow, there was organized a trading company, the duty-free trade, British merchants received charters freely with the goods come in all Russian pier, travel around the Russian lands and live on them. By the end of the XVI century (1589) Boris Godunov in literacy Elizabeth I give permission only one British trade in Russia. Russian service consist British doctors, pharmacists, and later military and naval affairs of the master. By 1617 Russia lived 18 British merchants selling their wares, and to 1626, there were already 22. Merchants people needed a Russian language as a means of tion. The reports of British diplomats and merchants in their genus tion English increasingly interspersed Russian words. On his return to England merchants and entrepreneurs in their reports in detail about his impressions of what he saw in Russia, often using in their reports Russian words for objects and concepts of Russian life.

Between the Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible (1530-1584) and Queen Elizabeth I (1533-1603) originated diplomatic correspondence. One of the first messengers of Elizabeth I and Ivan IV - Jerome Horsey (in Russian his name Ulyanov Yerem Horsham) first visited Russia in 1573, and then came to Moscow in 1584 and 1586 and 1592, respectively. He studied Russian language, compare it with related languages are compared and evaluated: "Although I was only mediocre grammar and I only knew a little Greek, the similarity of the latter with Russian helped me in a short time to master it. Russian language - the richest and elegant guage in the world. "

Economic, political and purely linguistic in grades explain that increased interest in alien speech, then the damping of such interest. So, the less known in chu zhih edges English, especially English torus govye people studied the languages of other countries. Awareness in English business partners rented needs to learn from the British completely alien languages. In the XVI-XVII century England was particularly interested in Russian language. According to the stories of the British, who were returning to their homeland from Moscow, were interested in the British government circles, government interpreters mastered Russian speech. Jerome Horsey notes interest in Russian language the Queen Elizabeth I. Considering brought from Moscow privilege of English merchants, Queen interested beautifully adorned manuscript asked what sound is this or that letter. Russian languages are English Queen "famous and richest language in the world" (the Famous and Most copious language of the World), it seemed, not with measures some modern Russian language teachers abroad, and some are not likely difficult language. Maybe Russian relations solution sounds and letters, is very simple compared with ang liyskim language allowed Elizabeth to say, "I'd soon learned it" (I Could Quickly learn it). It should be noted that during the Renaissance in England and in the aristocratic and merchant environment was spread knowledge of foreign languages ??gentleman wrote the XVI century Italian poetry, spoke Latin and French; itinerant merchant knew virtually no less than four languages.

"Russian grammar" Mr. Ludolph. Most Russian borrowings of this period enter the English language written by - through various descriptions, reports, diaries Englishmen who visited Russia. Very many of russizmov the period are included in the English monolingual dictionaries. Of course, much of the Russian borrowings appeared in English because of the difficulty, and sometimes it is impossible to convey in words the English language is the peculiarity of the concepts that were expressed Russian words. First Russian language sources for foreigners, strangers, or, as they say now, in Russian as a foreign language tion, presented the Russian language in conversational terms, since the main purpose was to teach and to learn to speak in Russian. Remarkable interest in speech, its sound side. Appearance in England XVII century Russian manuscripts and dictionaries can not testify about the actual interest of the English to Russian speech in this era, and therefore is not accidental that the first printed grammar of the Russian language for foreigners was published in Oxford at the end of the same century. It was a "Russian Grammar" ("Grammatica Russica ") Saxon native William Henry Ludolph (1655 - 1712), written in Latin, and appears particularly important for the history of Russian cultural relations with countries of Europe. His earliest English biographers mention that he acquired some knowledge of the Russian language in England before he was able to make a trip to Russia in nachade 90s XVII century. A few years after his return to England he published his remarkable book in Oxford. The book contains a lot of information about the customs, nature, economy and culture of Russia in the late XVII century. The author distinguishes between old Slavonic and Russian elements in pure speech. He draws attention, for example, that although the spell today, but pronounce it as sevodnya. language material is not limited to the grammatical part: the book contains dialogues, mainly on everyday topics, which are, like the "Dictionary of the Muscovites' and "Russian-English Dictionary" by R. James, valuable material on the Russian colloquial speech. Noteworthy linguistic principles author: Ludolf insists that the rights of the spoken language has been expanded to become commonplace in the books, replacing obsolescent Church Slavonic. Heinrich Ludolf correctly and perceptively understood those currents, the changes that occurred in the Russian language of the XVII century.

