Translation of the publicity fictions of A. Chan with translational commentary

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Министерство образования и науки Республики Казахстан

Костанайский социально технический университет

имени академика З. Алдамжар

ДИПЛОМНАЯ РАБОТА

Translation of the publicity fictions of A.Chan with translational commentary

специальность 5В 020700 - «Переводческое дело»

Жумагулова Айдана Сейтовна

Научный руководитель

Н.М.Алибекова

ст.преподаватель

Костанай 2014

Introduction

This work is devoted to Graduate Translation artistic and journalistic text, its difficulties and peculiarities. General provisions on the difficulties of translation, as well as private and complexity of translation features artistic and journalistic text, we illustrate an example of the translation of the book "Massacre in Nanjing. Forgotten genocide of World War II, "American writer of Chinese origin Iris Chang. translation text translation communication

Science deals with the study on the transfer of a wide range of theoretical and practical problems. The translator can properly fulfill its Started, it is necessary to understand and take into account many different aspects: structure and text case, intentions and implications of the author and ways to express them, the time of writing, etc. All these issues affect the translation, its adequacy and equivalence. According to VN Komissarov, " Definition of the concepts of adequacy and equivalence and today remains the focus of translators, and this problem is solved by the use of much more successful when comparing the original text and translation methods for analyzing the content and structure of the text, developed in the framework of text linguistics. " [Commissioners 1990:6] Therefore, in this paper will be presented a comparative analysis of the original text and the translated text to determine the characteristic of this type of texts and the difficulties to achieve adequacy text. It should be remembered about the difference in terms of adequacy and equivalence translation, since one is not the other causes: "Adequate translation - a translation that meets the goal. The desire to provide value determines if the translation, and therefore the concept of "value" refers to the process of translation, which can be an adequate way. "Equivalence" refers to the result of the translation and functional compliance means text translation of the original text. So the translation may not be carried out "in an equivalent way," but it may be equivalent to achieve a particular result as a translation adequacy defined goals. " [1:82].

"Journalistic style has its primary function will impact on the consciousness and chu vstva listener or reader" [2:115], which means that it simultaneously performs the cognitive, emotional and informative function. This implies translation problems whose solutions often require deviations from the original, ie, violation of the equivalence of the translated text and the original text, in order to achieve the adequacy of the final text.

Consequently, the translator, since the preliminary stage of translation, there should be ongoing and comprehensive analysis of the text and its individual units to subsequently give an adequate interpretation of all text, including images used by the author, metaphors, similes, and other arts envy funds. However, unlike the purely artistic text, art about - journalistic text also implies a clear text structure, active evaluation of the author, the use of typical for this style clichйs and strict adherence to the principle of accessibility and clarity of the text to the general public. The translator must feel deeply the text to translate it perfectly combines all of these aspects.

As a theoretical basis for the writing of this paper were the works of linguists following: Arnold IV Komissarov VN, Kazakova T., Levitsky AM, Petrova OV, VV Sdobnikov etc .

Object of study of this work is translated us artistic and journalistic text.

The subject of analysis are lexical and grammatical difficulties of translation.

The purpose of this paper is to translate into Russian artistic and journalistic text and analyze and the difficulties that are met in the process of translation, namely to assess the adequacy and use of certain transformations, depending on the specifics of the source material.

In accordance with the object and subject of study, as well as to achieve Delivered purposes it's in Dunn works are following tasks and e:

1) Analyze selec th s artistic and journalistic text and translate it into Russian.

2) Conduct a comparative analysis of the original text and the translated text to identify the main difficulties of translation.

3) Justify decisions made by translation under the criteria of equivalence and adequacy.

To achieve these purposes it's and for the tasks to be done a number of operations, including the following aspects:

1) Analysis and description of the original text, ie Gathering information about the author of the second, assuming the target audience aemoy text tim of writing. This stage also includes background information search. Background information - information that sociocultural characteristic only for a particular nation or nationality, mastered weight of their representatives, as reflected in the language of the national community. [3: 19]

2) Identify the main problem of the text: the definition of intentions and implications of the author, the analysis used linguistic resources.

3) Determining register the translated text.

4) Characterization of translational transformations, as a means of solving the difficulties of translation.

5) Commentary to translation solutions.

6) Illustration translation trudnos children and ways to overcome them by the example of the selected text.

This work is in the transport and fundamental step a: analysis of the source text (predperevodchesky analysis), text translation and analysis of translation solutions.

At the first stage we have thoroughly studied the e amu original text to give him a general characterization and reveal its pragmatics.

In the second stage we pens odim text considering pragmatic communication, composite and other aspects, which appear in the lexical, grammatical and syntactical features of the original text. Translator must be able to correctly choose the appropriate translation of compliance, ie PYA units regularly used for the translation of the DICE unit. [4:10]

S third milestone - an illustration Use of translational transformations examples from the text.

The choice of the subject studied Ia books and Iris Chang "Reznya in Nanjing. Forgotten genocide of World War II "for the following reasons:

1) The book is a fine example of art m - Journalistic text.

2) In terms of content the book is a great informational value, as describes historically Events that e detail does not reflect any one Russian-speaking m documentary work. Therefore, this work can help russkoya stentorian reader familiar with these historical events.