Through the word victuals Russian dictionaries authors sought to introduce the life, the life and history of the Russian people and the Russian country, as if thereby demonstrating no discontinuity of language and history, social due completely language and their understanding of this important moment in the science of language and its teaching practice . Studying Russian language, scientists foreigners recorded stories and judgments Russian people.

R . Ludolph believed that his work will serve merchants and travel nicks. Modest considering the study of spoken language only an introduction to the study of language, Ludolf sought to introduce cross-cultural elements in language learning even at this first stage, determining their true importance in the process of networking and mutual understanding of. The choice of the Russian words borrowed ang liyskim language says about a specific character impact nikshego relationship (terms of business, diploma cally language at public ambassadorial talks and trade names of objects). "Russian grammar" Ludolph, indeed, answered the purposes for which it is intended by the author; she was very interested in the scientific world and the Western European it is also widely used in a practical sense for several decades.

Russian literature and borrowing. Due to the strength and reliability of trade relations with Moscow State in this era and frequent exchange of people between the two countries, in England XVI - XVII centuries, even among the general public some words of Russian vocabulary used in English to refer to not only objects trade, but were used in the dramatic, poetic, political writings. So, playwright Thomas Geyvud mentions Russian drink kvas ("The Rush drinks quasse ") in his plays" The Rape of Lucretia "(The Rape of Lucrece, 1608) and "Calling beauty" (The Challenge of Beauty, 1635); the first of them also speaks Russian, adorning their hats sable ("The Russ with Sables Furs his cap »). Mentioned kvass as the poet George Terbervilya in his poetic writings from Moscow, along with words like honey ' Mead ' and odnoryadka ' odnoriadka '. A number of Russian words leads Fletcher in his book about the Russian State (1598), accompanying their interpretations and explanations, such as kvass - "nothing like water, with small amounts of fermented malt"; odnoryadka - peasant "wide dress that descends to most heels and belted sash, made of coarse white or blue cloth. " Thomas Nash, the writer of the same era, caught somewhere Russian pronoun our , and he remembered it, thanks to a chance consonance with his name. in his pamphlet (1596), he resorts to this similarity based on the pun, saying that he had until then will pursue his enemies until they are in front of him on his knees and cry out: " Have mercy on us "(" Pomiloi Nash! " ) / 1, page 80 /. Many Russian words entered the vocabulary of the English language and used by English writers. For example: "Across the Street and back the Haunted Creature strode, not groping as Other Men Were groping in That Gloom but driven forward as the Faithful Though George wielded Behind A" knout ". (Galsworthy.)

Some common Russian language in England at this time also shows the former is probably quite significant at that time in England importing handwritten Russian literature and translation activities beginning Englishman with Russian language. One of the earliest is made even in 1558 Richard Johnson, a very accurate translation of a small Russian ethnographic writings XV century "On chelovetseh unknowing in the eastern town of the country and discord." Brought to England Russian manuscripts were intended to primarily serve as material for the study of Russian language, so they often come across of the alphabet and letters, and other books anyway used for training purposes.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF RUSSIAN BORROWINGS BY DESIGNATING THE CONCEPT

In the extant memories and descriptions of Muscovy, made by the British, found a number of Russian words reflecting the peculiarities of Russian life and polity. Crept into the English language at the time the word on the value of various kinds are trade names of objects, the names of the ruling, class, officers and subordinate persons, establishments, household items names and geographical names.

Among the first borrowing:

1. Names associated with the state ITATION device with the names of the ruling, class, officers and subordinates persons: czar (tzar) `царь', voivode `воеовда', knes `князь', bojar `боярин', moujik `мужик', cossack `казак', opritchina `опритчина', strelscy `стрелец', starosta `староста', ukase `указ', kremlin `кремль', sotnia `сотня', Raskolnik `раскольник'.

2. Legend measures of weight, distance, currency: verst `верста', arshin `аршин', pood `пуд', sagene `сажень', rouble `рубль', copeck `копейка', chervonets `червонец'.

3. The names of items of clothing and food, as the British smote ekzotizmy: shuba `шуба', kvass `квас', morse `морс', koumiss `кумыс', shchi `щи', borshch `борщ', mead `мед', calash `калач', shashlik `шашлык', kissel `кисель', vodka `водка', starka `старка', nalivka `наливка', nastoika `настойка', bliny `блины' , oladyi `оладьи', okroshka `окрошка'.

4. Household words: troika `тройка', izba `изба', telega `телега', peach `печь', balalaika `балалайка', bayan `баян', samovar `самовар', tarantass `тарантас', droshki `дрожки', kibitka `кибитка', makhorka `махорка'.

5. Names of natural features of Russia and some animals: steppe `степь', tundra `тундра', taiga `тайга', polinia 'полыня', suslik `суслик', borzoi `борзая'.

6. Religious names: molitva `молитва', obednja `обедня' and other names bezekvivalentnoy Russian realities.

Later appeared in the English language such words borrowed from Russian, kokoshnik `кокошник', khorovod `хоровод', beluga `белуга', obrok `оброк', zolotnik `золотник', otrezok `отрезок', vedro `ведро', matrioshka `матрешка'.

A significant portion of borrowings associated with the designation specific to the Russian phenomena, its natural features, etc. However, many of them in the English language over time expanding their value in the sense that it is already beginning to be applied not only in relation to Russia, but outside this context. For example, the word steppe borrowed as the name of a specific geographical landscape of Russia and first was used in the English language only in the description of Russian paintings of nature, travel to Russia. First this word in the English language in 1671. But over time, it becomes important geographical term and is often found in the special art and even English literature: "These Great Steppes Which range Along the feet of the Rocky Mountains "(Irving, W. The Adventures of Capitain Bo nnerville, 1849); "These Rocky Steppes Possess but few streams "(A. K. Jahuston Africa). Word steppe occurs in these combinations: Steppe bird, Steppe travellin G etc. Other Russian geagraficheskie terms are also used not only to describe the natural features of Russia. For example, the word tundra is found in the description of the geographical features of Alaska. The word mammoth borrowed English as the name of a prehistoric animal, first discovered in Russia. The word mammoth is part of a complex word for tree growing in California Mammoth tree (Wellington), as well as the proper name of the Mammoth Cave (Cave in the United States, Kentucky, opened in 1809).

The British were taken from the Russian ship timber, hemp for rope, canvas for sails, as well as furs, skins wax and red fish. The names of fish species previously unknown to the British, entered the English language and used by the British still: sterlet 'starlet', belouga 'Beluga' . Russian words went beyond business reports and entered the vocabulary of the English language. Meeting with Russian and their life in a language bore visiting trade and embassy people here purely Russian realities from different spheres of life nor life, history. Penetrate into the English language and some special terms, for example: siberite (a special kind of ruby), uralite (asbestos slate found in the Urals). In the technical literature there is a term nephtyanye astatki . In some English dictionaries given astatki as refuse petroleum .

Of course, most likely get used names of products and dishes, spread in England. If, before the XVI century the word had spread unconditional sable ' sable ', then back to the XVI century, the number grows Russianisms: kvass, honey and unknown in the Russian language astrakhan ( A strakhan of geographical names "Astrakhan" in value chenii 'doodle'). Penetrate these words of everyday speech in English usage, even in literary and POE -static language.

Later in England spread the word samovar, caviar, balalaika, ditty, towns , etc. It is easy to notice that many of these words reflect the aspects of the social life of Russia, Russian life.