3) Translatable text contains a wealth of material for a comprehensive analysis of the translation.

1. Predtranslated analysis of the source text

In this chapter are given those aspects of translation analysis to help better understand the interpreter source code and its specificity to start translating. This process occurs in several stages:

1) Initial stage predtranslated analysis is to collect information about external text: author information and sources that he used to write St. Oei work, creation time, etc.

2) The second stage involves extending characterization of text. Here we should pay attention to the following aspects:

· P The potential target audience of the text resulting from the functional style of text and speech genre. Recipient necessary to clarify the text in order to select the language features that you want to convey in translation.

· Type of information embedded in the text, which later will condition the transfer method. For artistic and journalistic style characterized by the presence of the following types of information:

a) Cognitive, ie objective information about the outside world. Translation in this case should be carried out to-one correspondence. Especially when it comes to terminology. Cognitive the information often drawsed in text e means the literary norm.

b) Emotsional - Greetings, opinions, estimates. Such information interpreter should be via emotive vocabulary and syntax.

c) Esthetic - Often under this kind of information implies the use of metaphors, rhymes, puns, etc. In this case, the translator must try to realize their creative potential and to try to find or even create an adequate equivalent.

· To communicative text function: to make contact, to inform inform ation, convince of the rightness, etc. Often in the text combined several functions.

· Speech text genre, that is, its stable model forms are international.

· Compositional semantic structure of the text, ie compositional voice form semantic units, the nature of their construction and communications.

3) In the third stage of analysis, we consider predperevodcheskogo n ragmaticheskuyu structure of the text, ie author's intent, its assessment, communicative text effect. We remember that Prague matic aspect or pragmatics PEREVI yes called ed "The Impact in the course and outcome of the process must first evodcheskogo STI reproduce pragmatic potential of the original page and e emleni provide the desired effect on the impact eptora Retz." [20: 210] Translator for such information is relevant only as one of the main tasks translator - is the transmission capacity pragmatic text.

Compliance with all stages predperevodcheskogo analysis is crucial to select the translator properly the strategists and translation.

1.1 General description source translation

We have chosen to translate and analyze the text is taken from the book Iris Chan "Massacre in Nanjing. Forgotten genocide of World War II ", which was first published in 1997 American publishing BasicBooks, and then reprinted in 1998 by Penguin Group Incorporated (C SHA).

The book is written by American writers of her oh, historian and journalist th th Iris Chan, who was born March 28 1968 in Princeton , New Jersey, in a family of young American scientists of Chinese origin. She devoted her life that she had written a book about the fate of immigrants from China to America. Worldwide fame it brought her book and analyzed by us in the year of publication, it became a bestseller in America and some European countries. Copyright held enormous research that took her 2 years. In the process of Iris Chan used a huge number of primary sources, namely, blogs, movies and photos belonging to the witnesses of those events. The result of her work was awesome and the first of its kind in the English-language documentary book describing Nanking tragedy. After working on a book described by Iris Chang experienced seizures depression . In August 2004 she suffered a nervous breakdown, within three days received medical treatment in a psychiatric hospital in Louisville , where she was in search of material for his fourth book (the conquest of the Japanese Philippines - The so-called in Bataan death march ). Doctors suspected in having developed Chan manic-depressive illness , she was constantly taking medication. On the morning of November 9, 2004 she was found near Los Gatos dead in his car (shot from a revolver). Iris Chang is considered the last second victim Nanjing Massacre.

To Book Publication on crimes in Nanjing withstood 5 editions in America, has been translated into many languages, including Hebrew, Chinese, Korean and Japanese. Unfortunately, for unknown reasons, the book still has not been translated into Russian.

1.2 General characteristics of the text

The book "Massacre in Nanjing. Forgotten genocide of World War II "was written primarily to enable a highly publicized tragedy, therefore, it is aimed at the widest possible audience.

In the book we are talking about the massacre that occurred in 1937 with the outbreak of war between China and Japan. In August of that year, after the bloody and fierce fighting Japanese troops entered Shanghai. Japanese first managed to Shanghai, and then fell and the then capital of China Nanjing.

December 13, 1937 in Nanjing, who broke the Japanese massacre of civilians. For about six weeks, soldiers burned and looted the city, destroying most brutal ways of its inhabitants, raping women. Number of injured civilians is estimated by China 300 000 dead and more than 20,000 women raped (from seven-year girls to old women). According to the postwar tribunals number killed at more than two hundred thousand. One reason for the difference in figures is that some researchers include the number of victims of Nanjing Massacre killed only within the city, and also take account of other victims in Nanjing.

Despite the fact that after the war a number of Japanese military were convicted for the massacre in Nanjing, since the 1970s the Japanese side is pursuing a policy of denial Presto prisoner committed in Nanjing.

The book contains many factual (Cognitive) information such as dates, names, references to historical events, statistics, etc.:

· On December 13, 1937, Nanking, the capital city of Nationalist China, fell to the Japanese.

· ... Half-year struggle against Chiang Kai-shek's armies in the Yangtze Valley.