However, the nature of Russian words, and especially the nature of their existence in the English language speaks of distant peoples completely, the lack of direct communication, consumer contact, which was observed in the south weak Vдnskд land in Slavic and communication, for example, py mynskogo peoples. Russianisms in English not vzhi valis in folklore and not overgrown shaped frazeolo logical combinations. These were separate ekzotizmy penetrates into obscheliteraturnogo English speech in everyday life not as a result of a wide soprikosno veniya life of nations, and penetrated from the language of business and the scope of diplomatic and economic relations. It was already Intralanguage penetration: from one area to another, the expansion of functions on the nomenclature of the subject as the title of the realities of trading in the name of reality, adopted the English way of life or attracted attention with their uniqueness. Arose as to set special items, the most famous and symbolizing the Russian land, Russian life, presented themselves in the Russian lenii ill-informed British. Russianisms attracting attention wali, interpreted them in some detail, looking for similar (according to R. Chancellor brew -drinking Russian monks, like 'halfpenny el'). All this is evidence of the proof of interest in the Russian word followed by standing la life distant people. But the perception on certain realities ( kvass, honey ) was more in terms of exotic than in terms of real life.

Nature of communication between peoples defines linguistic ties and lexical borrowing. In the middle of the XVIII century in Alaska, and then appeared in California communities of Russian sailors - explorers. Meetings and communication with the local population captures language. Thus, in the language of the Indians Pomo there are a number of words of Russian origin. Loanwords attest to a certain influence and peaceful aspirations of Russian settlers. These words are grouped according to their importance in the areas of: plants, dishes and clothes, household items, appliances, fishing. Pomo Indians, learning to cultivate from Russian bread, and adopted the name of the main cereal crop - Sinitsa ' wheat '. The same phenomenon is observed in the spread of gardening, which gave the name to the Indians and ja. Palka ' apple ' , ' watermelon '.

It is important to emphasize that the initial flow of Russian words most often consists of specific items, ie word denotes a thing.

Here are some words that are included in English from Russian, in chronological order of their borrowing.

Соболь через посредство среднелат. sabellum проникло сначала в старофранц. sable (франц. sable), откуда заимствовано англ. sable и нем. Zobel. Мех соболя от восточных славян попадал во многие страны.

Паром (из пором) первоначально, вероятно, было заимствовано среднеголланд. praem, prame (голланд. praam), а отсюда в 1548 году попало в англ. pram `(норвежское) плоскодонное судно'.

Квас заимствовано англ. kvass (1553 год).

Рубль заимствовано всеми европейскими языками, в том числе англ. r(o)uble (1554).

Царь и производные от него царевич, царевна стали англ. tzar, а русск. царица под влиянием нем. Czarin стало англ. tzarina (1555).

Верста (род. множ. верст) заимствовано англ. verst (1555).

Чижик англ. siskin `чиж' (1562).

Мужик англ. moujik (1568), а русск. воевода - англ. voivoda (1570).

Названия видов рыб стерлядь и белуга, прежде не известные англичанам, были заимствованы в 1591 году - sterlet и belouga.

Калач через франц. kalatch пришло в англ. calash (1666).

Русск. господарь (ср. стяженное государь), вероятно, через посредство румынского и франц. языков стало англ. hospodar.

Копейка заимствовано всеми языками и англ. copeck (1698).

Мамонт заимствовано англ. mammoth (1706).

Кнут заимствовано англ. knout (1716 или1772).

Указ англ. ukase (1729).

Астрахань стало англ. astrakhan в значении `каракуль' (1766).

Суслик зарегистрировано в англ. suslik (1774).

Водка заимствовано многими языками: ср. англ. vodka (1802), нем.Wodka, итал. Vodca, испан. vodka.

Дрожки через франц. drojki или drochki стало англ. droshki (1808).

Самовар англ. samovar (1830).

Тундра англ. tundra (1841).

Тройка (лошадей) англ. troika (1842).

(Манная) крупа англ. (manna) croup (1843).