· Ameri cans think of World War II as begin ning on December 7, 1941, when Japanese carrier-based airplanes attacked Pearl Harbor. Europeans date it from September 1, 1939, and the blitzkrieg assault on Poland by Hitler's Luftwaffe and Panzer divisions.

W The reader can clearly identify the position of the author, since the text is replete with epithets expressing the author's evaluation of events.

· But even more telling was that those who had brought about these deaths (the most terror-filled, even if inevitable, tragedy of the human experi e nce) could also degrade the victims and force them to expire in maximum pain and humiliation.

Iris Chang also frequently uses stylistic devices such as metaphors, similes, and other emphatic design to give the text of the impressiveness and emotion, in order to have a more effective impact on the reader:

· We will never know everything that happened in the many cities and small villages that found themselves prostrate beneath the boot of this conquering force.

· ... If the dead from Nank ing were to link hands, they would stretch from Nanking to the city of Hangchow, spanning a distance of some two hundred miles.

In addition, we note that the text of the book has a clear logical structure. Each new idea certainly stands paragraph. Overall there are three main parts of the book, which we can call the three main semantic blocks. In the first part we see through the eyes of the Japanese planned attack in the second part we get acquainted with the history of the victims of those events, and in the third we learn about the fate of this tragedy in the postwar period, when Japan and Western countries tried to erase these events from the world's consciousness. Besides, author identifies the preface, which provides a brief overview of the book entry, where the reasons of writing the book and the conclusion, where the author concludes and summarizes. The book provides a comprehensive list of sources used and a number of documentary photographs with explanations.

Selected for the analysis of the book, namely the preface, introduction and conclusion are the most capacious in the informative terms, this means that their contributions gives a complete overview of all the meters work, th e structure, style, semantics.

It should also be noted that the text includes a number of stereotyped expressions:

· ... We use the most conservative number

· Jap an's first steps toward the mil itary domination

· ... two governments were competi ng for Japanese trade and polit ical recognition.

· ... An act that one Amer ican wartime victim of the Japanese has labeled politically equivalent to

Based on the author used the funds can be concluded that the text under consideration "has as its main function will impact on the consciousness and chu vstva listener or reader of Tell" [Arnold IV 2002:115].

Since all of the above characteristics of the text, we conclude that the product of all the signs belongs to the artistic-journalistic style.

Also it should be noted that the text prevail lexical items related to military issues, so the translator should be possible to adequately translate this specialized vocabulary, focusing on sustainable transfer expressions.

1.3 Pragmatics text

We know that the work of re interpreter is always directed at understanding the original author's intent, expressed in the text, and to ensure that the impact on the reader (listener), which is calculated on the original authors. This does not mean that the translator does not enter into a relationship with the text and the original and even more so with text transfer water (which he actually creates). One of the main problems pragmatic - it is a problem of the actions being taken by the translator to induce the beneficiary desired eaktsiyu p. Implementation of the action of - the essence of pragmatic adaptation of the text, that is, to bring the text into a form that is possible to facilitate its perception and the way exists exert th appropriate communicative effect you. [VV Sdobnikov, OV Petrova 2008 :163-165]

The main task we are studying the text is the impact on the will, consciousness and feelings of the reader, providing rich soil for thought. Author Iris Chang uses various means to achieve pragmatic goals: lexical, syntactic, structural, grammatical, lexical and grammatical. K In addition, the author identifies italics units falling under logical stress. You can also select graphical tools, which include breakdown, typefaces, layout of paragraphs, pictures, dots and even the order of presentation.

By means of implementing lexical pragmatics researched text can include the use of military terminology, proper names, historical dates, estimated lexicon, emotive words, phraseological units, metaphors and stylistic coloring x s epithet.

The text includes such syntactic means as using introductory words and designs slozhnosochinennyh and complex sentences, emphatic constructions, and inversion and citations.

The structural funds provides a clear division of the text into sections (chapters), subsections (paragraphs), paragraphs, paragraphs and subparagraphs. In the investigated th book can distinguish three main semantic block, each decorated in a separate chapter. Each chapter is divided into sections according to the logical-semantic principle. In addition, the book stand preface introduction and conclusion, which we regard as a research subject.

To express the pragmatics of text, the author uses a series of x and z rammaticheski lexical and grammatical means. In the text there are p azlichnye tenses of verbs that help to convey the chronology of events. ovestvovanie P in the text in the first person, ie Preval iruet use of pronouns of the first person singular "I". T akzhe by relatively often uses the pronoun "we" to unite addresser and addressee and the addressee of directing attention to the subject of the speech, the research topic. The text is marked active use superlative adjectives that contributes to the emotional function of the text.

Summary

Analysis showed that the analyzed text has informative and focuses on emotional and cognitive impact on the reader.

Consequently, the task of the translator is to fully reflect the informative component of the text, to convey its structural and logical structure, while maintaining the communicative intentions of the author. The solution to this problem is to develop strategies for the use of lexical, grammatical and lexical and grammatical translation transformations.

An important aspect of the test text translation is adequate transfer of lexical specificity tex, namely military terminology, proper names, titles any historical events, etc.