Тарантас англ. tarantas (1850).

Полынья англ. polyna (1853).

End of XVII - beginning of XVIII century - it was in the life of Russia period marked not only the internal growth of the country, the development of science, crafts, arts, but but Vym international relations, new contacts. In this era was " суждено

В Европу прорубить окно,

Ногою твердой стать при море.

Сюда по новым им волнам

Все флаги в гости будут к нам,

И запируем на просторе».

(Пушкин А.С. Медный всадник.)

These poetic Pushkin's words filled with deep before vision. Communication of our country - economic, cultural and ITATION certainly political - grew and became strong with increasing self-awareness and self-affirmation of our state.

The word represents the people. It is as if his powers Representative of, envoy. Words, we were trying to prove, and can tell about people, their lives, and ha raktere communication with other nations. Loan words may be different, belong to different spheres of everyday life, then come from the language of diplomatic letters, calls, correspondence ( the king, the governor, the decree ) , then come from the language of trade brought people together to buy goods and E ( sable, sturgeon ) , then the walk as ekzotizmy marking alien life, alien NRA you, customs ( borscht, kvass, honey, triple samovar ) . At neighboring nations arise and general concepts, and common names for different things and phenomena. But it is very important to be noted, the initial influx of Russian words often with costs of specific items. And although almost every word seemingly reinforced con crete, visual, tangible object, life borrowings isting words, if it depends on things like this, paradoxically, is not always strong. Thing can may get a new name - a synonym thing can get away from life borrows its people, and then borrowed the word remains only in the history of the language.

There are words, the appearance of which in other languages (the others) has not changed, but they get a new interpretation based on a specific value of the borrowed Russian words. Long ago in the Russian language, the word Archer became history ism. In the Russian State XVI-XVII centuries there exists Vova special troops musketeers. They played a significant role in pre-Petrine time, headed by military moves since Ivan the Terrible. However, archers were in the camp of conservative forces, led by Princess Sophia. Sagittarius all close to Peter saw their rotation beef, obedient party Sophia. In English, the impact arises figurative meaning: Archer - henchman . In this, but not only, meaning functioning Russian historicism in English.

Expansion and strengthening of cultural ties between Russia and Western countries occurred significantly more BESTROM pace than going to study Russian language abroad. Academician MP Alekseev wrote: "In the later period of our relations with the Western world attitude toward the Russian language for foreigners has changed dramatically: in the XVI - XVII centuries have been studying German, Dutch, French, and primarily the British; but foreigners XVIII and XIX century even, somehow comes into contact with Russian life, studied Russian language with difficulty and reluctance, and the difficulties they are often increased, better known in Russia c s foreign languages. " It is curious that the British of all Europeans were the least susceptible to the Russian language and that the number of Russian experts in England then measured units.

Assimilation . Russian borrowing, crept into the vocabulary of the English language, like any other borrowings are converted to their appearance and sound grammatical structure, obeying the laws of internal development of the English language. This well can be seen in words such as kopeck, knout (pronounce: Naut ) , sterlet , etc., which shape the sound according to the laws preobrzovan English pronunciation. You can see how the shape of sound words, obeying pronunciation norms of English, and the longer the loan word exists in English, the big changes it undergoes. For example, the pronunciation of the vowel «a» in the word sable undergone the same change to which all long vowels underwent the so-called shift velivomu vowels (a> ei). Russian soft consonants in borrowed words do not differ from the solid, as English language is not peculiar to the palatalization of consonants ( Rouble , Steppe ). There is a transfer of stress, drop-out of the final vowel, etc. If we trace the sound changes faced by Russian borrowings in English. we will see that they really are converted into their sound shape on the internal laws of the English language. However, this concerns mainly those borrowings were kotorae or become more commonplace. Borrowing same that are used very rarely, mostly retain their shape Rusko, in their pronunciation observed large fluctuations. This is reflected in fixing their dictionaries.