One of the main tasks of the translator is to transfer the text style, ie use of lexical, syntactic and composite units that will meet artistic and journalistic mu yu stil Russian language.

For an adequate translation of the test text translator should be familiar with more on the Russian-language literature described in the text of historical events. This is necessary for a better understanding of the problems of the text and to find a foothold in the Russian language names of various historical events and names. In addition, the study further reading help the translator understand the realities associated with the culture of the United States, China and Japan.

2. Translational transformations as an essence of translation

2.1 Translation as a specific component of communication

One of the most remarkable phenomena of our time, increased the need for dialogue between peoples and individuals and repeatedly surpassing everything that was in the past, the implementation of this requirement. Development of transport, media and communication, increasing cultural and educational levels, awareness of the need of understanding and cooperation, seek ways and means of solving global problems of today - all of this can only be achieved by the combined efforts of all nations and all people. Without a doubt, all of these factors are a powerful stimulus for the development of translational activity. Generally, the modern world, the way it appears to us today, and how, under our assumptions, it will be by 2010 year, gives you the opportunity to see what a great place now occupied by a translation in the scientific, political and cultural life of each country and around the world . "Of course we are far from absolute to the role and importance of translation. Undoubtedly, translation is an active participant in the modern process and without it is impossible to imagine the world today ... Translation can and should be for all people carrier, the conductor and the discoverer of the most precious. " (16:18) So what is a "translation"? The answer to the question "what is the translation?" Can not be unique. First of all, you can not understand the translation and give it a scientific definition, excluding its social nature, social essence. Transfer can not occur, exist outside of society to function. Range of activities covered by the term "transfer" is very broad. Translation is known to be "poetry, fiction, non-fiction books from different fields of knowledge, diplomatic documents, business papers, news stories, interviews people speaking different languages and forced to resort to the assistance of a mediator." (23:15). Translation-indivisible part of the spiritual culture of each country and its people, the spiritual culture of all mankind. Translation can not be understood, and the more scientific defined if it does not consider the terms of its linguistic essence, if not reveal its linguistic bases, its linguistic nature. After all, no doubt, that the translation is primarily a linguistic activity. Translation based language translator working with the language. Language-foundation and basic translation tool. Translation can not be understood unless it is disclosed its ability to reflect and recreate the original. Translation is a reflection of the original. Than rather than a reflection of the integrity, the higher the quality of the translation. "The translation should not only reflect, but also to re-create the original, not a" copy "of its content and form, and re-create them by means of another language to another reader who is under a different culture, era, society." (16:29). Transfer can not be understood if it will not be disclosed psychology. Translation is difficult, complex and productive creative process, which involves all the spiritual forces of human intelligence, intuition, emotion, imagination, will, memory. Translation is a creative process, which generates the translated works. And finally, the transfer can not be scientifically comprehended if we consider it in the unhistorical. Translation appears historically at a certain stage of human development, there is historically developed historically with the development of social, cultural and other processes. If to all this we add inherent in translating complex internal and external relationships, it becomes even clearer that the simplified one-sided approach to translation is wrong and scientifically unfounded and that it is impossible to give the notion of "translation" unequivocal scientific definition. Of course, the complexity of the object should not hinder the possibility of a deeper and comprehensive answer to the question "what did this translation?" Here are some of the most common definitions. RK Mignard-Beloruchev: "Transfer-kind speech activity that doubles the communication components, which is intended to send a message in cases where the codes used by source and destination are not the same." (17:136). AV Fedorov: "Translate means to express the true and full means one language that has previously expressed by means of another language ... purpose of the translation-as close as possible to acquaint the reader (or listener), not knowing the language of the original, with the given text (or content of speech). " (23:15). EV Breus: "Transfer-act interlingual communication. Upon transfer takes place not only the spirit of language contact, but contact between the two cultures. "(3:17) VN Commissioners outlines four linguistic theory and, consequently, leads four definitions of translation. According denotative theory, translation is "the process of describing the target language using the denotations described in the original language." (10:32). According to the theory of transformational, "translation is nothing like converting units and structures in the original language units and structures of the target language." (10:38). According to the theory of meaning, translation "is to uncover the essence of equivalence ratios between the content of the original and the translation." (10:43). Theory of levels of equivalence offers "model translation, based on the assumption that the equivalence relations are established between similar levels of content and translation of texts." (10:62). LS Barkhudarov: "Translation is the process of converting a voice work in one language in a voice work in another language while maintaining constant of the content, ie the values." (2:11). And yet, what is a "translation" in the light of existing achievements general theory of translation? "If we want to define translation as a result of translation activity in the most general and summary form, it can be formulated as follows: there is an analog of the original translation. Perfect translation have the perfect analogue of the original, created new social, cultural and linguistic reality ... If we want to give as much as possible a more complete and accurate with respect to the total theoretical definition of translation as a process, it must be said that the translation is specific oral or written activities aimed at rebuilding the existing one language spoken or written text (work) in another language while preserving the invariance of the content and quality of the original. "(16:33). To learn and to know the laws of translation as a specific activity that occurred in the process of historical development and the historical practice of human society and to open new ways and possibilities to improve it, you need to explore all kinds of translation. Necessary to examine the whole system appeared in practice kinds of translation activities, investigate it for what it really is, in all its diversity and interaction with other human activities. The only way to grasp the essence of the activity, which is included in the concept of "transfer"

Main purpose of the transfer-achieving adequacy. The main task of the translator when the adequacy-ably produce various translation transformation to the target text as closely as possible to transmit all information contained in the original text, subject to the relevant rules of the translation language. Transformation by which the transition from original units to units of translation, called translational transformations. However, the term "transformation" can not be taken literally: the original text itself "not converted" in the sense that it does not change by itself. This text, of course, he is left alone, but along with them on the basis of it create another text in another language. (2:6). Translation transformation are a special kind of paraphrase, cross-language, which is quite different from transformations within a single language. "When we talk about monolingual transformations, we are referring to the phrase, which differ from each other in grammatical structure, lexical content, have (almost) the same content and are able to perform in this context the same communicative function. (7:3). Comparing the original and transforms texts we unconsciously note that some sections of the original text translated "word for word", and some are significant deviations from the literal correspondences. Particularly noticeable places where translates text in its linguistic means totally different from the original. Therefore, in our linguistic consciousness, there are some cross-language correspondence deviations from which we perceive as a cross-language transformation. Depending on the nature of the units of the original language, which are considered as the initial operation, translation transformation divided into stylistic transformation, the essence of which is to change the stylistic coloring transferable units. (13:180) (When I could stand it no longer I raised myself upon my knees , still keeping hold with my hands, and thus got my head clear. - When I felt that the forces of change to me, I sat up on his knees, not letting go of the ring from his hand, and my head was above water. Morphological transformation - the substitution of one part of speech or other multiple parts of speech. (With how vast a triumph-with how vivid a delight-with how much at all that is ethereal in hope did I feel, as she bent over me in studies but little sought-but less known, - that delicious vista by slow degress expanding before me ... - What infinite triumph with which gleeful delight with what high hopes I recognize when Ligeia leaned over me during my studies (without a request, almost imperceptibly), that delicious prospect that slowly unfolded before me. Syntactic transformation - the essence of which is to change the syntactic functions of words and phrases. Change syntactic functions in the translation process is accompanied by rearrangement of syntactic structures: convert one type to another subordinate clause. It also relates syntactic transformations replacing Russian Russian active passive construction. (13:181) (He hath been by the Tarantula). Tarantula bite him ...

Semantic transformations - are carried out on the basis of various causal relations that exist between the elements described situations (He was the kind of guy that hates to answer you right away. - Such as it is, did not immediately respond.

Lexical-transformation is the deviation from the direct word correspondences. Lexical transformation caused mainly by the fact that the volume of the original values of lexical units and the target language is not the same (She wasn `t looking too happy.) - She looked pretty miserable. Grammatical transformations, is to convert the sentence structure in the translation process in accordance with the rules of the target language. We got under way with a mere breath of wind, and for many days stood along the easten coast of Java, without any other incident to beguile the monotony of our course than the occasional meeting with some of the small grabs of the Archipelago to which we were bound. - We left the port at a barely perceptible breeze and for long days walking along the eastern coast of Java. Monotony of our voyage was broken only occasionally meeting with small coasters with those islands, where we kept on his way. In the process of transformation of translation activities are most often of mixed type. As a rule, various transformations are carried out simultaneously, that is combined with each other - is accompanied by the replacement of permutation, followed by lexical grammatical transformation. (5:18) In the previous example, we see a combination of grammatical transformations (namely the union proposals) and lexical (omission - Archipelago.) It is such a complex and comprehensive nature of translational transformations and makes the translation of such complex and difficult.

These translation transformation are contextually synonymous replacement tokens. These examples of different types of transformations interlanguage clearly enough show that the translation transformation in many cases lead to certain modifications of the content.

Morphological transformation of virtually nothing in terms of content do not change. Syntactic transformations affect the original content of minimal degree.

Semantic transformations associated with deeper modifications in terms of content. Comparing the languages, we find in each of them, such phenomena that have no match in the other. Translation-transformation are the translation process. (18:47)

Having considered the views of translational transformations, we proceed to examine their classification proposed by scholars such as LS Barhudarova, VN Komissarov and Frenkel Retskerom.

2.2 Translational transformation

Translation from one language to another is not possible without grammatical transformations. Grammatical transformations - this is primarily the restructuring proposals (changes in its structure) and all kinds of replacement - both syntactic and morphological order. Grammatical transformations are caused by various reasons - as a purely grammatical and lexical character, while the primary role played by grammatical factors, ie differences in the structure of language.

When comparing the grammatical categories and forms of English and Russian languages are usually found the following phenomena: 1) the absence of a category in one of the languages; 2) overlap; 3) a complete coincidence. Need for grammatical transformations occurs naturally only in the first and second cases. In the Russian language, compared with English, there are no grammatical categories such as article or gerund and infinitive and complexes involved and nominative absolute construction. Partial agreement or disagreement within the meaning and use of appropriate forms and grammatical structures also requires transformation. This could include such things as partial mismatch category number, partial mismatch in the forms of passive design, incomplete coincidence infinitive forms and participles, some differences in terms of modality, etc.