Borrowed words are converted and its grammatical structure. On the example of Russian borrowings can be seen that most plural nouns borrowed issued by type of English, using the «s» or «es». Pronunciation of this closure is characterized by the same reference conditions as in native English words: mammoths , Steppes , Sables , ukases etc. Plurals of nouns are closely linked to the question of the penetration depth of borrowing. The most commonly used in the English plural form of borrowing with English suffix «s», «es». Rarely used nouns often retain Russian plural form: strelez - strelzey .

Russian borrowed words form derivatives of the same type, model, and that the British: silken , narodism , decembrism , Permian . For English, characterized by a special method of word formation - without joining affixed elements (so-called conversion). By type of English words and Russian borrowings subject to this: Mammoth Cave , to knout , sable (as an adjective) etc. Said in regard to the development of English borrowings that period applies to Russian borrowings which came into English in subsequent periods.

THIRD PERIOD . In the XIX century, a gradual transition to borrowing words denoting concepts, phenomena and ideas. British popular magazines often placed articles about Russia, which were used Russian words, especially those related to political life. In Russia, the booming industry, and with it the working class; advanced Russian people struggle against the tsarist autocracy, the growth of people's democratic liberation movement in Russia and the further strengthening of the revolutionary movement in the XIX - early XX century were reflected in such English words borrowed from Russian language as nihilist ' nihilist ', nihilism, Ni hilistic, intelligentsia ' intelligentsia '. Words narodnik ' populist ', narodism appear in English in connection with the development of the populist movement in Russia. Cadet ' cadet 'enters as a member of the abbreviated name of the bourgeois Constitutional Democratic Party in Russia. Russian language vocabulary quickly enriched by various neoplasms, neologisms, which express the social, societal concepts. These new words particularly intense usvaivayutya of Russian language Western European languages, including English, as British public was keenly interested political events in Russia.

FY Priyma wrote that since the second half of the XIX century Russian literature in the West is the subject of serious and in-depth studies. Translators and popularizers of Russian literature are such writers as Mйrimйe in France, William Ralston in England. Individual Russian borrowings penetrated into English thanks to translations of works of the great Russian writers (eg, the word nihilist of Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons"), as well as publications in the English newspapers and magazines articles on Russia, which were used Russian words, especially those related to political life, such as: decembrists ' Decembrists ', ZEMSTVO ' district council ', etc.

Of course, the roots of words such as nihilist, Decembrist , intelligentsia - Latin and, although in the English language prior to their appearance were the words with these roots, however, perfectly legitimate to consider these words borrowed from the Russian language, as value that they currently have appeared on Russian soil, due to the Russian reality and in that its meaning has penetrated into other languages. These words are borrowed from the Russian language, as emerged in Russia in connection with certain phenomena of Russian reality, and as such entered into other languages. Word Decembrist penetrated the English language in connection with the December armed uprising against autocracy and serfdom in St. Petersburg December 14, 1825, which was attended by members of secret revolutionary societies. Word Decembrist (and then Decembrism ) entered the language as the name angliyskty political phenomenon, it was a milestone in the development of revolutionary thought and revolutionary movements. Word Decembrism relates to the world of ideas, it is untranslatable, has no match. Decembrism - a phenomenon for which there is no other name name. That's why "word ideas" are stronger in verbal turnover and mother, and the borrowing language.

Take another example. Word nihilist (from Lat. nihil 'nothing' + it. suffix - ist) French dictionaries note with 1761, and nihilism - since 1801. In this era of their existence both words combined value of 'denial of any faith. " On Russian soil, they have quite different interpretation. The life of these words in the Russian language was a new life, these words were born a second time. The invention of words nihilist and nihilism attributed IS Turgenev, but the author of the novel "Fathers and Sons" (1862), creating an image of a nihilist Bazarov, only popularized the term in that era. Themselves in occasional use words already existed in the speech and turnover, and the press. Nihilism - it 'negation of all universally recognized (all norms, principles), complete skepticism. " It is in this sense formed on Russian soil word nihilism is included in other languages and there to express a definite ideological direction.