We first discuss the article, because the article (as defined and undefined), despite its highly abstract meaning, often requires a semantic expression in the translation. As is well known, both have pronomial Part origin: the definite article is derived from the demonstrative, and indefinite - from indefinite pronouns, which dates back to the numeral one. These initial values of articles occasionally appear in their modern usage. In such cases, their lexical meaning is to be transferred in the translation, otherwise Russian proposal would be incomplete and inaccurate, as denotative meaning of articles semantically is an integral part of the semantic content of a sentence (3). Very clearly favored by his historical connection with the numeral one in the following example:

Yet H. G. (Wells) had not an enemy on earth. (G. B. Shaw)

But Herbert was not a single enemy in the world. Value of the definite article is also often require the transfer in translation, especially when he stands before the numeral. Only in the fields where talent cannot be hidden have the young conquered - the theatre, music, football, computers, physics, fashion. ("Daily Mail")Youth nominated only in those cases where you can not hide the natural talent (I mean theater, music, football, electronics, physics, fashion). Of all the above translation is clear that ignoring the lexical and grammatical meaning sometimes when translating Part would lead to incomplete or inaccurate transmission of content. In Russian, no infinitive complexes that are so common in English. We consider only the translation complex infinitive with the preposition for. On its return journey the spacecraft must be accelerated to some 25,000 mph for it to enter the earth's orbit. ("The Times")On returning speed of the spacecraft must be brought up to about 25,000 miles per hour, so that he could go into orbit. In this case, the infinitive-clause translates complex goals. However, very often grammatical transformations are necessary and appropriate transfer forms and designs due to some differences in their meaning and use. Such discrepancies are observed, for example, the category number in use. United Nations Secretary General U Thant has strongly criticized South Africa, Rhodesia and Portugal for their policies in Africa. ("Morning Star")UN Secretary-General U Thant criticized South Africa, Rhodesia and Portugal for their own policies with Africa. Noun "politics" has no plural for the word "politics" is the plural form of the noun "politician" - politician. As for uncountable nouns, especially those which express abstract concepts, here the number of mismatches may be more. For example: ink - ink, money - money, watch - watches, news - news, and vice versa: to keep the minutes - keep a record, to live in the suburbs - to live in the suburbs, on the outskirts - on the outskirts, grapes - grapes, shrimp - shrimp, etc. Discrepancy is detected and in some cases the use of the infinitive. Russian has no infinitive is not perfect, nor long lasting shape.

Thus, all the above conditions - lack of appropriate shape, overlap, differences in the nature and use of forms - necessitate grammatical transformations in translation. Grammatical transformations can be divided into two types: permutations and substitutions.

Permutation transformation as a kind of translation - is changing the location (the order of) the language elements in the translated text from the text of the original. Elements that may be subjected to permutation: words, phrases, parts of a complex sentence, separate proposals. Permutations are due to several reasons, the main one being the difference in the structure (word order) offers English and Russian languages. English sentence usually begins with the subject (or subject group), followed by a verb (the predicate group), ie Theorem - message center (the most important) - is in the first place. Theme (background information) - the circumstances (time and place) often located at the end of sentences. Russian word order offers another: in the beginning of sentences are often secondary members (the circumstances of time and place), followed by the predicate and is only at the end - the subject. This should be considered in translation. This phenomenon is known as "communicative division proposals." The most common case permutations - changing the order of words and phrases in the sentence structure, script associated with the communicative articulation: Molasses buckets appeared from nowhere. Buckets appeared from nowhere out of molasses. In the translation process can be observed permutation of one sentence to another, as in the following example:... I put on this hat that I'd bought in New York that morning. It was this red hunting hat, with one of those very, very long peaks. I. .. wearing a red cap, which bought the morning in New York. It was a hunting cap, with a very, very long peak. The need for such transfer in this case is determined by repeating the noun "hat", to which the reversible adjective "red", in two adjacent sentences. Often there is a change in the translation order of Clauses - main and subordinate (paranasal) offers: If he ever gets married, his own wife'll probably call him "Ackley". Probably, and the wife will call him "Ackley" - if only he would ever get married. English clause precedes the main, in the Russian translation of the same - on the contrary, the main precedes a subordinate. Possible otherwise. Permutation may be subject to independent and proposals in the text. "You goin 'to court this morning?" Asked Jem. We had strolled over. We went up to her fence. - You go to court? - Jim asked. The need for shifts in this case due to the fact that the shape of Past Perfect in the second sentence expresses the meaning of the English text preceding this action with respect to the actions identified in the first sentence. Since the Russian form of "come" does not express such values, the preservation of the original order of the sentences in the translation could lead to a distortion of meaning (the action denoted by the verb "to come" would be perceived as the following, with respect to the action expressed by the verb "asked") . Permutation (as a kind of translation transformation) are quite common, they are often accompanied by other types of translational transformations. Replacements Replacement - the most common and diverse view of translational transformations. Translating replacement may be subject to grammatical units - forms of words, parts of speech, of the sentence, types of syntactic communication, etc. a) Replacement of word forms Replacement forms words imply replacement number nouns, verbs and time etc. The Nile Valley appears to have been unfit for human habitation during the Stone Ages. (M. A. Murray) Nile River Valley, apparently, was unfit for human life during the Stone Age (in all periods of the Stone Age). In the Russian language is a combination of the stone age and historical term is never used in the plural. English norms dictate the use of present tense forms in subordinate clauses of time or condition, ie, where the Russian equivalent of the verb will be in the form of the future tense: If you will stand out free time, please write to me. If you have some free time, please drop me a note. Nobody knew what he meant. Nobody knew what he had in mind. In other cases, changing the forms of words caused purely stylistic reasons. The candidate hopes the residents of New Hapmshire will cast their votes for him. Candidate hopes that residents of New Hampshire will give him your vote. b) Replacement of parts of speech This type of replacement is very common. Its simplest form - the so-called "pronominalizatsiya" noun or pronoun replacement. For example: At first he was hanging in the room of his grandfather, but soon his grandfather drove us to the attic because Starling learned teasing grandpa ... (Gorky, Childhood, VII) When translating from English into Russian happening reverse pronouns replacing nouns. Very typical replacement when translating from English into Russian is the replacement of verbal noun to verb in personal form. Here are examples of this type of replacement: Not had one of those very piercing whistles that was practically never in tune ... (J. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, 4) He whistled piercingly awful and always false ... (Here, as in other subsequent examples, the replacement of a noun verb adjective also requires replacement defining noun, adverb on: piercing - piercing.) Is legitimate and normal replacement of the translation of the English verbal noun - the name of figure (usually with the suffix - er) to Russian personal form of the verb (20). Examples of this kind are very common: "Oh, I'm no dancer, but I like watching her dance." (G. Greene, The Quiet American, p. I, Ch. Ill) And I do not dance, I just love to watch her dance, (trans. R. Wright and S. Kovalev Mitya) I am a very good golfer. (Ib., 11) I am very well play golf ... When transferring have been other types of replacements parts of speech, and often they are also accompanied by the replacement of the sentence, that is restructuring the syntactic structure of the sentence.

c) Replacement of the sentence (restructuring syntactic structure of the sentence)

When replacing the words of the sentence and a group of words in the translated text is rearranged syntactic scheme for constructing sentences. Reasons for such adjustment may be different. Most often it is caused by the need to transfer "communicative division" of the proposal, which was discussed above. The most common example of this kind of syntactic reconstruction - replacement of Russian Russian active passive construction in which the subject is replaced by the British in the Russian proposal supplement worth at the beginning of sentences; English addition to the preposition by the translation into Russian or become subject to subject non-existent (the so-called "indefinite personal" design); form of the passive voice of the English verb form is replaced by the active voice of the Russian verb. For example:

Not was met by his sister. His sister met.

He was given money. He was given money. He is considered to be a good student. He is considered a good student. Translation from Russian into English reverse happens replacement "asset - liability".

Pretty ordinary (although they are not described in the normative grammar) are also cases when the English subject in the Russian translation replaced circumstance. This transformation also requires replacement of a transitive verb intransitive verb English sentence (or, rarely, in the verb form of the passive voice) in the Russian proposal. For example: The last week has seen an intensification of the diplomatic activity ... During the past week there was a revitalization of diplomatic activity ... (or: Last week there was ...) This turn of the verb see (devoid of concrete lexical meaning and denoting here only the very existence, of being an event or phenomenon) is very typical of the English language press; Wed: 1973 saw ... - In 1973 ...; The next week will see ... - Next week ...; Tonight sees ... - Tonight, etc. The functions of complement to the verb see verbal noun commonly used character type publication, beginning, renewal, performance, etc., which is transformed into a Russian translation of the verb-predicate: was published, began , resumed, was executed, etc.

A similar transformation has occurred in other cases, when the English subject to express various adverbial value. In the Russian translation of the English subject is replaced by circumstance places:

The little town of Clay Cross today witnessed a massive demonstration ...

Today, in the small town of Clay Cross, a mass demonstration ...

This type of turnover often found in scientific texts genre.

Of course, when translating from Russian into English is "opposite" replacement circumstances subject, accompanied by other required replacements. In many cases, the restructuring of the syntactic structure is determined not by considerations of grammatical and stylistic order. Thus, in the example below there is a simultaneous exchange of the sentence as well as parts of speech: After dinner they talked long and quietly. (S. Maugham, Before the Party) After lunch, they had a long, heartfelt conversation. (Trans. E. Kalashnikova) Thus, in most cases, when translated from English to Russian Russian proposal is not superimposed on the English, does not coincide with it in its structure. Often the structure of Russian proposals in translation is completely different from the structure of an English sentence. It different word order, the other parts of the sentence following, often another order of the proposals themselves - the main, subordinate and introductory. In some cases, parts of speech, which expressed members of the British proposals transmitted respectively other parts of speech. All this explains the widespread use of grammatical transformations in translation.

Lexical transformation

As we have seen grammatical transformations obyslovleny difference in structure of the two languages - the original language and the target language. Let us consider the lexical transformations. In his work "The rate of exchange" Latyshev LK lexical transformation defines as "deviation from the dictionary matches" / Latyshev LK, 1981:180 /. In the lexical systems of English and Russian languages are observed discrepancies that occur in the type of the semantic structure of the word. Any word. Ie lexical unit - is part of the lexical system. This explains the uniqueness of the semantic structure of words in different languages. Therefore, the essence of lexical transformations is to "replace the individual lexical units (words and phrases) FL IL lexical units that are not their dictionaries and equivalents, ie, that have a different meaning than they transmit in the translation unit DICE" / Barkhudarov , 1975: 196 /.There are many reasons causing lexical transformation, and complete coverage of the reasons there is no possibility. Therefore, we will limit their choice only some of the major causes of the need for this type of transformation. In the meaning of words in different languages are often allocated different features of the same phenomenon or concept, which reflects the vision of the world peculiar to a given language, or rather, the carriers of the language, which inevitably creates difficulties in translation. Compare for example, glasses and goggles. In English, the word stands out the material from which the object is made, and in Russian - its function: the second eye (eyes). Or: Hot milk with skin on it. (P. H. Johnson) Hot milk with foam. This phenomenon is actually associated in English with the skin, skin covering the body or fetus, whereas in the Russian language in the framework of the word on the results of boiling - foam appears when the milk boils and foams. English word herring-bone (work) in the Russian language in the tree correspond to the combination, herringbone (bricklaying, stitch pattern). In the Russian language association with a tree - a spruce in English - with ridge herring. Image in the Russian language is associated with an abundance of forests, in English - with the proximity of the sea. However, despite the selection of various features, both the first equally adequately reflect the same phenomenon is true. This linguistic fact observed in so many words. The second reason that causes lexical transformation is the difference in the amount of semantic word. There is absolutely identical words in FL and IL. Most often, the first match of the lexical-semantic variant (LSV) of such words, their main value, followed by various LSV, since the development of the values of these words went different ways. This is due to the functioning of the various words in the language, the difference in use, different compatibilities, but even the basic meaning of an English word may be wider than the corresponding Russian word (of course, not excluded the opposite case). In the analysis of the semantic structure of the adjective mellow immediately catches the eye, it is multi-valued word and can detect a very wide range of subjects and concepts: fruit, wine, soil, voice, man. Each sphere of its use corresponds to a single value. But each value in turn correspond to two or more Russian words. English-Russian dictionary sometimes gives them just separated by commas. This suggests that each LSV is not covered by a Russian word, because it contains two or more semes that require two or more transmission words Russian. Thus, the first value - ripe, soft, sweet, juicy (about fruit); the second value is -1. aged, old; 2. Toothsome (of wine); third value - mellowed, softened with age (the person); fourth value - soft, juicy, thick (about the voice and paints); fifth-value 1. loose; 2. Fertile, fat (of soil), the sixth value, colloquial - cheerful tipsy (the person). In almost all cases correspond to the word mellow in Russian language, different words, depending on the noun it qualifies. It speaks about a very wide semantic scope of each LSV words. Semantic structure of the word creates the possibility of its contextual use, and transfer of contextual meaning of the word is not an easy problem. The contextual meaning of the word depends on the nature of the semantic context, the semantics of words combined with it. Occasional word meaning, suddenly appearing in a context is not arbitrary - it has the potential inherent in the semantic structure of the word. In the contextual use of the word in poetry or prose often manifested's penetration into the very depths of its semantic structure. After all, the word peculiar as paradigmatic and semantic relations and lexical potency words may be disclosed in both cases. But identifying these potential values closely associated with the originality of the lexical-semantic aspects of each language, and hence the difficulty in transferring the contextual meaning of words in the translation of what is possible in one language, it is impossible in another because of differences in their semantic structure and in their use. In an atomic war women and children will be the first hostages. Word hostage, according to the dictionary, has only one meaning - "hostage." However, in this environment is the semantic meaning of the word becomes "victim". This contextual meaning is obviously present in his paradigmatic value: each pawn can become a victim and die, so the translation has to use the word victim, as the word hostage in a contextual meaning is not used. The first victims of nuclear war are women and children. To him, having different volume values in English and Russian concerns a group of words that includes a lot of variety of words: international words, some verbs of perception, sensation and mental activity and the so-called adverbial verbs. The third reason, which causes the need for lexical transformations, is the difference in compatibility. Words are defined for this language ties. Importantly, the compatibility of the words in the case of interoperability concepts designated by them. This compatibility in different languages, obviously, is different, and what is possible in one language is unacceptable in another. Each language has its own typical standards compatibility. Each language can generate an infinite number of new combinations, understandable for people who speak it and do not violate its rules. Each language has a range of conventional, steady-traditional combinations that do not coincide with the corresponding range of combinations in another language, such as, trains run - trains run, rich feeding - abundant food. The air was rich with the scent of the summer flowers (P. Johnson) The air was filled with the scent of summer flowers. Labour Party protests followed sharply on the Tory deal with Spain. Message for the deal with Spain Conservative government immediately followed the protest of the Labour Party. The wider the scope of semantic words, the wider its compatibility, since thanks to this it may enter into a variety of communications. This in turn allows the transmission opportunities in the translation, the translations. Of great importance is the usual language for each use of the word (usage).